TAG UNIT 3.5 - Directory Listing of . (Persona...

TAG UNIT 3.5.6 Values of Time and Vehicle Operating Costs

October 2012

Department for Transport

Transport Analysis Guidance (TAG)

www.dft.gov.uk/webtag

Technical queries and comments on this TAG Unit should be referred to: Transport Appraisal and Strategic Modelling (TASM) Division Department for Transport Zone 2/25 Great Minster House 33 Horseferry Road London SW1P 4DR [email protected] Tel 020 7944 6176 Fax 020 7944 2198

mailto:[email protected]

Contents

1 Values of Time and Operating Costs 1

1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Values of Time 2 1.3 Vehicle Operating Costs 14

2 Further Information 28

3 References 28

4 Document provenance 29

TAG Unit 3.5.6 Values of Time and Vehicle Operating Costs

1 Values of Time and Operating Costs

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 This TAG Unit provides the latest values of time, occupancy figures, purpose splits, GDP growth rates and vehicle operating costs recommended by the Department for Transport (DfT) for use in economic appraisals of transport projects in England, as well as the rest of Great Britain with the relevant Overseeing Organisation’s permission.

1.1.2 The values presented in this Unit are included in COBA, TUBA and QUADRO computer programs, although this list is not exhaustive. Further advice relating to their application may be obtained from the DfT.

1.1.3 This Unit aims, as far as possible, to cover all modes of transport. However in certain parts of the Unit, notably vehicle occupancies and vehicle operating costs, a lack of available data means that not all modes have been covered.

1.1.4 Revision of the March 2001 TEN was necessary to allow implementation of the recommendations contained in the latest research for the DfT on valuation of non-working travel time savings (Values of Travel Time Savings in the UK, Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, 2003).1

1.1.5 Important note for those using these values in modelling: In 2012, HM Treasury altered its GDP deflator to be based on the Consumer Prices index (CPI) rather than the Retail Prices Index (RPI) as used in the previous version of this Unit. This means that the annual GDP growth values in real terms in this unit are approximately 0.2 percentage points higher than they would have been in previous versions of the unit. Analysts should consider what implications this change has for their models. Some models, particularly those calibrated on historic GDP growth over more than one year, may need to be recalibrated or (eg rail models using the elasticities given in the Passenger Demand Forecasting Handbook) may require an adjustment to the GDP series used in forecasting, by reducing the GDP growth values given in this Unit by 0.2 percentage points per annum. For cross-sectional models (which are calibrated based on data for one historic year only), or on forecasts based primarily on population growth (eg NTEM), it should be possible to use the values of time given in this unit without adjustment. Note that the values of time used for appraisal purposes should not be affected, regardless of the type of model.

Methods of Cost Benefit Analysis

1.1.6 Cost benefit analysis aims to take account of all the ways in which a project affects people, irrespective of whether those effects are registered in conventional financial accounts. The method of cost benefit analysis for appraisal is the calculus of 'willingness to pay' using a market price unit of account. A full discussion of the methodology is given in Cost Benefit Analysis (TAG Unit 3.5.4).

Units of Account

1.1.7 The market price unit of account expresses prices in market prices. Market price refers to the price paid by consumers for goods and services in the market and therefore includes all indirect taxation (indirect taxation refers to taxation levied on a product and therefore

1 The Department is consulting on the use of segmented values of time for road pricing and tolling studies only (see TAG Unit 3.12C) because, in those circumstances, there may be substantial changes in the monetary costs of travel. In all other circumstances the values given in Tables 1 and 2 in this TAG Unit should be used for project appraisal.

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includes excises, duties and VAT). Prices that do not include taxation (e.g. public transport fares) are still perceived by consumers in the market price unit of account.

1.1.8 The factor cost unit of account expresses prices in resource costs. Resource costs are costs that are net of indirect taxation. The prices paid by Government for goods and services are not subject to indirect taxation as any tax that is paid by Government bodies such as the Highways Agency is recovered by Government and thus may be ignored. Government expenditure is therefore in the factor cost unit of account. Business costs and benefits are also assumed to be in the factor cost unit of account as businesses are free of indirect taxation because they can claim it back. An exception to this is fuel duty, which businesses cannot claim back.

1.1.9 Costs can be converted to (or from) market prices by multiplying (or dividing) by the indirect tax correction factor, (1+t), where t is 19.0% - the average rate of indirect taxation in the economy. This rate is based on data from HMRC and replaces the previous value of 20.9%.

1.1.10 Perceived costs are those which are actually experienced by users. Perceived costs are different for work and non-work trips because businesses can claim back VAT on purchases. Businesses cannot, however, claim back fuel duty and therefore this is included in their perceived cost. (N.B. certain classes of PSV can claim back fuel duty. This should be treated as a subsidy). Note that business users perceive costs in the factor cost unit of account, while consumers perceive costs in the market price unit of account.

1.2 Values of Time

1.2.1 This section provides the latest values of time recommended by the DfT for use in most routine economic appraisals of transport projects. All items are expressed in average 2010 values and prices.

1.2.2 The Department accepts that different values of time may be needed in other circumstances, such as appraisal of strategic analysis, road user charging and toll roads. The Department will issue further guidance on appropriate values and methods to use for these appraisals. For most routine appraisals the guidance in this document is relevant.

Values of Working Time per Person

1.2.3 Time spent travelling during the working day is a cost to the employer’s business. It is assumed that savings in travel time convert non-productive time to productive use and that, in a free labour market, the value of an individual’s working time to the economy is reflected in the wage rate paid. This benefit is assumed to be passed into the wider economy and to accrue in some proportion to the producer, the consumer and the employee, depending on market conditions.

1.2.4 Working time values, apply only to journeys made in the course of work. This excludes commuting journeys. The perceived value of working time is the value as perceived by the employer. Businesses perceive costs in the factor cost unit of account and therefore the perceived cost and the resource cost are the same for values of working time. The resource cost is calculated as being equal to the gross wage rate plus non-wage labour costs such as national insurance, pensions and other costs which vary with worker hours. The 24.1% mark-up for non-wage labour costs used in the March 2001 edition of TEN has been revised down to 21.2%, a figure derived using more recent data from the 2000 Labour Cost Survey.

1.2.5 Values for car drivers and passengers; rail, bus, underground and taxi passengers; walkers; cyclists; motorcyclists and average of all persons were derived from the 1999 –

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2001 National Travel Survey (NTS), based on individual incomes. Values for the occupational groups (bus, OGV, taxi and LGV occupants) were obtained from the 2002 New Earnings Survey.

1.2.6 It may appear that the use of different values for each mode will introduce inconsistency in appraisal, since it suggests that those transferring between modes change their values of time in the process. This is not the case. The key to understanding this is to realise that the values of time used in appraisal are average values. For any group - bus passengers, car drivers and so on - there will be a distribution of values around the average value for the group. Thus, the value of time for any specific traveller within a group need not be the average value for the group as a whole. In addition, it is likely that there is a good deal of overlap between the distributions for different groups. This immediately resolves the apparent illogicality of the mode switcher who retains their value of time, but takes up a different position in the distribution of values of time for their new mode, compared with that for their old mode. For example, a car driver with a value of time higher than the average for all car drivers could switch to rail, where their value of time might be lower than the average for all rail passengers.

1.2.7 The use of working time values for modal groups may be criticised because the values remain fixed even though the distribution of users between modes might be affected by some options. In circumstances where large changes in mode are expected, the values by mode for the do-something might be significantly different from the values for the do-minimum. An alternative approach avoiding this problem might be to segment travellers into groups that would not be affected by options – income groups, for example. Each group could be assigned its own working value of time. The value of working time for each mode would then be an output of the modelling process, rather than an input to the appraisal process. However, this assumes that the modelling process will be relatively highly disaggregated. That might be feasible for spatially aggregate models, but could pose serious problems for spatially detailed models – this is discussed in more depth in Modelling (TAG Unit 3.1). Where this approach is considered, analysts should carry out tests to demonstrate that the segmentation adopted will adequately reflect the variation in modal values.

1.2.8 In certain circumstances it may be appropriate to make the simple assumption of a common working value of time for all travellers, in which case the average of all workers value given in Table 1 should be used. Where this approach is adopted, sensitivity tests should be carried out, using values disaggregated by modal group.

1.2.9 In the appraisal process, changes in travel time on employer’s business are valued the same whatever stage of the journey is involved, i.e. there is no weighting applied to take account of the reluctance of passengers to walk to/from or wait for transport services. This is because the time spent or saved is assumed to be lost or gained in productive working time - the travel activity taking up the time is therefore deemed irrelevant. In cases of staged journeys, the value of working time for the main mode should be used, where the main mode refers to the mode for the longest journey by distance.

1.2.10 The Department recognises that use of mode specific values may increase the possibility of not taking into account people who switch between modes. To reduce this risk, values in Table 1 should not be used where the number of people switching modes is high compared to the number of existing users. In these special circumstances, please contact TASM Division, DfT for further advice.

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Table 1 Values of Working Time per person (£ per hour, 2010 prices and values)

Vehicle Occupant Resource Cost

Perceived Cost

Market Price

Car driver 28.35 28.35 33.74 Car passenger 20.31 20.31 24.17 LGV (driver or passenger) 10.92 10.92 13.00 OGV (driver or passenger) 10.92 10.92 13.00 PSV driver 10.92 10.92 13.00 PSV passenger 21.69 21.69 25.81 Taxi driver 10.48 10.48 12.47 Taxi/Minicab passenger 47.95 47.95 57.06 Rail passenger 39.65 39.65 47.18 Underground passenger 38.57 38.57 45.90 Walker 31.79 31.79 37.83 Cyclist 18.24 18.24 21.70 Motorcyclist 25.65 25.65 30.53 Average of all working persons 28.68 28.68 34.12

Values of Non-Working Time per Person

1.2.11 The majority of journeys do not take place during working hours, but in the traveller’s own time. However, people implicitly put a value on their own time, in that they will trade a cheaper, slower journey against a faster, more expensive one. It is therefore appropriate to take account of this value in assessing the impact of different transport strategies or plans.

1.2.12 This ‘willingness to pay’ will vary considerably, depending on such factors as the income of the individual traveller, the value of the journey purpose and its urgency, and the comfort and attractiveness of the journey itself. Different values may therefore correctly be attributed to:

• time spent on the same activity by different people, whose incomes and journey characteristics may vary; and

• time spent by the same individual on different journeys or parts of journeys.

1.2.13 One important specific application of this second type of variability is that time spent walking to/from and waiting for public transport services is commonly valued much more highly than time spent actually travelling. There is consistent evidence that people will pay more to save walking and waiting time than they will for an equivalent saving in ride time. This approach should normally be adopted for multi-modal transport appraisal.

1.2.14 Time savings to travellers in their own time typically make up a large proportion of the benefits of transport investment. If values of time for appraisal are based on an individual’s willingness to pay (behavioural values) which are related to income, then strategies and plans will be biased towards those measures which most benefit travellers with higher incomes (which may favour some modes over others). Investment will then be concentrated into high-income areas, and the interests of those on lower incomes, who may already suffer from relatively lower mobility and accessibility, will be given less weight.

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For this reason, multi-modal transport appraisal should normally adopt the values for non-working time which is common across all modes and journey purposes.

1.2.15 The values for non-working time apply to all non-work journey purposes, including travel to and from work, by all modes. It is based on research conducted by the Institute for Transport Studies (ITS) for the Department for Transport, reported in 2003, and published as Values of Travel Time Saving in the UK. The value given in the ITS report was in end 1997 prices. These values were converted to 2010 values and prices by uplifting in proportion to changes in values of time growth and changes in prices (using the GDP deflator).

1.2.16 ‘Commuting’ is travelling to and from the normal place of work. ‘Other’ is travel for other non-work purposes, for example leisure trips. There is no differentiation of ‘commuting’ and ‘other’ values of time by mode2.

1.2.17 The recommended values for all non-working trips are shown in Table 2. The values given in this table are averages which include retired persons in the calculations.

1.2.18 Individual consumers perceive costs in the market price unit of account and therefore the perceived cost and the market price are the same for ‘commuting’ and ‘other’ purposes.

1.2.19 The values for non-working time (‘commuting’ and ‘other’) spent waiting for public transport is two and a half times the ‘commuting’ and ‘other’ values.

1.2.20 Where walking and cycling is used as a means of access to, or inter-change between modes of transport, the non-working values (‘commuting’ and ‘other’) of walking and cycling is twice the ‘commuting’ and ‘other’ values.

Table 2 Values of Non- Working Time per person (£ per hour, 2010 prices and values)

Purpose Resource Cost

Perceived Cost

Market Price

Commuting 5.43 6.46 6.46 Other 4.80 5.71 5.71

Forecast Growth in Real GDP, Population and Households

1.2.21 Table 3a contains forecasts of annual real GDP growth per head and real GDP growth per household. These are for use in appraisal across all valuations in WebTAG that are assumed to grow in line with income. Figures in Table 3a and Table 3b are percentage changes on a year earlier.

1.2.22 Important note for those using these values in modelling: In 2012, HM Treasury altered its GDP deflator to be based on the Consumer Prices index (CPI) rather than the Retail Prices Index (RPI) as used in the previous version of this Unit. Analysts using longitudinal models, based on time series and calibrated using the values given in earlier versions of this Unit, may need to recalibrate their models before using these values. Models validated using cross-sectional data for a single year should not be affected by this and can continue to use these new values in their models as normal.

2 Based on research conducted by the Institute for Transport Studies (ITS) for the Department for

Transport, reported in 2003, and published as Values of Travel Time Saving in the UK.

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Table 3 a Forecast Growth in Real GDP, Population and Households

Year GDP

Growth (%pa)

Population Growth (%pa)

Household Growth (%pa)

GDP Growth per head

% pa)

GDP Growth per household

(% pa) 2003 3.52 0.39 0.70 3.12 2.80 2004 2.96 0.49 0.70 2.46 2.24 2005 2.09 0.66 0.90 1.42 1.18 2006 2.61 0.58 0.89 2.02 1.70 2007 3.47 0.66 0.88 2.78 2.56 2008 -1.10 0.68 0.93 -1.77 -2.02 2009 -4.37 0.64 1.04 -4.98 -5.35 2010 2.09 0.76 1.03 1.32 1.05 2011 0.65 0.71 1.02 -0.06 -0.37 2012 0.80 0.71 1.01 0.09 -0.20 2013 2.00 0.71 1.00 1.28 0.99 2014 2.70 0.70 1.07 1.98 1.62 2015 3.00 0.68 1.06 2.30 1.92 2016 3.00 0.66 1.05 2.33 1.93 2017 2.70 0.56 1.03 2.13 1.65 2018 2.20 0.56 1.02 1.63 1.16 2019 2.20 0.56 0.98 1.64 1.21 2020 2.20 0.55 0.97 1.64 1.22 2021 2.40 0.54 0.96 1.85 1.43 2022 2.30 0.53 0.95 1.76 1.34 2023 2.30 0.52 0.94 1.77 1.34 2024 2.40 0.50 0.88 1.89 1.51 2025 2.30 0.49 0.87 1.80 1.41 2026 2.30 0.47 0.87 1.82 1.42 2027 2.30 0.46 0.86 1.83 1.43 2028 2.30 0.44 0.85 1.85 1.44 2029 2.30 0.43 0.78 1.87 1.51 2030 2.30 0.41 0.77 1.88 1.52 2031 2.30 0.39 0.77 1.90 1.52 2032 2.30 0.38 0.76 1.91 1.53 2033 2.40 0.37 0.75 2.03 1.63 2034 2.50 0.34 0.38 2.15 2.11 2035 2.50 0.34 0.34 2.15 2.15 2036 2.50 0.34 0.34 2.15 2.15 2037 2.40 0.31 0.32 2.08 2.08 2038 2.40 0.31 0.31 2.08 2.08 2039 2.40 0.31 0.31 2.08 2.08

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2040 2.50 0.31 0.31 2.18 2.18 2041 2.50 0.31 0.31 2.18 2.18 2042 2.50 0.28 0.29 2.21 2.21 2043 2.60 0.28 0.28 2.31 2.31 2044 2.60 0.28 0.28 2.31 2.31 2045 2.50 0.28 0.28 2.21 2.21 2046 2.50 0.28 0.28 2.21 2.21 2047 2.40 0.26 0.26 2.14 2.14 2048 2.40 0.26 0.26 2.14 2.14 2049 2.40 0.26 0.26 2.14 2.14 2050 2.40 0.26 0.26 2.14 2.14 2051 2.30 0.26 0.25 2.04 2.04 2052 2.30 0.23 0.23 2.07 2.07 2053 2.30 0.23 0.23 2.07 2.07 2054 2.30 0.23 0.23 2.07 2.07 2055 2.30 0.23 0.23 2.07 2.07 2056 2.30 0.23 0.23 2.07 2.07 2057 2.30 0.21 0.21 2.08 2.08 2058 2.30 0.21 0.21 2.08 2.08 2059 2.30 0.21 0.21 2.09 2.09 2060 2.30 0.21 0.21 2.09 2.09 2061

onward 2.40 0.23 0.23 2.17 2.17

Notes: 1. Real GDP growth per head between 2002 and 2010 is based on GDP per head growth as measured by the ONS, Table IHXW, March 2012. 2. Real GDP growth for years from 2011 to 2016 is based on Office of Budget Responsibility Budget 2012 forecasts 3. Real GDP growth from 2017 onwards is based on long term Office of Budget Responsibility central projections as published in the July 2011 Fiscal Sustainability Report. 4. Population growth from 2011 onwards is based on GAD/ONS low migration projections for the United Kingdom, projection baseline year 2010 for 2011-2016 and baseline 2008 for years 2017 onwards. The value for 2061 onward is based on the annual average growth between 2060 and 2083. 5. Household growth values presented are based on 2008 household growth projections made by CLG. http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/housing/xls/table401.xls. Beyond 2033, household growth has been extrapolated to grow in line with population growth, holding household size constant.

Annual Rates of Growth in Values of Time

1.2.23 The value of non-working time is assumed to increase with income, with an elasticity3 of 0.8. Working values of time are assumed to grow in line with income, with an elasticity of 1. The measure of income used is GDP per head (see Table 3a). Forecast growth in the real value of time is shown in Table 3b.

3 Elasticity is the relative response of one variable to changes in another variable. The phrase

"relative response" is best interpreted as the percentage change. In this context, the inter-temporal income elasticity of the value of time, is the percentage change in the value of time (over time) measured against the percentage change in income (over time).

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http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/housing/xls/table401.xls


Table 3b: Forecast Growth in the Working and Non-Working Values of Time

Year Work VOT Growth (% pa)

Non-Work VOT Growth (% pa)

2003 3.12 2.49 2004 2.46 1.96 2005 1.42 1.14 2006 2.02 1.61 2007 2.78 2.22 2008 -1.77 -1.42 2009 -4.98 -4.01 2010 1.32 1.05 2011 -0.06 -0.05 2012 0.09 0.07 2013 1.28 1.02 2014 1.98 1.58 2015 2.30 1.84 2016 2.33 1.86 2017 2.13 1.70 2018 1.63 1.30 2019 1.64 1.31

2020 1.64 1.31 2021 1.85 1.48 2022 1.76 1.41 2023 1.77 1.42 2024 1.89 1.51 2025 1.80 1.44 2026 1.82 1.45 2027 1.83 1.46 2028 1.85 1.48 2029 1.87 1.49 2030 1.88 1.50 2031 1.90 1.52 2032 1.91 1.53 2033 2.03 1.62 2034 2.15 1.72 2035 2.15 1.72 2036 2.15 1.72 2037 2.08 1.66 2038 2.08 1.66 2039 2.08 1.66 2040 2.18 1.74 2041 2.18 1.74 2042 2.21 1.76 2043 2.31 1.84 2044 2.31 1.84 2045 2.21 1.76 2046 2.21 1.76 2047 2.14 1.71 2048 2.14 1.71

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Year Work VOT Growth (% pa)

Non-Work VOT Growth (% pa)

2049 2.14 1.71 2050 2.14 1.71 2051 2.04 1.63 2052 2.07 1.65 2053 2.07 1.65 2054 2.07 1.65 2055 2.07 1.65 2056 2.07 1.65 2057 2.08 1.66 2058 2.08 1.66 2059 2.09 1.67 2060 2.09 1.67

2061 onward 2.17 1.73 1.2.24 In accordance with HM Treasury’s Green Book, VOT growth rates in Table 3b above for a

given year should be modified according to whether the discount rate for that year is different from the rate for the current year as follows:

yearnt rate_currediscount year rate_moddiscount year originalVOTgrowth_ year modifiedVOTgrowth_ ×=

Vehicle Occupancies

1.2.25 Car occupancy figures are shown in Table 4. These figures were derived from the 1999 - 2001 National Travel Survey and show the sum of driver occupancy (always 1) and passenger occupancy. Occupancies in the top half of Table 4 are expressed in per vehicle kilometre and those in the bottom half are per trip.

Table 4 Car Occupancies (2000)

Weekday Journey Purpose 7am –

10am 10am – 4pm

4pm – 7pm

7pm – 7am

Weekday Average

Weekend Average

All Week Average

Occupancy Per Vehicle Kilometre Travelled

Work 1.23 1.19 1.17 1.18 1.20 1.28 1.20 Commuting 1.16 1.15 1.13 1.13 1.14 1.14 1.14 Other 1.71 1.78 1.82 1.77 1.78 1.97 1.85 Average Car 1.37 1.59 1.45 1.47 1.48 1.88 1.58 Occupancy Per Trip Work 1.26 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.21 1.30 1.22 Commuting 1.16 1.14 1.14 1.13 1.15 1.13 1.14 Other 1.72 1.70 1.76 1.71 1.72 1.96 1.79 Average Car 1.46 1.59 1.53 1.54 1.54 1.88 1.63

1.2.26 Occupancies for all other vehicles are shown in Table 5. These figures also show the sum

of driver and passenger occupancy. Occupancies for different times of the day are only available for cars. For LGVs, different occupancy figures are available for a weekday and the weekend. For all other vehicles, only all week average occupancy figures are available.

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These should be used for all time periods. Values for heavy and light rail are not included as it is assumed that, if a public transport project is being appraised, a project specific public transport model will be used which will give appropriate details of passenger occupancy. Average PSV occupancy figures are given, as these are required for highways scheme appraisal.

Table 5 Vehicle Occupancies (2000)

Occupancy per Vehicle Kilometre Travelled Vehicle Type and Journey

Purpose Weekday Average

Weekend Average

All Week Average

LGV Work (freight) 1.20 1.26 1.20 Non Work (commuting and other) 1.46 2.03 1.59 Average LGV 1.23 1.35 1.25 OGV1 Work only OGV2 Work only

1.00 1.00

1.00 1.00

1.00 1.00

PSV Driver Passenger

1.00 12.20

1.00 12.20

1.00 12.20

1.2.27 Table 6 shows the predicted decline in car passenger occupancies as an annual

percentage until 2036, after which car passengers are assumed to remain constant. The occupancy of all other vehicle types should be assumed to remain unchanged over time.

Table 6 Annual Percentage Change in Car Passenger Occupancy (% pa) up to 2036

Journey Purpose

Weekday Weekend All Week

7am – 10am

10am – 4pm

4pm – 7pm

7pm – 7am

WeekdayAverage

Work -0.48 -0.4 -0.62 -0.5 -0.44 -0.48 -0.45 Non – Work (commuting and other)

-0.67 -0.65 -0.53 -0.47 -0.59 -0.52 -0.56

Journey Purpose Splits

1.2.28 Data from the National Travel Survey (1999 – 2001) has been used to produce journey purpose splits for work and non-work travel (commuting and other), based on distance travelled and trips made. These purpose splits are necessary in order to calculate values of time per vehicle for the average vehicle. Journey purpose splits are assumed to remain constant over time.

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1.2.29 The purpose splits based on distance travelled in work and non-work time are given in

Table 7.

Table 7 Proportion of Travel in Work and Non-Work Time

Weekday Mode /Vehicle Type & Journey Purpose

7am – 10am

10am – 4pm

4pm – 7pm

7pm – 7am

Weekday Average

Weekend Average

All Week Average

Percentage of Distance Travelled by Vehicles

Car Work 18.1 19.9 13.0 12.3 16.4 3.2 13.1 Commuting 46.0 11.4 40.8 36.2 31.0 8.5 25.3 Other 35.9 68.7 46.2 51.5 52.5 88.3 61.6 LGV Work (freight) 88.0 88.0 88.0 88.0 88.0 88.0 88.0 Non – Work (Commuting and Other)

12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0

OGV1 Work 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 OGV2 Work 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Percentage of Distance Travelled by Occupants

Car Work 15.4 13.8 10.2 9.9 12.6 2.0 9.2 Commuting 38.3 8.1 32.2 29.1 23.9 5.1 18.0 Other 46.4 78.1 57.6 61.0 63.5 92.9 72.7 PSV Work 3.9 2.0 3.9 5.7 3.4 1.5 2.9 Commuting 30.0 11.1 36.6 38.1 25.5 6.4 20.5 Other 66.1 86.9 59.5 56.2 71.1 92.0 76.6 Heavy Rail Work 14.1 22.4 16.4 23.2 18.3 6.3 16.5 Commuting 51.9 10.2 55.9 53.1 43.7 4.3 37.8 Other 34.1 67.4 27.7 23.7 38.1 89.5 45.7 Light Rail Work 1.9 0.2 1.8 2.3 1.3 0.4 1.2 Commuting 82.4 8.5 75.7 28.9 50.1 23.3 45.8 Other

15.7 91.3 22.5 68.9 48.6 76.3 53.1

Note: The shaded areas in the table indicate a small sample, hence these figures should be treated with caution.

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1.2.30 The purpose splits based on trips made in work and non-work time are given in Table 8.

Table 8 Proportion of Trips Made in Work and Non-Work Time

Weekday Mode /Vehicle Type and Journey Purpose

7am – 10am

10am –4pm

4pm – 7pm

7pm – 7am

WeekdayAverage

Weekend Average

All Week Average

Percentage of Vehicle Trips

Car Work 6.8 8.3 5.5 3.6 6.5 1.7 5.0 Commuting 40.6 11.6 32.3 26.4 25.4 9.1 20.3 Other 52.7 80.1 62.2 70.0 68.1 89.3 74.7 LGV Work(freight) 88.0 88.0 88.0 88.0 88.0 88.0 88.0 Non-Work (Commuting and Other)

12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0

OGV1 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Work OGV2 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Work Percentage of Person Trips

Car Work 5.2 2.2 4.1 1.2 4.7 1.1 3.4 Commuting 33.3 15.6 25.8 10.9 20.0 6.4 15.2 Other 61.5 82.2 70.1 87.9 75.3 92.5 81.4 PSV Work 1.5 1.2 1.8 2.6 1.5 1.0 1.4 Commuting 41.7 10.6 43.0 47.4 26.9 12.4 24.3 Other 56.8 88.2 55.2 50.0 71.5 86.6 74.3 Heavy Rail Work 6.7 13.6 6.7 8.8 8.3 2.8 7.6 Commuting 71.7 14.9 68.0 60.4 58.2 11.1 52.2 Other 21.6 71.5 25.4 30.8 33.5 86.1 40.3 Light Rail Work 2.8 0.7 3.3 5.3 2.4 1.2 2.2 Commuting 83.0 10.8 70.7 23.7 48.2 21.7 43.8 Other 14.2 88.5 26.0 71.1 49.4 77.1 54.0 Note: The shaded areas in the table indicate a small sample, hence these figures should be treated with caution.

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Values of Time per Vehicle

1.2.31 The market price values of time per vehicle are given in Table 9. These values were calculated by multiplication of the appropriate figures from Tables 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6. Average car, average LGV and average PSV values also use the journey purpose split data from Table 7 as weights. The values are based on distance travelled.

Table 9 Market Price Values of Time per Vehicle based on distance travelled (£ per hour, 2010 prices and values)

Weekday Vehicle Type and Journey Purpose 7am –

10am 10am – 4pm

4pm – 7pm

7pm – 7am

Average Weekday

Weekend

All Week

Car Work 39.04 38.15 37.60 37.88 38.37 40.19 38.36 Commuting 7.43 7.37 7.26 7.26 7.31 7.32 7.32 Other 9.50 9.88 10.15 9.90 9.91 10.97 10.30 Average Car 13.89 15.22 12.54 12.39 13.76 11.59 13.22 LGV Work (freight) 15.60 15.60 15.60 15.60 15.60 16.38 15.60 Non – Work (Commuting and Other) 8.66 8.66 8.66 8.66 8.66 12.03 9.43 Average LGV 14.77 14.77 14.77 14.77 14.77 15.86 14.86 OGV OGV1 Working 13.00 13.00 13.00 13.00 13.00 13.00 13.00 OGV2 Working 13.00 13.00 13.00 13.00 13.00 13.00 13.00 PSV (Occupants) Work 25.28 19.30 25.28 30.95 23.71 17.72 22.13 Commuting 23.64 8.75 28.85 30.03 20.10 5.04 16.16 Other 46.05 60.54 41.45 39.15 49.53 64.09 53.36 Total 94.97 88.58 95.57 100.13 93.33 86.86 91.65

1.2.32 Using the values in Table 9 above together with the national average vehicle proportions

for 2002 taken from the COBA user manual, Table 8/1, the market price value of time for an average vehicle is £13.91 per hour, 2010 prices and values.

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1.3 Vehicle Operating Costs

1.3.1 The use of the road system by private cars and lorries gives rise to operating costs for the user. These include the obvious costs of fuel (or, for modern plug-in electric vehicles, mains electricity), oil and tyres, and an element of vehicle maintenance. The models for car and goods vehicle operating costs also include allowances for the purchase of new vehicles, as discussed below.

1.3.2 The distance-related costs to private households and business of car purchase are included in the car non-fuel operating costs by inclusion of an allowance for mileage related depreciation. In addition, for business cars, an allowance is also made for the decline in vehicle capital value (other than that accounted for by mileage related depreciation).

1.3.3 The costs to freight carriers of goods vehicle purchases are taken into account under goods vehicle non-fuel operating costs. As with private cars, it is assumed that the decision to purchase goods vehicles is independent of the transport policy option pursued. However, changes in congestion on the road system will influence the productivity with which any given fleet of goods vehicles can be used, and this element is taken into account in computing goods vehicle operating costs.

1.3.4 This section provides the latest vehicle operating cost (VOC) values recommended by the Department for use in economic appraisals of transport projects. VOCs are separated into fuel VOCs and non-fuel VOCs and are discussed separately within this section.

1.3.5 Values for cars and LGVs are split by energy source (whether petrol or diesel, fuel, or, at present in the case of cars only, mains electricity). The split is by energy source, not vehicle type – vehicle kilometres for a plug-in hybrid vehicle are split according to the energy source used. Some values are given for an average car or average LGV, but analysts are advised that these can give slightly different results, so it is preferable to use the separate values by fuel type.

1.3.6 The appraisal of electric cars is a developing area. It should be noted that, whilst VOCs for electric cars are considered in this unit, some of the other environmental impacts of electric cars, such as noise and air quality, are not considered at present.

1.3.7 Assumptions on the share of vehicle kilometres by energy source over time and projections of vehicle fuel efficiency take into account the impact of announced and committed policies only. For example, the car fuel efficiency projection reflects EU CO2 regulation which sets targets for average new car emissions in 2015 and 2020. As the policy has only been agreed up to 2020, the projection does not make assumptions about future, lower post-2020 target levels. Instead it assumes that the 2020 target level holds for all subsequent years. When further policy measures in this area are agreed the guidance will be updated to incorporate them.

1.3.8 Following the change in the Department’s model base year, values in this section are based on 2010 values and prices. However, some historic values are provided (back to 2006) to support recent historic models.

Vehicle Operating Costs – Fuel and Electricity

1.3.9 Fuel consumption is estimated using a function of the form:

L = a/v + b + c.v + d.v2

Where:

L = consumption, expressed in litres per kilometre;

Page 14


v = average speed in kilometres per hour; and

a, b, c, d are parameters defined for each vehicle category.

1.3.10 The revised fuel consumption aggregated equation for WebTAG vehicle groups was derived4 using the results from the New UK Road Vehicle Emission Factors Database that relates the rate of emission of a pollutant or fuel consumption to average vehicle speed. The results of the Database consultation, documents and spreadsheets can be found at: http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/environment/emissions/ This function improves the relationship between speed and fuel consumption especially at low speeds (down to 5 kph). Figure 1 and Figure 2 show how fuel consumption varies with speed, using these functions. Similar graphs can be obtained at the link above by downloading the two spreadsheets Road vehicle emission factors 2009 – regulated and Viewer – Road vehicle emission factors 2009 and opening the second of these spreadsheets.

1.3.11 Evidence of the energy consumption of electric cars is currently limited. At present, it should be assumed that energy consumption is proportional to distance but independent of speed (ie, equivalent to a “b” parameter in the fuel consumption formula with the a, c and d parameters all zero). The appraisal of electric cars is a developing area and we expect to develop speed-related curves in the future. Electric cars should only be included in models/appraisals from 2011 onwards.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Speed kph

Litre

s/10

0km

Overall CarsOverall LGVs

Figure 1 Fuel consumption rates at different speeds – Cars and LGVs

4 TRL unpublished report “Fuel Consumption Equations” dated 29 September 2008.

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http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/environment/emissions/


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Speed kph

Litre

s/10

0km

Overall OGVPSVs

Figure 2 Fuel consumption rates at different speeds – OGVs and PSVs

1.3.12 The parameters needed to calculate the fuel/energy consumption element of VOCs are given in Table 10. The fuel consumption parameter values are based on a 2010 vehicle fleet (updated from the 2002 values in the previous version), whilst the electrical energy consumption values are based on 2011 values.

Table 10: Fuel/Energy Consumption Formulae Parameter Values

Parameters

Vehicle Category a b c d Fuel Consumption Parameter Values (litres per km, 2010) Petrol Car 0.964022581 0.041448033 -4.54163E-05 2.01346E-06Diesel Car 0.437094041 0.058616489 -0.00052488 4.12709E-06Petrol LGV 1.556463336 0.064253318 -0.000744481 1.00552E-05Diesel LGV 1.045268333 0.057901415 -0.000432895 8.0252E-06OGV1 1.477368474 0.245615208 -0.003572413 3.0638E-05OGV2 3.390702946 0.394379054 -0.004642285 3.59224E-05PSV 4.115603124 0.306464813 -0.00420643 3.65263E-05

Energy Consumption Parameter Values (kWh per km, 2011) Electric Car 0.12564236

1.3.13 In Table 10a and Table 10b the VOC parameters have been converted into pence per

kilometre by multiplying by the cost of fuel, calculated from Table 11. OGV1, OGV2 and PSV are assumed to be diesel driven and therefore parameters for these vehicles have been multiplied by the resource cost of diesel. The parameters for average car and average LGV are calculated as the average across different fuel/energy types. In the absence of more specific evidence it has been assumed that the proportions of traffic by

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fuel type are broadly equivalent to the proportions of vehicle kilometres by fuel type as shown in Table 12.

1.3.14 Table 10 no longer provides consumption values for an “average car”, as units for electric cars (kWh) differ from the units for petrol and diesel cars (litres).. However, it is possible to convert the consumption values into costs (using the costs per unit given in Table 11a and Table 11b) and estimate the fuel/energy cost per kilometre for an average car. Examples of this are given in Table 10a (which gives 2010 values, excluding electric cars) and Table 10b (which gives 2011 values, including electric cars and a combined average for petrol, diesel and electric cars). Values for an average car are weighted using the petrol, diesel and electric car proportions given in Table 12. For more details about how the cost per kilometre by year changes, please see Table 14.

Table 10a: Fuel/Energy Cost Formulae Parameter Values (2010 values and prices)

Parameters

Vehicle Category a b c dValues excluding VAT (for vehicles in course of work) Petrol Car 96.167 4.135 -0.00453 0.000201 Diesel Car 44.364 5.949 -0.05327 0.000419 Average Car 75.067 4.874 -0.02438 0.000290 Petrol LGV 155.266 6.410 -0.07427 0.001003 Diesel LGV 106.091 5.877 -0.04394 0.000815 Average LGV 108.973 5.908 -0.04571 0.000826 OGV1 (diesel) 149.948 24.929 -0.36259 0.003110 OGV2 (diesel) 344.145 40.028 -0.47118 0.003646 PSV (diesel) 417.720 31.105 -0.42694 0.003707 Values including VAT (for vehicles in course of other purposes) Petrol Car 112.996 4.858 -0.00532 0.000236 Diesel Car 52.127 6.991 -0.06260 0.000492 Average Car 88.204 5.727 -0.02865 0.000340 Petrol LGV 182.438 7.531 -0.08726 0.001179 Diesel LGV 124.657 6.905 -0.05163 0.000957 Average LGV 128.043 6.942 -0.05371 0.000970

Note: In 2010 it is assumed there are no electric cars, so the “Average Car” is an average over petrol and diesel.

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Table 10b: Fuel/Energy Cost Formulae Parameter Values (2011 values, 2010 prices)

Parameters

Vehicle Category a b c d Values excluding VAT (for vehicles in course of work) Petrol Car 102.735 4.417 -0.00484 0.000215Diesel Car 48.546 6.510 -0.05830 0.000458Electric Car 0.000 1.732 0.00000 0.000000Average Car 79.423 5.315 -0.02780 0.000319Petrol LGV 168.293 6.947 -0.08050 0.001087Diesel LGV 115.668 6.407 -0.04790 0.000888Average LGV 118.518 6.437 -0.04967 0.000899OGV1 (diesel) 166.939 27.754 -0.40367 0.003462OGV2 (diesel) 383.142 44.564 -0.52457 0.004059PSV (diesel) 465.054 34.630 -0.47532 0.004127Values including VAT (for vehicles in course of other purposes) Petrol Car 123.282 5.300 -0.00581 0.000257Diesel Car 58.255 7.812 -0.06996 0.000550Electric Car 0.000 1.819 0.00000 0.000000Average Car 95.308 6.378 -0.03336 0.000383Petrol LGV 201.951 8.337 -0.09660 0.001305Diesel LGV 138.802 7.689 -0.05748 0.001066Average LGV 142.222 7.724 -0.05960 0.001079

1.3.15 Standard assumptions for fuel and electricity prices are shown in Table 11a, including forecasts to 2030. Historic values are provided back to 2002, as these may be useful for the purpose of transport modelling.

1.3.16 Petrol and Diesel prices are annual average values. Values up to 2011 are observed, whereas values from 2012 onwards are forecasts based on the central scenario published in October 2011 by the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC). In Table 11a, ‘Petrol’ is a weighted average between Ultra Low Sulphur Petrol (standard unleaded) and Super Unleaded. Super Unleaded is assumed to constitute 10% of the petrol market by 2030. ‘Diesel’ comprises both Ultra Low Sulphur and Sulphur Free varieties.

1.3.17 The resource cost of fuel VOCs is net of indirect taxation. The market price is gross of indirect taxation and is therefore the sum of the resource cost and fuel duty, plus VAT (that is, market price = [resource cost + fuel duty] x [1 + VAT]). In work time the perceived cost of fuel VOCs is the cost perceived by businesses. Businesses are generally viewed as perceiving costs in the factor cost unit of account as most business costs are free of indirect taxation because they can claim it back. However, businesses cannot reclaim fuel duty and therefore the perceived value of fuel VOCs in work time is equal to the resource cost plus fuel duty. In non-work time, the perceived cost of fuel VOCs is the cost as perceived by the individual consumer. Consumers perceive costs in the market prices unit of account and therefore the perceived value of fuel VOCs in non-working time is equal to the market price.

1.3.18 Values for fuel duty and VAT in Table 11a take account of all changes announced in the 2012 Budget Report (HMT March 2012). These are:

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• a 3.02p per litre increase in fuel duty from 57.95p per litre to 60.97p per litre on 1

August 2012;

• increases in line with RPI on 1 April each year from 2013 onwards

1.3.19 Electricity resource prices are for domestic electricity based on tables produced by the Interdepartmental Analysis Group (IAG) at DECC, October 2011. As well as the wholesale cost of producing the electricity, these resource costs include the supplier margin and impact of policies. The only indirect tax relating to electricity is VAT, at a rate of 5%. VAT should not be applied for business users, including all rail operators, as they can claim it back.

1.3.20 The actual price of a unit of electricity may vary according to the type of electricity used (domestic, commercial or industrial) which in itself will depend on where electric cars are recharged. We would expect much of the electricity for electric cars to be charged at the domestic rate. At the same time, the rail industry pays a much lower price for electricity than domestic users. Therefore, it is assumed that:

• for cars, the electricity price will be the DECC IAG domestic retail price to 2030;

• for Rail, the electricity price will be the sum of the DECC IAG industrial variable price element and the carbon cost of generating 1kWh of electricity.

1.3.21 Beyond 2030, the electricity prices for both car and rail are assumed to vary according to the change in carbon cost only.

1.3.22 The values in Table 11a have been deflated to 2010 prices using HM Treasury’s GDP deflator. The GDP deflator is a much broader price index than the CPI, RPI or RPIX (which only measure consumer prices) as it reflects the prices of all domestically produced goods and services in the economy. Hence, the GDP deflator also includes the prices of investment goods, government services and exports, and subtracts the price of UK imports. The wider coverage of the GDP deflator makes it more appropriate for deflating public expenditure series. We therefore recommend the GDP deflator is used to deflate value for appraisals.

1.3.23 Beyond 2030, the resource cost of electricity (which may be expected to include the damage cost of the carbon emissions that they generate) is assumed to vary according to the changing cost of carbon emissions for generating 1 kWh of electricity. These values are shown in Table 11b.

1.3.24 For petrol and diesel beyond 2030, both the resource and duty prices are forecast to grow at a rate of 0.195% per year. This is because fuel prices are assumed to grow in line with RPI, which has slightly higher growth than the CPI-based GDP deflator.

Page 19


Table 11a Fuel and Electricity Prices and Components (2010 prices)

Resource Cost Duty VAT rate Petrol Diesel Electricity Petrol Diesel Electric Petrol Diesel Electric

Road Rail Road

Year

(p/litre) (p/litre) (p/kWh) (p/kWh) (p/litre) (p/litre) (p/kWh) (%) (%) (%) 2002(actual) 20.39 22.46 55.92 55.92 17.5 17.5 2003(actual) 22.39 24.06 55.02 55.02 17.5 17.5 2004(actual) 24.87 26.31 54.80 54.80 17.5 17.5 2005(actual) 30.76 34.41 53.62 53.62 17.5 17.5 2006(actual) 33.91 37.30 52.06 52.06 17.5 17.5 2007(actual) 34.08 36.21 52.68 52.68 17.5 17.5 2008(actual) 42.83 51.75 52.82 52.82 17.3 17.3 2009(actual) 33.16 37.01 55.95 55.95 15 15 2010(actual) 42.57 44.31 12.35 6.18 57.19 57.19 0.00 17.5 17.5 5 2011(actual) 51.95 56.11 13.78 8.62 56.89 56.89 0.00 20 20 5

2012 53.62 59.64 14.78 8.98 56.47 56.47 0.00 20 20 5 2013 54.13 60.21 15.56 9.59 57.96 57.96 0.00 20 20 5 2014 54.65 60.78 16.05 9.48 57.96 57.96 0.00 20 20 5 2015 55.18 61.36 16.20 9.55 58.58 58.58 0.00 20 20 5 2016 55.71 61.95 16.74 9.67 59.44 59.44 0.00 20 20 5 2017 56.25 62.54 17.03 9.73 60.16 60.16 0.00 20 20 5 2018 56.79 63.14 16.78 9.52 60.73 60.73 0.00 20 20 5 2019 57.34 63.74 17.30 9.65 61.16 61.16 0.00 20 20 5 2020 57.90 64.35 17.96 9.97 61.44 61.44 0.00 20 20 5 2021 58.46 64.97 18.52 10.58 61.56 61.56 0.00 20 20 5 2022 59.02 65.59 18.78 10.96 61.68 61.68 0.00 20 20 5 2023 59.59 66.22 18.79 11.21 61.80 61.80 0.00 20 20 5 2024 60.17 66.85 19.27 11.94 61.92 61.92 0.00 20 20 5 2025 60.75 67.50 19.74 12.42 62.04 62.04 0.00 20 20 5 2026 61.34 68.15 19.92 12.55 62.16 62.16 0.00 20 20 5 2027 61.94 68.80 20.32 12.93 62.28 62.28 0.00 20 20 5 2028 62.54 69.47 20.45 13.09 62.40 62.40 0.00 20 20 5 2029 63.15 70.14 20.34 13.20 62.52 62.52 0.00 20 20 5 2030 63.76 70.81 20.60 13.47 62.65 62.65 0.00 20 20 5

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Table 11b Resource cost of electricity from 2031 (2010 prices)

Year Road Rail Year Road Rail (p/kWh) (p/kWh) (p/kWh) (p/kWh)

2031 20.60 13.47 2066 19.39 12.26 2032 20.56 13.44 2067 19.39 12.27 2033 20.50 13.37 2068 19.40 12.27 2034 20.41 13.28 2069 19.41 12.28 2035 20.29 13.16 2070 19.41 12.28 2036 20.13 13.00 2071 19.41 12.29 2037 19.95 12.82 2072 19.42 12.29 2038 19.73 12.61 2073 19.42 12.29 2039 19.49 12.36 2074 19.42 12.29 2040 19.22 12.09 2075 19.43 12.30 2041 19.22 12.09 2076 19.43 12.30 2042 19.22 12.09 2077 19.43 12.30 2043 19.22 12.09 2078 19.43 12.30 2044 19.22 12.09 2079 19.42 12.30 2045 19.22 12.09 2080 19.42 12.29 2046 19.21 12.08 2081 19.42 12.29 2047 19.21 12.08 2082 19.42 12.29 2048 19.20 12.07 2083 19.42 12.29 2049 19.19 12.06 2084 19.41 12.29 2050 19.17 12.04 2085 19.41 12.28 2051 19.19 12.06 2086 19.41 12.28 2052 19.21 12.08 2087 19.40 12.28 2053 19.22 12.09 2088 19.40 12.27 2054 19.24 12.11 2089 19.39 12.27 2055 19.25 12.13 2090 19.39 12.26 2056 19.27 12.14 2091 19.39 12.26 2057 19.29 12.16 2092 19.38 12.25 2058 19.30 12.17 2093 19.38 12.25 2059 19.31 12.19 2094 19.37 12.24 2060 19.33 12.20 2095 19.36 12.24 2061 19.34 12.21 2096 19.36 12.23 2062 19.35 12.22 2097 19.35 12.22 2063 19.36 12.23 2098 19.35 12.22 2064 19.37 12.24 2099 19.34 12.21 2065 19.38 12.25 2100 19.33 12.20

1.3.25 Table 12 provides forecasts of vehicle-kilometre proportions for diesel and petrol vehicles,

based on DfT 2010 fleet models for both cars and LGVs5. These forecasts will be used in the COBA and TUBA software programs when subdividing the total number of cars and LGVs into petrol, diesel or electric. Values for years between 2005 and 2029 that are not shown in the table should be estimated using linear interpolation between the two closest years. Values for 2031 onwards should be assumed to be held at 2030 levels.

5 The DfT fleet models are also used to update the NAEI assumptions that were used previously. At the

time of writing the NAEI assumptions used in DEFRA’s fleet modelling did not include electric cars, but it is expected that they will be included in 2013. Note that in previous versions of this Unit car fleet proportions were used in this Table.

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Table 12 Proportion of Cars and LGV Vehicle Kms Using Petrol, Diesel or mains electricity (%)

Year Cars LGVs

Petrol Diesel Electric Petrol Diesel

2004 73.28% 26.72% 0.00% 11.07% 88.93%

2010 59.27% 40.73% 0.00% 5.86% 94.14%

2015 47.97% 51.87% 0.16% 3.64% 96.36%

2020 43.70% 55.33% 0.96% 1.89% 98.11%

2025 44.41% 53.05% 2.54% 1.04% 98.96%

2030 44.46% 50.23% 5.31% 0.79% 99.21%

Rates of Change in Fuel VOCs

1.3.26 There are two causes of changes in fuel VOC over time: improvements in vehicle efficiency and changes in the cost of fuel. For cars, changes in fuel VOCs also reflect changes in the proportion of traffic using either petrol or diesel (see Table 12).

1.3.27 Vehicle efficiency assumptions are shown in Table 13. These figures show changes in fuel consumption and therefore negative figures indicate an improvement in vehicle efficiency. As with the consumption values noted earlier, values for an average car are no longer provided as petrol and diesel cars no longer have common units. Table 14 shows how the parameters to calculate fuel/energy cost per kilometre changes through time for an average car and an average LGV. For maximum accuracy, for years not shown in Table 10b and Table 14, analysts are advised to calculate the average car and average LGV fuel cost from Tables 10, 11, 12 and 13, as the volatility of fuel prices is such that interpolation may not be appropriate.

1.3.28 Note that, although Table 13 shows growth rates from 2006 onwards, the base year for the fuel consumption parameters given in Table 10 is 2010. Analysts who need to obtain values for earlier years for older transport models should carry out the reverse year-on-year calculation to those forecasting forward (ie for each year i between the model base year and 2009 inclusive, divide the 2010 value by (1+gi,i+1/100), where gi,i+1 is the fuel efficiency improvement given in Table 13 below).

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Table 13 Assumed Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Improvements

Year Change in Vehicle Efficiency (% pa)

Petrol Diesel Petrol Diesel

Car Car Electric

Car LGV LGV OGV1 OGV2 PSV -0.42 -0.49 2006-

2007 (actual) (actual) -0.01 0.00 -1.23 -1.23 0.00

-1.05 -1.07 2007-20082 (actual) (actual)

-0.01 0.00 -1.23 -1.23 0.00

-1.78 -0.92 -1.35 -1.23 2008 - 2009 (actual) (actual) (actual) (actual) -1.23 -1.23 0.00

-1.43 -1.63 -0.34 -1.80 2009-2010 (actual) (actual) (actual) (actual) -1.23 -1.23 0.00

2010-2015 -2.09 -1.71 0.11 -0.66 -2.07 0.00 0.00 0.00

2015-2020 -3.72 -2.22 -0.31 -1.38 -2.34 0.00 0.00 0.00

2020-2025 -3.63 -2.62 -0.71 -3.07 -2.19 0.00 0.00 0.00

2025-2030 -2.10 -2.10 -1.19 -2.95 -1.30 0.00 0.00 0.00

2030-2035 -0.74 -0.96 -0.26 -0.86 -0.57 0.00 0.00 0.00

Notes: 1. Petrol and diesel car values include biofuel energy penalty. 2. DVLA new car data used up to 2008, repeated from previous version of this unit. 3. Actual values for OGVs and PSVs are repeated from the previous version of this Unit. 4. Car values for 2009 onwards are consistent with EU emission targets up to 2020. LGV values for 2009 onwards are assumed to improve due to technology transferred from cars to LGV. Both car and LGV values are derived using DfT 2010 fleet models. OGV and PSV values are assumed not to change. 5. Values for growth prior to 2010 are shaded, as they are provided only for the purpose of backcasting for older models. Table 10 now gives fuel consumption formulae in 2010 values.

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Table 14: Average Car/LGV Fuel/Energy Cost Formulae Parameter Values (2010 prices)

Parameters Year a b c d

Average Car, excluding VAT (for travel in course of Work) 2010 75.067 4.874 -0.0244 0.000290 2015 72.284 5.384 -0.0322 0.000334 2020 62.367 4.975 -0.0317 0.000314 2025 54.095 4.351 -0.0274 0.000272 2030 49.069 3.957 -0.0241 0.000242 Average LGV, excluding VAT (for travel in course of Work) 2010 108.973 5.908 -0.0457 0.000826 2015 115.050 6.285 -0.0480 0.000876 2020 106.380 5.848 -0.0443 0.000813 2025 97.508 5.380 -0.0405 0.000747 2030 93.979 5.187 -0.0390 0.000720 Average Car, including VAT (for travel in course of other purposes) 2010 88.204 5.727 -0.0287 0.000340 2015 86.741 6.460 -0.0386 0.000401 2020 74.840 5.967 -0.0381 0.000376 2025 64.914 5.212 -0.0329 0.000326 2030 58.883 4.730 -0.0290 0.000290 Average LGV, excluding VAT (for travel in course of other purposes) 2010 128.043 6.942 -0.0537 0.000970 2015 138.060 7.542 -0.0577 0.001051 2020 127.657 7.018 -0.0531 0.000975 2025 117.010 6.456 -0.0486 0.000896 2030 112.775 6.224 -0.0468 0.000864

Vehicle Operating Costs – Non-Fuel

1.3.29 The elements making up non-fuel vehicle operating costs include oil, tyres, maintenance, depreciation and vehicle capital saving (only for vehicles in working time). The non-fuel elements of VOC are combined in a formula of the form:

C = a1 + b1/V

where:

C = cost in pence per kilometre travelled,

V = average link speed in kilometres per hour,

a1 is a parameter for distance related costs defined for each vehicle category,

b1 is a parameter for vehicle capital saving defined for each vehicle category (this parameter is only relevant to working vehicles).

1.3.30 Currently parameter a1 takes the same value for petrol and diesel vehicles. For electric vehicles, the evidence is very weak, but suggests that the costs are lower because there

Page 24


are fewer moving parts that are likely to wear out with mileage. There is currently no evidence to confirm whether the a1 parameter differs by trip purpose for electric cars.

1.3.31 There is also no evidence regarding the b1 parameter for electric cars in-work. For the present it will be assumed that the vehicle capital saving for electric cars will be the same as for petrol/diesel cars.

1.3.32 The parameters needed to calculate the non-fuel vehicle operating resource costs are given in Table 15. These parameters exclude indirect taxation. The parameters by fuel type are assumed to be constant through time; however, parameters for an average car vary through time (owing to changes in the proportion of electric vehicles) and are given in Table 16.

Table 15 Non-Fuel Resource VOCs, 2010 (2010 prices)

Parameter Values Vehicle

Category a1 pence/km

b1 pence/hr

Car Work Petrol 4.966 135.946 Work Diesel 4.966 135.946 Work Electric 1.157 135.946 Non-Work Petrol 3.846 Non-Work Diesel 3.846 Non-Work Electric 1.157 LGV Work 7.213 47.113 Non-Work (commuting and other)

7.213

Average LGV 7.213 41.458 OGV1

6.714 263.817

OGV2 13.061 508.525 PSV 30.461 694.547

1.3.33 Non-fuel VOC parameters for work and non-work cars (commuting and other) and private

LGVs have been derived in accordance with previous methods outlined in Review of Vehicle Operating Costs in COBA (EEA Division, DoT 1990-91). Non-fuel parameters for all other vehicles have been updated from the Transport Economics Note (DfT 2001) by the ratio of average 1998 and 2002 Retail Price Indices.

1.3.34 The marginal resource costs of oil, tyres, mileage and maintenance related depreciation, are assumed to be fixed costs per kilometre and appear in the ‘a1’ term. The difference between the 'a1' term for work and non-work time non-fuel car operating costs reflects the

Page 25


difference in the composition of the vehicle fleet in work and non-work time. In work time, a large proportion of total mileage is by cars with large engine sizes and these cars have higher non-fuel VOCs. The ‘b1’ term in the non-fuel costs represents changes in the productivity of commercial vehicles and cars in working time, all goods vehicles and PSVs.

1.3.35 The time component of depreciation is excluded since it does not vary with distance or speed. For OGVs and PSVs depreciation is assumed to be totally time related; this is based on evidence from trade sources which suggest that factors such as obsolescence and condition are more important determinants of vehicle value than mileage per se. For cars and LGVs evidence from second hand prices indicates that part of their depreciation is related to mileage; and therefore this element is recorded as a marginal resource cost.

1.3.36 For demand modelling and the calculation of consumer surplus, costs must be expressed in perceived cost terms. The perceived cost of non-fuel VOCs differs for work and non-work time. In work time, the perceived cost is the cost perceived by businesses and is therefore equal to the resource cost. In non-work time, it is assumed that travellers do not perceive non-fuel VOCs, so the perceived cost is zero.

1.3.37 The assumption that those making non-work car trips do not perceive their non-fuel vehicle operating costs means that estimates of consumer surplus for non-work purposes, which are based on perceived costs, do not reflect changes in non-fuel vehicle operating costs.

1.3.38 However, changes in users' expenditure on non-fuel VOCs are included in the calculation of user benefits for non-work purposes - see Transport User Benefit Calculation (TAG Unit 3.5.3) for details. These calculations use non-fuel VOCs expressed in market prices. Non-fuel VOCs in market prices for non-work purposes may be estimated from the formula given above, using the parameters given in Table 15 plus VAT (that is, market price = resource cost x (1+VAT)).

Rates of Change in Non-Fuel VOCs

1.3.39 Non-fuel VOCs by fuel/energy type are assumed to remain constant in real terms over the forecast period. This assumption is made because the main elements which make up non-fuel VOCs are subject to less volatility than fuel VOCs.

1.3.40 However, non-fuel VOCs for an average car varies slightly through time, owing to the increasing proportion of electric cars. Table 16 shows how the non-fuel VOCs for cars vary through time. The average over Work and Non-Work purposes is based on the split of car kilometres in Table 7. Values for years between 2011 and 2029 that are not shown in Table 16 should be obtained by linear interpolation between the two nearest years; for 2031 onwards the values should be held at 2030 levels.

1.3.41 Rates of change for an Average LGV are given in Table 15 and are assumed not to change through time. Rates of chance for OGVs are also assumed not to change through time.

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Table 16: Non-Fuel Resource VOCs through time (2010 prices)

Year Work Car Non-Work Car Average Car a1 b1 a1 b1 a1 b1

pence/km pence/hr pence/km pence/hr pence/km pence/hr 2010 4.966 135.946 3.846 0.000 3.992 17.809 2015 4.960 135.946 3.841 0.000 3.988 17.809 2020 4.929 135.946 3.820 0.000 3.965 17.809 2025 4.869 135.946 3.777 0.000 3.920 17.809 2030 4.764 135.946 3.703 0.000 3.842 17.809

Bus Operating Costs

1.3.42 In a simple highway appraisal, buses are treated as part of the traffic flow, and the operating cost formulae described above are applied, using the appropriate parameter values for PSVs. In a multi-modal study, however, different options may result not only in faster or slower running times for existing bus services, but in the need for more or different levels and patterns of bus service provision. In these cases, the impact of options on the costs of bus service provision have to be considered in more detail.

1.3.43 The bus operating model requires assumptions to be input on various operational characteristics, such as sickness rates, working days per week, holiday allowances, employers' costs, engineering spares etc and also unit cost rates for each grade of staff, fuel and tyres etc. Vehicle fleet requirements and costs are considered as capital expenditure outside the model and are included in option costs. The Overall Approach: The Steps in the Process (TAG Unit 2.1) gives an overview of how costs are covered in the appraisal process. The Estimation and Treatment of Scheme Costs (TAG Unit 3.5.9) provides further detail on estimating and treating costs for use in the appraisal process.

1.3.44 Bus operating costs vary by region and by service type. Information on the operating cost of local bus services, by area, can be found in Focus on Public Transport and in The Passenger Transport Industry in Great Britain Facts (Confederation of Passenger Transport 1999-2000). Where no other information is available, these costs should be used as default indicators of the operating cost of bus services. However, more detailed information on bus costs should be sought where bus based measures are likely to play a significant part in a strategy. Study consultants may be able to provide more detailed cost estimates using bus operating cost models. The validity of such costs should be cross-checked with other data sources, including the range of values given in the national statistics. Where possible, the co-operation and views of local bus operators should be sought. The Confederation of Passenger Transport (CTP) may also be able to provide assistance in estimating the costs of bus operation.

Rail Operating Costs

1.3.45 Information on rail operating cost assumptions can be obtained by discussion with the Department.

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2 Further Information

The following documents provide information that follows on directly from the key topics covered in this Unit.

For information on: See: TAG Unit number:

The Appraisal Process

The Overall Approach: The Steps in the Process The Appraisal Process

TAG Unit 2.1 TAG Unit 2.5

Modelling

Modelling

TAG Unit 3.1

Estimating and Treating Scheme Costs

The Estimation and Treatment of Scheme Costs

TAG Unit 3.5.9

3 References

P.J Mackie, M. Wardman, A.S Fowkes, G. Whelan, J Nellthorp and J Bates, Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds (2003), Values of Travel Time Savings in the UK.

Confederation of Passenger Transport (1999-2000), Focus on Public Transport.

Confederation of Passenger Transport (1999-2000), The Passenger Transport Industry in Great Britain Facts.

ITEA Division, Department for Transport (2001), Transport Economics Note.

EEA Division, Department of Transport (1990-91), Review of Vehicle Operating Costs in COBA.

Department for Transport (2005), Transport Statistics Great Britain.

HM Treasury (2012) Budget Report March 2012

ONS, Table IHXW, March 2012.

Office of Budget Responsibility Budget 2012 forecasts

Office of Budget Responsibility central projections (July 2011, Fiscal Sustainability Report).

GAD/ONS low migration projections for the United Kingdom

2008 household growth projections made by CLG. http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/housing/xls/table401.xls.

Office for National Statistics (2009) Population: national, 1971 onwards: Population Trends

http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/ssdataset.asp?vlnk=9542&More=Y

http://www.gad.gov.uk/Demography%20Data/Population/2006/uk/wuk06cc.xls

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http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/housing/xls/table401.xls

http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/ssdataset.asp?vlnk=9542&More=Y

http://www.gad.gov.uk/Demography Data/Population/2006/uk/wuk06cc.xls


4 Document provenance

This Transport Analysis Guidance (TAG) Unit was originally based on Appendix H of Guidance on the Methodology for Multi-Modal Studies Volume 2 (DETR, 2000), and the Transport Economics Note (DfT, 2001) and Netcen’s Carbon Emission and Fuel Consumption Parameters for the National Transport Model (NETCEN, 2005). Subsequently it has been updated regularly, usually once a year, in accordance with forecasts of population, GDP and fuel prices elsewhere in Government. For details of past issues, please see the Archive section of the WebTAG website.

The fuel consumption formulae were substantially updated in April 2011, and are now based on Road vehicle emissions factors 2009.

The unit has been further updated, For Consultation, in November 2011, to include vehicle operating costs for electric cars

The unit has been updated, In Draft, in May 2012. Monetary values have been converted to 2010 values and prices (previously 2002) and updated to include updated values following the Budget in March 2012. This unit became definitive in August 2012.

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