TasNat 1925 No1 Vol3 WholeIssue

7/28/2019 TasNat 1925 No1 Vol3 WholeIssue

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tEbt ~ a ~ m a n i a n j J a t u r a l i ~ tTHB JOURNAL OF THB

Tasmanian Field Naturalists' ClubNew Series-Vol. I. JULY, 1925 No. Ill.

Outlines of Tasmanian GeologySECTION 13 (Continued)

UNDERGROUND WATER.Before we discuss the forms of landsurface that Can be moulded through theaction of rive-rs, we must mention briefIy the great f""tor controlling the continual :flow of a river. A certain amountof the water rUns off tbe landscape afterfalls of rain and finds its way down tbelowest valley; but rainfall is not necessarily regular, and most large rivers flowwith relatively little ..Iteration throughthe driest summer. Most of tbis waterhas not run directly off the sides of the

valley but ha's come as soakage orsprings from below the surface.Most of the rain that falls on thesurface Boaks down throug,h the soil androcks. Beneath the surface, at varyingdepths, the rocks are more or les's aa.turated. U a . .ell i. sunk in to tbis zonewiil b. iil\ed . . th water up to thelevel of tba ~ " P of the saturated zone.The top 4f thli belt 10 called the . .atertable, and it c o n f o t ~ rou,hly with .theconfiguration of the lurfaee. I t . pOlI-

tion depend. large17 on rainfall, and e100on the nature of the country and II0peof the strata, while some cotapaet rocksare so dentle t u t they absorh little orno water at all. Our diab_ (or bluemetal) is of this Dature.Travels of Water Undergroand.

Water percolate. through the lubltanceof previous rocks, such as gr:avels and.uch loooely compacted rocband aand-stones, and otber eoft rockl. I tfinds it. way in eracb andpores of harder rocb. Somevery compact rocks, such as granite, havefew craeks at any distance from thesUNace, and others, such as clay, areformed of fine particles which fit veryclosely together. These types of racbform an absolute bar to the travel. ofwater underground. But with the ell'(1)

ception, perhaps, of clay, there are uaually cracke, . oints, strata planes andcruobed zones even in tbe hard';'t rockthrough which wa.ter can penetrate, andany large bed of clay usually has manyinclusions Qlf pervious .ands.

Througb t h _ pervious rocks waterdelcends from the surface, and if tob..surface supply is sufficient the bed ofrock will eventual ly become saturated(that is, will contain as muM. water asit can hold). When this occurs thewater table will gradually rise. I f theparticu!ar bed of rock is surrounded byImpervlOUS strata the water will riseperhaps, to tne surface, or a.t any r a ~until it reaches the broken surface zoneof some neighboring rock; and it willthen pa.. along the top of the impervious bed. But it usually happens thatbed. of porous rock are m o r ~ or lessconnected. Water in that caee peslesfrom one 1(> another, and the water table maintain. an approllimate level belowthe surface throughout a district, just astbe level of inter-connected lakes remaiD. much tba laDle.

Tbe Water Table.Therefore, unl . . the rock is abso-lutely imperviouI, at BOme distance below ~ h e surface water will be struck. The

q " a D t i ~ y and depth depend dn-(l)Pre.ipitation; (2) nlative amount of SPMeill rock for storage (which dependslargely "" the nature of the rock); and(3) the possibility of getaway for thewater underground. The level tbe watertable ltands at is koown .. . the groun


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALIST- ' -, .ground water 'level "followl rouply thecontour of the surface, and hence waterlnay be found on the tops of ri


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALISTor screen of transparent whitJe limerock. Again, differences in contentgive a "bacon"-like appearance. ilnfact, each stallctite must be describedto include all forms. These limestonecaves are one ot the greatest wondersof nature. They are common in TasmaDl& wherever we have beds at veryancient Jimestc.one. The best known areat Mole Creek, Chudleigh, Ulverstone.Junee, Florentine Valley, Hastings anaIda Bay.

Water at Beaconslleld.To give but one example of the travelsof underground water, the Tasmaniamine a.t Beaconefleld, our largest goldDline, had to close down on ac-count Off

the volume of water that i t made. Amillion gallons a day had to be pumped out. Chemicala placed in water inthe Chudleigh cllves 60 miles away wert'traced tt> the mine. And there is theold legend-unhappily untrue, but wide .ly believed even yet-of the dog thatwandered into the Chudleigh Caves anda p p e ~ r e d in the mine a t Beaconsfield.

Section 15.THE DEPOSITION OFSEDIMENTS.

We have already seen that varIousagencies &re at work continuous'ly r ~ u c ing the 8urface of the land. As httlematerial leavee the globe, the vast ,


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALISTI f thl. is close inshore. it will be brokenby the waves and boulders of this ro


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' l 'Ht TASMANIAN NATURALISTHons. such as terminal moraines (thedebrlB dropped otr the end of a melting glacier), lateral and medial 111'J-raIDe. (that carried on the sides and inthe middle ot the glacier), kames andesker ridges (deposits in englacialstreams) are indistinguishable in '!'as.mania, and probably everywhere wherethese deposits have been exposed to rainand weather for a cf.,onslderable tIme.Often glaciers drop single bouldersknown as uerratics," or perched blocks:thi& cannot be done by water.

Deep . .a Deposits.8edlloonts tram the land do not reachthe great ocean depths. Still, these

are covered with many thou88Jld of feetof deptJsits, which present special characteristics. In the first place t!1eirstructure is very ruaBsive. The layersare of great depth, as conditions do Botchange quickly. There are none ofthose quick alterations of strata c. m-Olon in inshore deposits. Currents,wjnd, floods, and changes {Jf position ofneigh boring land have little etrect.The second great difference is in thematerials. Sand, lime terrestrial an j

coastline, plant and animal, remainsare not carried out into the oceau.Their place is taken by ,j()(..Ze," composeuof Ill!

Tasmanian Eumples.E x a m p l ~ s of th-ese deposits are too

numerous to mention in detail. Most atour rocks are formed from {Jne or theother. The common mudstones andlimestones were once littoral dpos:tB.'ferJ'estrlaJ deposits are represented Ltj 'the sand dunes common round our c


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALISTthe valley sides, runn.ing straight tothe river at the bottom of the valley,and so will tend to enter the main rivermore or less at right angles. The.serivers, being in general above theground level and fed mainly by raiutall, and haviug small catchment areas,will tend to vary greatly in their yolume. Any of th.ese characters s h o \ \ ~that a given drainage system has beeneroding the landscape for a relativolyshort space of time.

The Adoleseent Stage.As the orderly process of river erosionproceeds, those portions of the bed withthe greateat slope will be worn awayfirst. Thus waterfalls and "h"n rapidssoon disappear, and lakes are removed.Then as rivel'S erode their valleys chiefly at the head-that is, where t,he slopeis greatest-the high land separating theheads of systems will be redueed, aodthe tributaries, each doing similar work,will reduce the divides, until ultimatelythe former level plateau will be n'ducedto a line divide, and valleys of variousriver systems will occupy the whole lalldscape.Detailed characters for this stage caunot be given. The general straight lineprofiles have become rounded. The riversflow in valleys and not canyons. Thedivides resemble ridges rather th"lnplateauB, and in general the topographycan be spoken of rather as a series ofriver valleys separated by high dividesthan as a plateau cut by gorges. However, the boundary lines between youthand adolescence an dadolescence and maturity are vague The stage termed a d o ~lescence can best be described 8S astage in which the characters of youthhave been removed by the long-continued process of erosion, but those of m a ~turity have not yet had time to develop.

The drainage of a r ~ 6 i o n is :aid to bein the nature stage when the streamshave ju.t completod all the ersion theyare capable of in 'the eX'i'sting circum wstanees. As a river erodes the landscapeby cutting down its bed with sedimentcarried along and by thus lIiving it s tributaries a levIII to which to erode tbeirbeds, it follows that a point must bereached eventually at whi.ch the riverhlliS no longer sufficient slope' to give itpower to ('any a sediment load. .A riversyatem obviously cannot plane the landGCape level. Some slope must remain, andthe altitude at the head of a long system will be considerable. Water requiresa 'dr()p of about 4 fee


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALISTstage, and IlrOW merely pilo more and moresediment over their plains and meanderthrough the


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALISTII


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALiST

In the first place, a straight coaStline or a coast line formed of seriee nfstraight-fronted segments jointed to eachother is generally a. mark of uplift. TheIt.'Ugthy work of streams and the action of the waves and the weather tendto produce inlets where stteaDlti we:lrout valleys, leaving h e a d l a n ~ . and terminating the intel'etream dlvIdes, andthese and the other agencies tend tocut out the Boiter portion of the coast,leaving the more durable rortionB &8capes. Again, cliffs show a recent upliit, ... these cannot long endure the effectti of the weather and streamletB,espedalJy when, the gl'eat increaaE'eroding power gIven by such a slope 18borne in mind. I t must, however, beborne in mind that a sudden downwardfaulting 01 the segment under the seaDO!'del'ing on the present land will givt:>the same re8ults, as the uul.ulted landthen presents a straight face to theilooded portion, which has now subsided .Conversely a ragged coast line l withintricately etched front, indicates a sinking land, as the Bea flooding over th esubsiding lands'cape covers the countryfoIlowmg a given contour round themany gullies and valleys worD by smallantI large watercour&e8. The waves ingeneral wear shore in a fairly regula r line. Very many small inlet. andc a p ~ indicate tbat some agency otherthan waves has produced the form ofcoast line. This general1y can onlyhave been done by Bubmergence of atopography. already ruouldp.d by wateraction.Therefore in examinmg a coast linefor rioe or iail 01 land, the first qu ...tiODS an observer mUBt a.-;k him&elf llEe\vhetheI" the features he noW .5!eeti couldbu\"e long resulted the attack of weather,waves, and str-eams in their present

~ ~ : : : ~ u a n d a n d h e ; ~ ~ : w ~ : ; ~ h : : : e J : x i : ; ~ l lhave produced the features he now seeswhere they now exist.:More de!ailed evidence may be available when these questions are ofetermined. For example, the existence ofsort, recently-laid marine sediments onwhat is now dry land-a feature termed a coastal plain--is sure indica-tioll ofa recent uplift. So also are raise1iheaches-shell mounds and other typica} beach formationa high above the pre-

~ e n t level of the waves, W'8ve terracescut in places wen above present highwater mark, cliffs obviolJsly wave-cut,now seen well inland, and wa.ve-cuteaves far beyond the present raeh ofthe aea.

On the other hand, drowned villi eye-estuories that must have been cUt byl'ivers, bUt now occupied by the sea. In..uch a way as to prevent erosion ~ Y ~ h e~ i v e r s that enter them-are sure lUdlCa-t.iOll$ oi a sinki:p.g landscape. So a ~ s o'ire islands m groups off the coast. wh:wh'lfe obviou..ly the topo of submerged h,U.,.nd could nat hale be"" formed byltHJTe resistant cores of hard rock leftstanding beyond the general front of

t h ~ e r o d ~ d coast line.I t mu,t he borne in mind that th"".phenomena do not necessarily show pre

JooIent ele\"atioll or depression. They oulyshow that these movements occurr _d a tn time so recently past that the traceshdve not yet b ~ e n obliterated. Themovements may have stopped for gometime, and n contrary movement may nowl.,e in progress. The general condition(li coast line:;: is that of continual oscUlation with. however, either an upward 'r downward movement predominating,Recent Rise and Fall of TasmanianCe.sts.Our coast line in general RuWS al l"ou1Jd the il8laud a getter-al sinking,

'yhich movemt:nt, after being very pronounced unt] recent g-eologic.aI times,b"ut now changed to one of general rising. Our great estuar!f;S, th.a I>erwent,lIuon. Tamat', .Mersey, and. othen: alliiihow signs of having been worn byr:ivers. Sinc'e this they have becomeflooded by a general rise of strand l e \ ~ e r .OUI"" numerous harhors have been formed in this way. But it mll8t be remembered that ill recent geological time, thelevel of the ocean ha.s risen about 150ft.through the liberation of watel' formar-

~ t e l ~ t ! : ! e ~ j ~ ~ s . t h e great ice sbeets ofTh. straight lines of the east, soutbu:eEt. and southern coasts, and thenumel'OU$ lines of high clHfs there. In :licnte R recent dropping away of thesea level to a slight. degree a.re shownby the numerous raised beache&, common round our coast, and standing upto 25ft. above sea level in the southeast, and Beveral hundred feet ;n thenorth-west. A very marked shore. plat.

form rUM round the base of the cliff.of south-eastern T ~ s m a n i a . . and is continued up the Derwent eetuary at Bellerive, Bedlam WallM, etc. On the northwest coast a small coastal. plain is verymarked. The railway from J)"n toWynyar\\ runs along this, and the oldline Qf cliff. is clearly Been in the lineof, steep hins r:sing imHlt:diate!y behind.especially at. Wyvenhoe and Burnie. Altogether the t e n ~ c y at present appea....


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALlSTto be a general rising level of the land,this being mOfe marked alona: the .Base:StraIt coa..sc, ~ p e c i a l l y in the north-westand least marked, but still decided, inthe south coast.

The Cycle of Glacian ErosIOn.G-la(;ulted lantidcapes t lnOW t1 ~ l l l l l l a l ' tievelopment from youth, thtough adolescence to maturity and old &.ge. Thecharacteristics natuDQ,lly are different al:i doglaciated landscape differs !So nJuterlallyIn general aspect from a wJ.terWOl'D O D ~ .At! so much of 'l'asmranm .shows th e imprint UJ: recent we-erosion passllle mention must be made to these types of landl:icape. These characters depend chieflyuu the length of time during \\'hicJ. theyhave been exposed to ice ,ldi_\ll. Slopehas relatively little bearing, but its placeI t taken by quantity of ice which in turnuepends on precipitatiOOl.

\-Vhen a glacial period COHUllcnceH 11alural1y the higher elevatlOns al'.'; the firstutlected. As lar as Tasmanid is concernedthcse are the ouly regions to be seliouslyl:umndel'cd. The manner of t b ~ development uf cil'ques and DIther ~ l d e 1 a l featureshas already b ~ e n considered. Ad it is byclrques that ice chiefly models the landscape these are the f e a t u r ~ s 1':) be con-8 ~ d e r e d in studying the cycle ot glacialerosion. Ice caps will be iiscussed separa tely later.

The youthful Channelled Upland.The first effects of glaciation .lre theLll\pearance of the summer BUuW bank,"dug in" by its own erosive work in ahollow of its own making. This hollowultImately develops into the cirqne Theearliest stage in glacial e r o ~ i t , ) n is seeDwhen the uplancl is grooved by numbersof cirques at the head of U-shaped glacialvalleys. The form of the ori"illal llplandstill persists and the cirques are obviouslycu t out of it. Broad platc:lux remainbetween them and at the hea:l nt R groupof radiating glacial valleys much of theoriginal plateau can still be S t ~ e n . Thecirque is the distinguishing; featare ofthiR s t a ~ e .

rhe Fretted Upland or Adolescence Stlllle.AR erosion proceeds, the "lirlf'R and headof the cirques are enlarged by the in tem:;e fro'8t action along the inv'ltion zoneand by the pluckinQ: action. ()f the glacieras previously explained. Cirql1t's. 'whichfiMlt were regular troughs. hel'nme "nailhpadf'd." and tht'n multiple. this httpr

Rtrlrrt> being' Tpaehed when tll: ~ l a c i e rrNlllv Q'rOWA from a n l 1 m b ~ r (IT ch'que:::

~ " n ' 1 r " t p i l bv rOf'k bnttresses. '1'lH' cirquepand U valleys enlarge sidt!WBYS until(10)

eventually they meet, They first join notrlght at their heads, but .:.:ome distancedown at the broadest po,'ti()n of thec'"ques, lly this time the original plateau is reduced to a series i) f rldges, verylittle of the original surface bemg Jeft.These ridges present knife edges, oftenwith a very sharp contour, markedly dif-ferent from the rolling contours of waterdivides. In time the ice in the cirqueseats right into the ridges. Nl1t along theirwhole lengVt as a rule, but m spots atoften regular intervals. Ht'!'l'e the ICeremoves the o.riginal surface and leavesthe 1"otk between standing HS a series ofpinnacles. These ridges have beentenned Heomb ridges," and 'He the typI-('al featnres of this stage. T h ~ processhas been compared by Professor W. H.H obbFl, the leading worker in thie branchof physiography, to the process of Cllt-ing biFlcnitR from a sheet of d o u ~ h witha biscuit cutting mould. WheT). the maxIIllum number of b i F l c l 1 i t ~ l},lW' been cntfrom thp d o u ~ h , thin striPf! 1lr:> left bp.h,ep.n the portions FlO cnt onto A ,:rlaciatedlandscape in thiR stage of ero:';llltl resemble!'!thp. sheet. of dongh when the maxjmumnumber of biFlCllitFl have been rut onto

The Glacial Horn of Maturity.As the process continues the ridges

RT. gradually reduced. At first the..,flrA somewhat at the same height aat.hat of the original plateau. The""connecting ridges in a glaciated topo,,:aphy a.re termed cols. Early maturity i,g represented by high cols. C"rt"aduany theEle are lowered. and in a laterstagp beC'omr:! low cols. In thp. courseot timp they djsappear. or almost 80.Then al l t.hat is left is the original colo! the plateau, or that portion whichstood at the head of a group of gladers. This now stands out as an isolated mountain peak, termed a glacialhorn. The Mat.terhorn is the type ofthis fe8Jture par excellence.

The lWonument.,1 Upland.Beyond this ijtage glacial erosion seldom proceeds, but Professor Hobb6b,w; discerned a further stage in Gla.cierNational Park, U.S.A., and another

class ha'SI to be mad.. When theGlacial Horn i . subjected to still fUl'ther prolonged erosion it gradually dis'aDDears. Then the whole interior ofthp orhdnal n1ateau bras been reducedto a level. But the pair>! at which thenrosion by this agency is least felt is. t the edg"" of the plateau. at the endsof the cirques. Thus after the interiorihr;rnEl h'RYe ,disappeared rock massesstill stand out at what was originally


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALlSTthe low ... ends of the cirques. Thesearp, termed mODUmE'nts and when theyalone are left the landscape is said tohave reached the old age ot glacial er(l-Idon. These monuments naturall.rstand in pairs, one on either side ofthe original cirqne. Continued ero'E-ion t.hen takea the form ot ice caperosion. and not glacial erosion, andan iep. cap, beyond a general levelll1lgeffect. does Uttle work in reducing thplevel ot the landsrape.I t must finally be noted that ther.is not in glaciated la;ndscapes the oc'derly progress from youth to old aJ'f'seen in water-worn la,ndscapes. Onestage doPlS not follow after the previ-

QUS ODe is completed, but each of themore manure exists with the merejuvenile sta.ge, hut in an embryoDlcform. Thus in the early fretted up"land thA portion which will ul timatelyform the glacial horn is to be ~ e e nstanding wen .above the general level.and the future monuments are aLi;obp.ginning to appear. As the erosionprocee,ds from stage to stage, the btec.forms. always noticeable.' become morepronounced..Of course, a glaciated landscaPe cannot be studied until the ice has disap"penred. or almOBt. Ba.

A.N. Lewis.

Some Notes on the" Wattle" or " Acacia"(Continued.)

I have here some statistics for the yearending June 30, 1923. Wattle bark ex 'ported from Tasmania was 53 1222cwt.,valued at 25,474, of which 16,659 wasfrom Hobart the remainder from Launceston. Quite lately a shipment wassent direct from Bridport. 12 miles fromScottsdale, to the mainland, the first tobe shipped direct. There is about 600worth of wattle bark used in this Statefur tanning purposes every year, which, jnaddition to exports, it will be seen thatit is very valuable.

Mr. Mitehell, on East Coast, had a plan_tation of black wattle harvested once illseven years gave the largest percentaged tanning under cultivation.

The black wattle contains 38 degrees tanning. the silver wattle 24 degrees, approximately.Imports of Wattle Bark Into Australia,192223.

Importing States. Quantity. Value.cwt.

New South Wales 35,745 14,632Victoria .. , . 54,463 21,076'Vestern Australia 3,458 1,593Total 93,666 37,301

Note.-With the exception of 6cwt ofAustralian bark re-imported. all of theabove imports were received from SouthAfrican Union.(11)

I m ports of Wattle Bark Extract,192223.Country of Origin.

United Kingdom . .South African Union.United States of AmericaImporting St",tes.New South Wales ..Victoria .......Western Australia

Total

Value. 642,878251,626608733

2,967E"ports of Tanning Bark (So Described)from Australia, Produce of Australia.192223,

Country to WhichExported. Quantity.cwt.U"ited Kingdom 12Ifauritius. . . . . . . . 309New Zealand . . 11,034China . . 2,478Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,003Netherlands. East Indies . 9Total 15,845

Value. 31947,6041,385826910,021

CommonweaLth Bureau of Census andStatistics, Melbourne, May 19, 1924.Note.-In addition to ahove exports,1,684cwt., valued at 695, of tanningbark produced in other countries wereexported from Australia during 1922-23.I would point out at this stage thSlt


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'tHE TASMANIAN NATURALiSTSIIutll Africa Got tile Seed

of this wattle from Australia, and nowia exporting wattle bark in the quantiti .j118< named to Australia. Australiansshould try and grow enough wattle tooupply all their needs, and also to ex'port more. Returns from the SouthAfrican UnrQn show that in one year


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALISTpearance. The dowers are similar to thelastnamed, and it grow. up to nearly 30ft.high.

Acacia 8uavcolens. ThiB one is -similarto Btricta., but grows larger. Has leaves.or phynodes, up to nearly 6 inches inlength. Has a single midrib, i . dull incolor and very n & r i o w ~ and has ridgesalong the stem., especia.11y near a branchor leaf, giving & triangu1ar appearance.I t flowers in the autumn and they appear at the base of the leaf in very pretty

buds of a brownish calor, which open intoa line apike of florets or balls up to 2%inches long.Aca.ci& vcmeriformis has leaves somet h i n ~ like the nose of man, and is namedfor Ita similarity to the shape of the honein the nose caUed the "vomer." I t onlygrow. up to about one foot high, theleave. or phyllodes are up to half an inchlong, and pretty hall. of flowers at intervals along the stem. Flowers in spring.J. C. Breaden.

Some Tasmanian N aluralisls.(1) Cook, Anderson, Nelson.I ntroduetlon.

Tasmania was discovered early in thf'fifth decade of the 17th century, ..nunot un t i l the opening years of the jastcentury did actual settlement take place.'0 the time intervening between disCOVery and settlement. a num-beT of exp-diions of British and French nationalItiesvi:dted ilte s h o r e ~ of the lRland. Attached to most of these exped1tioDS welem ~ n who had d!stinguished them.lv sin their pursuit of scientitlc knowledge.With the sailors who navigated their

I ' ~ m a l l shipfl: into theBe uncharted watersthese men enduren hardship:o; which ar?t,)uay in('onr'eiv'able. Af ter long andpf


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THE TASMANIAN NATURALIST(8 ) JAQUES JUl.J.EN LABILLAKDlERE.

the excItement of the revolution illno way abated the interest of theFrench n ~ t i o n in the disappearanCe o(their illustrious navigator, La Peiousc."l'ne years 1789 and 1190 passed away,but nothing was heard of his E:xpeuition, which had left 8ydney for a l 'acitl.cruise in 1788.A ' lwn.. n ! i a l the }I'rencb G-overnment. uespatcned A\ l lD. l ra l .tsrun"..J,J'.biutreCtttiil.aux with two ships, .La.,tC.ecnerCOe and. 1..I".b.'Sperance, to 'the .t"c,.I.

ClnC to JjQtve [he m )' i:H,el'Y ot the bea..d . small tiClelltlnc s tal l was a.ttacbeu Lulone ex.peuJ.tlon, tne cnJ.et natural is t DelUg Ja.ques J uhell LaIJIJ.larUlere. b e wa.sl:ISJistea. by three other observers, l>eblch&m.ps, l'erin, &Dd La. Ha.ye. An al!l\.l'OnQllieT ntuller bel"trand a.LSO accumpamea t!le expedition, out it seems th ... L.ne remalned a t the (.;a.pe or (,;iOO(1 Hove.We know little ot Labll lardiere, l J U ~tnat he w as a sClentist of no meau order 11) clearly seen by hIS accompJ.s.bments. 1"'rQoab-1Y he was one of ..Ut!' ent.hUSlaBts who wo-rked Wlth sucn ......enaB Buffon or JU88ieu. The expeditlOlla r r i v ~ 011: the SOUUl 01 ' asmaula InApril, 1711%, a11

TasNat 1925 No1 Vol3 WholeIssue

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