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Preface xvChapter Editors and Author/Contributor Contact Information xvii

Chapter 1—Film Extrusion IntroductionChapter Editor: BRUCE FOSTER, PolyKnows LLC

Section 1.1—Film Extrusion Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3BRUCE FOSTER, PolyKnows LLC

Introduction 3History 3Since 2005 3The Future 3References and Additional Resources 4

Chapter 2—PRIMARY EQUIPMENTChapter Editor: MARTINE MICHON, Atlantic Coated Papers Ltd.

Section 2.1—The Film Extruder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7DONN C . LOUNSBURY, D.C.L. Solutions, Inc. and BILL HELLMUTH, Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering

Introduction 7The Extruder 7The Barrel and Feed Section 7Barrel Heating and Cooling Systems 7Closed-Loop Liquid Cooling 9Gearcase and Thrust Bearing Assembly 11Screws 13Extruder Drives 16The DC Static Drive 16AC Variable-Frequency Drive 17Description 17Heat Control Panels 18Extruder Maintenance 18Preventive Measures 20Unusual Noise Indicators 20

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Drive Motor Maintenance 21Stocking Spares and Limiting Downtime 21Screw Removal: Why, When, and How 22The Grooved-Feed Extruder 23History 23Concept and Description 24The Process 24Screw Characteristics 25References and Additional Resources 27

Section 2.2—Screw Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29ANDREW W . CHRISTIE, SAM North America, LLC

Introduction 29Feedscrew Terminology 29Extruder Functions and Plasticating Screw Design 30Feeding/Solids Conveying 30Grooved Feed-Throat Extruders 32Plug Flow Compared to Melt Flow 33Melting 33Barrier Screw Designs 34Energy Required for Extrusion 34Melt Conveying 35Mixing in an Extruder 35Mixers 36Plasticating Screw Design Summary 38Materials of Construction 38Extrusion Process Analysis and Operation 39Objective (Online Measured) Variables 39Subjective (Offline Measured) Variables 39Polymer Variables 40Operating the Extruder 40Feed Zone 41Screw Running Tips 42Summary 42References and Additional Resources 42

Section 2.3—Die Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45BILL BODE, Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering

Introduction and Function of Die 45Single-Layer Spiral Mandrel Die Components 45Spiral Mandrel and Body 45Die Lip Sets 45Die Gaps 48Mechanical Considerations 48Stiffness of Components/Assembly/Disassembly 48Additional Considerations 48Materials of Construction and Surface Coatings 49Materials 49Plating/Surface Coatings 49Corrosion 49Cleaning 49Coextrusion Dies 50Rheological (Flow) Considerations 50

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Mechanical Considerations 52Other Types of Film Dies 52Spider Dies 52Wraparound Coathanger Dies 52Upper Die Geometry 53Controls 53

Section 2.4—Stacked-Die Technology for Tubular Film Coextrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55JOHN PERDIKOULIAS, Compuplast International Inc.

Introduction 55Conventional Coextrusion Dies 55Stacked Dies 57References and Additional Resources 61

Section 2.5—Winding and Web Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63R . DUANE SMITH, Davis-Standard LLC

Introduction 63Definition of a Quality Roll 63How to Achieve Roll Hardness 65Winder Components 70The Spreading Operation 72Winder Drives and Tension Control Systems 74Proper Shaft Selection 76Automatic Roll Changing Systems 77Conclusions 78References and Additional Resources 78

CHAPTER 3—ANCILLARY EQUIPMENTChapter Editor: RORY WOLF, ITW Pillar Technologies

Section 3.1- Gear Pumps, Filtration, Static Mixers—Function, Design, Parameters, Examples . . . . . . . . . . . 81 KEVIN TUTTLE, Nordson Polymer Processing Systems

Gear Pumps 81Filtration 84Static Mixers 92Gear Pump Addendum 95References and Additional Resources 95

Section 3.2—Feedblock Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 CHRISTINE RONAGHEN, Cloeren Incorporated

Introduction 97Primary Functions 97Coextrusion Behavior: A Brief Introduction to Viscosity 100Beyond Conventional Coextrusion 102Coextrusion Performance and Corrective Actions 102Specifying a Feedblock 104References and Additional Resources 104

Section 3.3—Film Stabilization, Forming and Collapsing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 JAMES STOBIE and HARINDER TAMBER, Macro Engineering and Technology Inc.

Introduction 105Film Tube Collapse 108Bubble Collapsing Improvements 111

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Tube Containment in High Cooling Applications 113Summary 113References and Additional Resources 113

Section 3.4—Material Handling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115CLIFFORD J . WEINPEL and WALTER FOLKL, Foremost Machine Builders

Introduction 115Bulk Unloading and Storage 115In-Plant Distribution Systems 119Piping Systems 121Controls 122Gravimetric Metering and Blending 122Accuracy and Resolution 131Summary 132Addendum A 132Addendum B 133Addendum C 134Addendum D 137

Section 3.5—Instrumentation and Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139TED SCHNACKERTZ, NDC Technologies

Introduction 139Process Controls 142References and Additional Resources 143Summary 143

Section 3.6—Blown-Film Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145HARINDER TAMBER, Macro Engineering and Technology Inc.

Introduction 145Single-Orifice Air Rings 145Dual-Orifice Air Rings 147Modified Dual-Orifice Air Rings 148Automatic Air Rings for Gauge Control 148Internal Bubble Cooling (IBC) 149Multiple Air Rings 151High Cooling Rates 151Cooling Rate Equations 152Thermal Analysis of Blown Film Quenching 153Thermal Load 153Heat Removal 155General Considerations for Blown-Film Systems 155Summary 155References and Additional Resources 155

Section 3.7—Surface Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157RORY WOLF, ITW Pillar Technologies

Introduction: The Need for Surface Treatment 157Flame Treatment 157Plasma Treatment 158Atmospheric Plasma Treatment (APT) Process 159ASTM Test Methods 161

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Cotton Swab Method 162Drawdown Test Method 162Warnings and Cautions 163Corona Treating 163Types of Corona—Treatment Systems 164Bare-Roll System 165Universal—Roll System 166Power Supply for Corona Treating 166Corona—Treating Applications 167Sizing: Material/Process Parameters 168Conclusions 170References and Additional Resources 170

Section 3.8—Atmospheric-Pressure Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173RORY WOLF, ITW Pillar Technologies

Introduction 173The Ionization Process 176Surface Effects 176Influence on Adhesion 178Surface Modification by Cleaning and Etching 178Surface Temperature Elevation 179Surface Sputtering 179Surface Etching 179Surface Modification by Functionalization 182Characterizations of Surface Modification Effects 183

CHAPTER 4—MATERIALSChapter Editors: KELLY FREY, Chevron Phillips Chemical Company

and DORENE SMITH, Westlake Chemical Corporation

Section 4.1—Low-Density Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 JOEL PERRITT, Westlake Chemical Corporation

Introduction 187Reactor Technology 187Polymer Characterization—Properties and Terminology 188Molecular Weight Distribution 191Common Polyethylene Additives 193Film Properties of Polyethylenes 195General Processing Guidelines for LPDE 196General Uses of LDPE 197

Section 4.2—Linear Low-Density Polyethylene (LLDPE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199NORMAN AUBEE, NOVA Chemicals

Introduction 199Applications 199Polymer Characterization 200Super Hexene LLDPE 202Typical Film Properties 203General Processing Guidelines 204Blends 204

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Section 4.3—Metallocene Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207NILESH SAVARGAONKAR, ExxonMobil Chemical Company

Introduction 207 Metallocene LLDPE 207Introduction of Long-chain Branching (LCB) 208Rheological Behavior and Processing of mLLDPE 208Physical Properties of mLLDPE 209Sealing Behavior of mVLDPE and Plastomers 210Physical Properties of Blends of Plastomers 212Applications for Metallocene LLDPE 212Newer Products 212Summary 212References and Additional Resources 214

Section 4.4—Polyolefin Plastomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215JACQUELYN DEGROOT and JEFFREY ARIONUS, The Dow Chemical Company

Introduction 215Properties 215Hot Seal and Hot Tack of Ethylene-Based Polymers 217Propylene-Based Plastomers 218Applications 218Processing Polyolyfin Plastomers 218Acknowledgements 220References and Additional Resources 221

Section 4.5—High Molecular Weight—High Density Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 MARK CANRIGHT and AMY M . LAIRD, ExxonMobil Chemical Company

Introduction 223Polymer Characterization 223Typical Polymer Properties 225Biaxial Orientation 225General Processing Guidelines 226Blown-Film Die 227Film Cooling 227Collapsing Parameters 227Treating 227Applications and End Uses 227Summary 228References and Additional Resources 228

Section 4.6—Polybutylene-1 for Peelable Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229STEFANO PASQUALI, LyondellBasell Industries

Introduction 229Polybutene-1 Key Features 229Easy-Peel Application 229Hot to Design a Peelable Film 229Advantages of Using PB-1 in Easy-Peel Applications 232Application Examples 233Quality Testing 234Summary 234References and Additional Resources 234

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Section 4.7—Polypropylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235THOMAS J . SCHWAB and MARIO PERRON, LyondellBasell Industries

Introduction 235Types of Polypropylene (PP) 235Polypropylene Film Manufacture 236Additives 237References and Additional Resources 237

Section 4.8—Nylons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239SERGI SALVÀ SÀEZ and JA’NAYSHA HAMILTON, UBE America Inc.

Introduction 239Nomenclature 239Nylon Synthesis and Chemistry 239Nylon Extrusion 242Processing Techniques Used for Nylon Resins 245Nylon Film Properties 247Applications 249Summary 251References and Additional Resources 252

Section 4.9—Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol Copolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253MARK PUCCI, Soarus, L.L.C.

Introduction 253Synthesis of EVOH Copolymers 253Oxygen Barrier Properties of EVOH 253Other Properties of EVOH 254Multilayer Structures with EVOH 255Solvent Barrier Prperties of EVOH 256Processing of EVOH 256Summary 257

Section 4.10—Polyesters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259JOSE TORRADAS, SALTOR LLC

Introduction 259 History 259Chemistry 259Pet Versatility 260Physical State 260Rheology 261Properties of Polyester 261General Processing 263Specific Film Processes 265Secondary Operations 265Applications 266Summary 266References and Additional Resources 266

Section 4.11—Tie Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269BARRY A . MORRIS and I-HWA LEE, The Dow Chemical Company

Introduction 269Tie-Resin Selection 269Bonding During Coextrusion 270Bonding in End Use 271Processing Guidelines 271

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Summary 272References and Additional Resources 272

Section 4.12—Ethylene Vinyl Acetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273MATTHEW SONNYCALB, LyondellBasell Industries

Introduction 273Polymer Characterization 273Applications 275General Processing Recommendations 276References and Additional Resources 276

Section 4.13—Acrylate Copolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277MICHAEL G . BAKER, Westlake Chemical Corporation

Introduction 277Chemistry and Manufacturing 277Property Review 277Processing Guidelines 278Applications 280Handling and Safety 280Regulatory 281

Section 4.14—Acid Copolymers and Ionomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283BARRY A . MORRIS and SCOTT B . MARKS, The Dow Chemical Company

Introduction 283Properties 283Applications 287General Processing Considerations 287References and Additional Resources 288

Section 4.15—Polyvinylidene Chloride (PVDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289KUN SUP HYUN, Formerly of the Dow Chemical Company

Introduction 289Characteristics 289Processing 289References and Additional Resources 290

Section 4.16—Polymer Processing Additives (PPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 CLAUDE LAVALLÉE, 3M Company

Introduction 291Interactions 299Conclusions 301References and Additional Resources 301

Section 4.17—Additives for Film Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 TAD FINNEGAN and R . E . KING, III, BASF Corporation

Introduction 303Acid Scavengers 303Adhesion Promoters 303Antiblock Agents 304Antifogging Agents 305Anti-Gas Fading (For Color-Critical Applications) 305Antioxidants (For Long-Term Stability) 306Antistatic Agents 307Biocides 308Cling Agents 308Colorants 308

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Degradation Accelerators 310Fillers 310Flame Retardants 310Melt-Processing Stabilizers 311Metal Deactivators 312Polymer Processing Aids 312Slip Additives 313Ultraviolet Stabilizers 313UV Absorbers 313Additive Delivery 314Synergistic and Antagonistic Mixtures of Additives 315Additive Antagonism 316Ancillary Properties 316Performance Testing 317Coextrusion and its affect on Additive Use 317Summary 317References and Additional Resources 318

Section 4.18—Slip Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319ADAM J. MALTBY and RICHARD E. MARQUIS, Croda Universal Inc.

Introduction 319Raw Material Source 319Manufacture 319How Amides Function in Polymers 319Measurement of Friction 320How Amides are Added to Polymer 320Summary 323References and Additional Resources 324

CHAPTER 5—PROCESSINGChapter Editor: NORMAN AUBEE, NOVA Chemicals

Section 5.1—Blown-Film Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327HARINDER TAMBER and MIREK PLANETA, Macro Engineering and Technology Inc.

Introduction 327Basics of Blown-Film Process 328Blown-Film Process: Correlation of Resin, Equipment and Process Conditions 328Comparison of Air vs . Water Cooled Blown-Film Processes and Properties 337Start-up and Shut Down of Blown-Film Line 337References and Additional Resources 339

Section 5.2—Cast Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 CHRISTINE RONAGHAN, Cloeren Incorporated

Introduction 341Cast Unit Configuration 341Cast Embossed Film 345Additional Features 345

Section 5.3—Sheet Extrusion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347SAM IULIANO, Nordson Extrusion Dies Industries, LLC

Introduction 347Sheet Extrusion Line Equipment 347Summary 356References and Additional Materials 357

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Section 5.4—Polymer Rheology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359OLIVIER CATHERINE, Cloeren Incorporated

Introduction 359Polymer Melt Viscosity 359Shear Viscosity Models 364Temperature-Dependent Models 365Some Implications of Shear Rheology for Film Extrusion 366Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymer Melts 370Rheology and Coextrusion 372Measurement Techniques 374References and Additional Materials 381

Section 5.5—Coating and Laminating Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 GIANCARLO CAIMMI, Nordmeccanica Group

Introduction 383 Preliminary Aspects and Definitions 383

Section 5.6—Metallizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391VERONICA ATAYA, Celplast Metallized Products Limited

Introduction 391Metallizing Process 391Applications 393Barrier Properties of Metallized Films 393Processing of Metallized Films 394Metallized Film Defects 394Summary 394References and Additional Materials 395

Section 5.7—Troubleshooting the Extruder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397ANDREW W . CHRISTIE, SAM North America, LLC

Introduction 397Coextrusion Film Systems 397Troubleshooting Method 398The Problem Statement 398The Hypothesis 398Test the Hypothesis 399Evaluating the Results 399Common Problems, Hypothesis, and Tests 399

Section 5.8—Troubleshooting the Blown-Film Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403HARINDER TAMBER and MIREK PLANETA, Macro Engineering and Technology Inc.

Introduction 403Basics of Blown-Film Process 403Troubleshooting: Blown-Film Equipment and Blown-Film Process 405Film and Roll Defects 419Summary 421References and Additional Resources 421

Section 5.9—Troubleshooting the Cast Film Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423CHRISTINE RONAGHAN, Cloeren Incorporated

Introduction 423

Section 5.10—Gel Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427MARK A . SPALDING, EDDY GARCIA-MEITIN, and STEPHEN L . KODJIE, The Dow Chemical Company

Introduction 427Protocols for Gel Analysis 427

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Examples of Gel Types 429Locating Stagnate Regions on Screws 435Poorly Designed Extrusion Processes 436Nitrogen Inerting on the Hopper 442The Incumbent Resin Effect 442Discussion 443Summary 443Acknowledgements 443References and Additional Resources 443

Section 5.11—Extrudable Polymers: Purging and Resin Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 SCOTT B . MARKS and BARRY A . MORRIS, The Dow Chemical Company

Introduction 445 Theory of Purging/Polymer Transitions 446Guidelines and Procedures for Purging/Resin Transitions 450References and Additional Resources 452

SECTION 5.12—Safety in Film Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453NICOLE E . DOWLING and LAURA K . MERGENHAGEN, The Dow Chemical Company

Introduction 453Preparation 453Potential Hazards 454Extrusion 454Post-Extrusion 455Maintenance 456Summary 456References and Additional Resources 456

CHAPTER 6—STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT, NOMENCLATURE AND TESTING

Chapter Editor: WARREN DURLING, Clorox Services Company

Section 6.1—Film Properties and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459DEAN FERRACANE, SARAH KUHL and KENYATTAH MATHIS, Clorox Services Company

Haze 459Light Transmission 459Gauge (thickness) 459Tear Strength 460Tensile Strength 460Puncture Resistance 461Stiffness/Elasticity 461Density 461Coefficient of Friction (COF) 462Surface Roughness 462Surface Energy 462Oxygen Transmission Rate (OTR) 462Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) 463

Section 6.2—Film Quality and Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465DAVE BOSTIAN, CharterNEX Films

Introduction 465Pre-Fabrication Testing 465Film Production 465Visual Properties 466Physical Properties 467

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Surface Properties 470Barrier Properties 471Summary 471

Section 6.3—Introduction to Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473SCOTT B . MARKS and BARRY A . MORRIS, The Dow Chemical Company

Introduction to Packaging and Industrial Structures 473Functions of a Package 473Key Questions and Design Criteria for Creating a Package 473Typical Functional Components in a Packaging Structure 474Functions of the Layers 474Surface Layer Choices 475Bulk Layer Choices 475Barrier Layer Choices 475Sealant Layer Choices 476Adhesive Layer Choices 477

Section 6.4—Critical Requirements for Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479THOMAS J . DUNN, Flexpacknology LLC

Overall Composite Integrity 479Packaging 479Design for Use 480Design for Manufacture 481Non-Packaging Applications 481References and Additional Resources 482

Section 6.5—Quality Control (QC) and Physical Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483THOMAS J . DUNN, Flexpacknology LLC

What to Test: Sampling Production 483How to Test: Testing Secondary Quality Characteristics 484Containment Integrity Characteristics 484Protection/Preservation Characteristics 485Transportation Integrity Characteristics 487Communication Integrity Characteristics 488Extrusion-Coated and Laminated Material Specifications 489References and Additional Resources 489

Section 6.6—Structure Writing and Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491SCOTT B . MARKS, The Dow Chemical Company

Writing Guide for Packaging Films and Other Multilayer Structures 491Guide to Multilayer Structure Writing: Packaging and Industrial Applications 491Materials (Generic Representations) 492Structure Examples 494Trademark References 497

Glossary 499

Conversion Factors for SI (metric Units) 515

Index 517

Chapter Editors and Reviewers Biographies 523