Assessing the Results

The Marine Corps' recruiting efforts from 1983to 1989 reflected a 23 percent decrease in newlieutenant requirements (from 1,890 to 1,458),accompanied by a corresponding decrease ofapproximately 25 percent in black officer acces-sions (121 in fiscal year 1983 to 90 in fiscal year1989). Black officer accession goals for six years ofthe seven-year period were set at six percent of theyearly accessions goals.12

Black officer composition reflected a 40 per-cent increase in the number of black officers from1980 to 1989, increasing from 627 to 880. Duringthe same period, the total officer corps increasedby 8.7 percent from 16,974 to 18,466. The in-crease in black officers represented a net gain ofmore than 250 officers, averaging 25 per year dur-ing the 10 year period.13 Of historical significance

Helicopters

424

23

was the addition of a black general officer to theMarine Corps' officer ranks in 1980; the first sincethe birth of the Corps some 205 years earlier.

The emphasis placed on increasing the numberof black officers in the combat arms fields (i.e.infantry, artillery, armor, and aviation) in the early1980s produced modest gains in the aviation andground combat arms fields. These particular areaswere targeted for a number of reasons. First andforemost, these specialties represented the ethosof the Marine Corps; therefore, the best opportuni-ties for command and promotion were in theseareas. Secondly, the Marine Corps believed it wasimportant to have role models in these fields forthe benefit of its enlisted Marines. Occupationalfield distribution statistics for the September 1979to September 1989 period revealed that the num-ber of black pilots increased from 35 in 1979 to 76in 1989; this represented a net gain of just over

41

Table 3.2 Black Officer Population (As of 30 September 1989)

Rank Total Total Black Percentage of Total Black Females

0-10 2 0 0.0 -

0-9 8 0 0.0 -

0-8 25 0 0.0 -

0-7 35 0 0.0 -

0-6 642 9 1.4 0

0-5 1,625 38 2.3 0

0-4 3,226 141 4.4 6

0-3 6,192 284 4.6 19

0-2 4,110 255 6.2 10

0-1 2,601 153 5.9 16

Total 18,466 880 4.8 51

Table 3.3 Marine Corps Pilot Demographics by Race (As of 30 september 1989)

Race/Ethnicity White

Fixed Wing 1,082Fighters & Bombers

Other Fixed Wing

2,391

3,897Totals

Black Hispanic Other

11 7 8

7 6 7

48 41

66 54 56

three black aviators per year. In an aviation com-ponent that totaled nearly 4,000 pilots in 1989,black officers represented slightly fewer than twopercent of that number. Statistics for Hispanicpilots reveal a similar distribution, totaling 54 offi-cers, 11 less than the total of blacks.14

Ground combat arms occupational specialtiespresented a similar situation. The net gain for thesame 10-year period reflected three officers peryear, totaling 201 blacks out of approximately4,800 officers; this represented about four percentof ground combat arms officers, while Hispanicsrepresented approximately three percent. In1989, black officers were 4.8 percent of the officerforce while Hispanic officers were 2.2 percent.'5

Signs of Change Emerge

Accession and composition statistics indicatedthat much work was yet to be done to achieve theorganizational goals articulated in the MarineCorps' yearly Equal Opportunity Assessments.

Then-Maf Charles F Bolden 's selection as aNational Aeronautics and Space Administrationastronaut and shuttle pilot made him an opin-ion maker and role model essential to the suc-cessful recruiting effort. Bolden was later thefirst Marine deputy commandant of the Brigadeof Midshipmen in Annapolis, Maryland.

24

Department of Defense (USMC) Photo 01246920186

LtGen Frank H Petersen commanded the MarineCorps Combat Development Command atQuantico, Virginia, the "Crossroads of the Corps."He also became naval aviation's "Gray Eagle," asthe longest serving naval aviator on active duty.

However, the Marine Corps began to show someindications that perhaps black officers would beafforded the same opportunities for success astheir white counterparts. Several significantstrides were made in the areas of promotions andassignments.

After being selected for advancement tobrigadier general in February 1979, Frank E.Petersen was advanced to major general and lieu-tenant general in May 1983 and June 1986, respec-tively. Adding to a long list of personal " firsts,"Lieutenant General Petersen also was given com-mand of Marine Corps Combat DevelopmentCommand, Quantico,Virginia. During his tenure ascommanding general, he was the conveningauthority for perhaps two of the most highly pub-licized courts martial in the history of the MarineCorps, the Sergeant Clayton Lonetree espionagetrial and the racially charged Corporal LindseyScott sexual assault proceedings. En August of1987, by virtue of his date of designation as a navalaviator, the general was designated as the "GrayEagle," the senior aviator on active duty in theentire Department of Defense. Petersen retired inJuly 1988.

1*

A breakthrough assignment was that of Maj L. Stanley to the prestigious Marine Barracks,Washington, D.C, known for its evening parades and ceremonies. Stanley and his parade staff are pic-tured in front of the Marine Corps War Memorial in Arlington, Virginia.

Another significant accomplishment wasachieved in the field of aviation during the I 980swhen Major Charles F. Bolden, Jr., was selected asan astronaut and subsequently qualified as a spaceshuttle flight pilot. A Vietnam veteran and formertest pilot, Bolden's first space mission took place in1986 on board the Space Shuttle Columbia.

While two of the Marine Corps' aviation pio-neers were charting new waters, throughout the1980s a number of ground officers in the combatarms, combat support, and combat service supportfields were tearing down the barriers to commandinfantry, supply, and combat service support units.Among them were Lieutenant Colonels John W.Moffett aM Henry L. Reed, who were given com-mand of infantry units, while Lieutenant ColonelGeorge H. Walls, Jii, commanded Wing EngineerSupport Squadron 17. In the combat service sup-port arena, Lieutenant ColonelAnthony E. Manningand Colonel Fred L. Jones commanded the 3dSupply Battalion and the 1st Marine Aircraft WingSupport Group, respectively. In addition to theseofficers commanding at the battalion, squadron,and group level, the 1985 Marine Corps Equal

25

Opportunity Assessment indicated that black offi-cers represented five percent (62) of all com-manding officers in the Marine Corps and nearlyfour percent (32) of executive officers. In 1985,black officers represented 4.4 percent (816) of theMarine Corps' officer force.16 Absent from amongthe number of company and battalion comman-ders, however, were aviation unit commanders.This was a clear indication that there was work yetto be done.

In the supporting establishments and posts andstations of the Corps, change was also evident asgroundbreaking assignments were made at the his-toric Marine Barracks at 8th and I, Washington,D.C., and at Headquarters, Marine Corps. In thesummer of 1980, history was made when MajorClifford L. Stanley was assigned as Parade Adjutantof the ceremonial unit that performs in front ofthousands of Americans at the weekly eveningparades held on the grounds of the barracks.Stanley was assigned to that coveted position as aresult of his professionalism, performance, andknowledge of the intricacies of ceremonial drill.

In the officer recruiting area at the headquarters

N

Marine Corps Historical Collection

Above, leadership opportunities presented leadership risks associated With the Marine Corps' combatrole in the world since the end of the Cold War Capt Gerald Gaskins receives reports froni subordinateswhile commanding Company D, 2d Light Armored Infantry Battalion, Panama, in 1989 duringOperation Just Cause. Below, increased focus on acquiring the right candidates coincided with the pro-motion of Jerome G Cooper to general officer rank, a breakthrough that made the prospects ofincreased service more apparent. A reserve officer Cooper later commanded the 4th Marine Divisionas a major general.

level, a black officer was assigned to head theMarine Corps national officer recruiting and pro-curement efforts in July 1989. Lieutenant ColonelAlphonse G. Davis, a former officer selection offi-cer and assistant for officer procurement at the 8thMarine Corps District, achieved that distinction.Davis also became the first officer in the history ofthe Marine Corps to serve in an officer recruitingbillet at every level (i.e., Station, district, and nation-al) with this assignment. Davis served in thatassignment untilJuly 1992. In the command arenaof recruiting, Major Willie J. Oler, an infantry officerand former sergeant, became the first black officerto command a Marine Corps Recruiting Stationwhen he assumed command of Recruiting StationLong Island, New York, in June 1981.

While progress was being made in the activeduty component, the Marine Corps Reserve alsoshowed signs of change with the advancement ofJerome G. Cooper to the rank of brigadier general.Cooper, an infantry officer and Vietnam veteran,was also the first black officer to lead an infantryunit in combat (1967) and the first to command a

26

I

Marine Reserve unit. He was advanced to the rankof major general in June 1988. Cooper also servedas the Director of the Marine Corps PersonnelProcurement Division while on active duty frommid-June 1988 until October 1988. During thisperiod he was responsible for the Marine Corps'enlisted and officer recruiting operations.

27

Collectively, these "firsts" in assignments, pro-motions, and personal achievements were certainsigns that the Marine Corps was indeed beginningto level the playing field for all. Further, these offi-cers were only a few of the many who possessedthe professionalism, motivation, and desire toexcel, if given the opportunity

CHAPTER 4

The Efforts of the 1990s

The first half of the 1990s was a period of sig-nificant accomplishments for the Marine Corpsand African-American Marine officers. However, itwas also a time that generated issues that resem-bled the ongoing debates in the civilian sectorregarding equal opportunity, affirmative action, andracial diversity. Despite this, several catalysts pro-duced a number of significant achievements thatcumulatively render the decade as one of the mostmemorable since the enlistment of the MontfortPoint Marines. Those catalysts represented theinterests of individual Marines, the civilian leader-ship of the Department of Defense, and the gener-al officer leadership of the Marine Corps.

The focus on racial issues generated during thedecade was the result of a combination of issues,initiatives, and events. Among them were:

• The Commandant's Task Force on EqualOpportunity

• Officer Candidates School attrition andthe fIling of a class action suit by a formerAsian-American officer candidate alleging dis-crimination.

• The inclusion of an Ethnic DiversitySeminar in the 1993 General Officers'Symposium.

• A segment on African-American officerdiscrimination within the Marine Corps fea-tured on the CBS television show 60Minutes.

• The publishing of numerous articles inprofessional journals and Service newssources regarding the recruiting, assignment,and discrimination against "minority" Marineofficers.

• The convening of Quality ManagementBoards on OCS attrition and the career devel-opment of Marine officers.

• The implementation of racial and ethniccategory recruiting goals established by the

28

Center for Naval Analyses study of 1989.• The implementation of racial and ethnic

category accession goals.

The progress attained during the 1990s was pre-ceded by costly lessons learned in several areas,effective communications and the impact of mediaamong them. Also, the Marine Corps addressed theexistence of bias and institutional discrimination,two issues previously categorized as perceptionsand misconceptions instead of stark realities. Theleadership of the Marine Corps at various levels,comprised of officers of all races banded togetherto confront a problem that had the potential ofdividing the Marine Corps along racial lines.

A Microcosm of Society

An expression often used by sociologists andmilitary historians when referring to the militarydepicts it as "a microcosm of society." When exam-ining the various issues confronted by the MarineCorps during the 1990s that characterization isquite appropriate. While federal, state, and localgovernments addressed the rationale for racial andgender diversity and the relevance of affirmativeaction, the Marine Corps' efforts to remedy theinequity among its officer ranks began to be pub-licly and privately debated and questioned bysome active duty and retired Marines. A commontheme, reminiscent of unsubstantiated commentsduring earlier attempts at integration, linked effortsaimed at leveling the playing Reid with the lower-ing of mental aptitude entrance standards and theerosion of quality in the officer corps.

The Marine Corps' first attempt at addressingthe race and equal opportunity issues of thedecade came in the form of a Commandant's EqualOpportunity Task Force convened in May 1990 bythe Commandant of the Marine Corps, GeneralAlfred M. Gray. Among Gray's reasons for conven-

S.

sentation On promotion boards and promotionboard precepts addressing the effects of. bias andthe disparate assignment of "minorities" outside oftheir occupational fields; the support of organiza-tions such as the NAACP, NNOA, and MontfortPoint Marines Association, to include general offi-cer attendance at annual conferences and conven-tions; and the implementation of progressive spe-cific racial and ethnic category recruiting andaccession goals.2

Further examples of the discord on race andequal opportunity that existed can be found in sev-eral articles that appeared in publications primari-ly catering to Marines. One of those publicationswas the Marine Corps Gazette, a popular, private-ly funded magazine with extensive Marine officerreadership and institutional backing. The publicdebate on the Corps' efforts ensued with the pub-lication of an article in the April 1993 issue enti-tled, "An Equal Opportunity Misconception andthe Accession/Selection Paradox." The author, awhite captain assigned to Headquarters, MarineCorps as a manpower analyst, asserted that theMarine Corps' policy of recruiting "minorities"who scored between 115 and 119 on the ArmedServices Aptitude Battery (ASYAB) destined themfor failure. In the article the author stated:

Marine Corps Historical collection

The last decade of the century continued to makedemands on the Corps, including the largestcombat deployment since the Vietnam War In the1990-1991 Gulf War; officer and enlisted Marinesserved once more in the forefront of Americanconflicts.

ing the task force was "the pervasive perceptionamong minority officers that they are not beingafforded an equal opportunity to compete for pro-motion."1 This perception was not limited toGeneral Gray, but was prevalent among the gener-al officer leadership of the Marine Corps. Amongthe areas Gray wanted the task force to examinewere recruiting and accessions, promotions, pro-fessional military education, occupational fieldimbalances, and assignments. Gray, a former enlist-ed Marine, provided a summary of the task force'sresults and his intent in a "White Letter" to all gen-eral officers, commanding officers, and officers-in-charge. The areas targeted for improvement relat-ed to increasing the presence of African-Americanofficers were: assignments, to include recruiting,schools, and staffs; promotions, to include repre-

29

There exists a paradox in the MarineCorps' equal opportunity philosophy with re-spect to officer accessions and selections(promotions).The paradox is simply that theCorps accesses the "best" qualified withinrace/ethnic/gender group guidelines; howev-er, it selects only the "best" qualified for ad-vancement to the next highest grade, irre-spective of race/ethnic/gender group. Theconsequence of these two policies, what Ilike to call the accession/selection paradox,is the crux of an equal opportunity miscon-ception. 3

Regardless of the validity of its thesis, the articleignited a firestorm of debate that ultimately wouldbe underscored in the national media.

A companion article, written by a former whiteofficer selection officer and published in the sameissue, addressed the issue of "minority" recruitingfrom an organizational development and humanresources perspective. lii "Minority Officer Pro-curement and the OSO," the author asserted that"the Corps' minority officer recruiting process isseriously flawed, and if the Corps is to get the best,some changes are needed."4 In December 1993,

F 0 C U S 0 N

'pill dP1

Targeted advertising was used to raise the image of the Marine Corps in college communities. in thisexample, BGen Clifford L. Stanley Is featured on the front of The Black Collegian. The issue went on toexplore career options available in the Marine Corps.

30

-.:- t-. zz—.- s 'sz

II4

/

the Gazette published a response to both articles,written by the Head of the Officer ProcurementBranch, Lieutenant Colonel Reynolds B. Peele, aninfantry officer, former enlisted Marine, and thesecond black to head the Corps' officer recruitingoperations. In "Quality Minority Officer Recruit-ment: An Issue?" Peele addressed the history andrelevance of the ASVAB test, the issue of quality ascompared to test scores, and the concerns of thosetasked with the job of recruiting officer candi-dates. Peele maintained that:

There is not a quality problem in officerrecruiting. The officers that are recruitedpossess the requisite skills to be competitive,beginning with their experience at The BasicSchool. It is essential that this "quality" issuebe critically evaluated in light of the danger-ous misconceptions and stigmas that maydevelop when reading the two articles pub-lished in April, especially as they relate to theEL [electronic score] Composite and theScholastic Aptitude Test scores.5

The final salvos on the subject were fired fromthe Gazette in March 1994, where another articleand a host of letters to the editor appeared. The

letters were written by a racially diverse group ofactive duty and retired Marines, supporting bothsides of the issue. The article,written by a Hispanicofficer and entitled, "The Minority Controversy:Enough is Enough," conceded that racism did existin the Marine Corps. However, the author conclud-ed that: "The Marine Corps is a fighting machine,not a social experiment in political correctness. Ireally doubt the majority of Americans want thisfine organization to mirror society."6

In addition to the articles featured in the Ga-zette, the Navy Times, another popular, privatelyfunded, and widely read military-oriented publica-tion featured two pieces that addressed the exis-tence of institutional bias within the Marine Corps.In June 1992, the Navy Times featured a commen-tary and an article, each written by black captainsquestioning the sincerity of the Marine Corps'efforts to eliminate bias and to create an organiza-tional climate of equal opportunity for all Marines.In "Is the Corps Keeping Blacks from Jts SeniorOfficer Ranks?" the author questioned what hedescribed as the Marine Corps' historical lack ofleadership in dealing with racial matters. He asses-sed the impact on the recruiting effort as follows:

When a young black college graduate

MajGen Leslie M. Palm headed several boards which addressed the issue of officer accessions, and thateventually caused ma/or changes to the way business was done.

31

looks for examples of blacks who have hadsuccessful careers as officers in the military;Army General Cohn Powell, Chairman of theJoint Chiefs of Staff, represents a service thatconcerns itself with racial matters withoutsacrificing quality. As that same individuallooks to the Marines, the service is lacking Inrepresentation and willingly sacrifices qualityblack officers.7

One week later, another article appeared in theNavy Times and addressed the issue of institution-al bias. En "Bias and the Corps: Looking forLeadership," the author asserted that: "The MarineCorps is laden with institutional racism, intention-al or unintentional, that is slowly and systematical-ly destroying the morale of every commonMarine."8

In response to the latter piece published in theNaty Times, Brigadier General Leslie M. Palm, theMarine Corps' Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff forManpower and Reserve Affairs, wrote a commen-tary that appeared in the publication. 1n "Corps isWorking Hard to Eliminate Racism," Palm agreedwith the writer's premise that the Marine Corpswas not a perfect institution, but strongly disagreedthat it was laden with "institutional racism." Palmalso provided a synopsis of recent and future ini-tiatives that had been and were to be implementedto ensure equality of opportunity for all Marines.In closing, Palm pledged:

Our ultimate objective is to be a leader in"minority" representation at every level, notonly among the services, but also as an insti-tution in American society I assure [the cap-tainl, Marines everywhere and your readersthat the Marine Corps' leadership is commit-ted to ensuring every Marine is given anequal opportunity to achieve goals and to berecognized both by assignment to positionsof increasing responsibility and by selectionfor promotion.9

The articles and commentaries added anotherperspective to the ongoing debate. The foregoingsampling of opinions provide not only a glimpse ofthe divergent views, but also perhaps a basis toequate the Marine Corps, and the other ArmedServices, to the larger society when such volatileand misunderstood issues as race, gender, andequality of opportunity are addressed.

Well aware of the potentially negative impact ofthe race issue, lieutenant General Charles C.

32

Krulak confronted the problem. In May 1993,while assigned as the commanding general of theMarine Corps Combat Development Command,Quantico, Virginia, the cradle of Marine officertraining and education, he hosted a two-day forumon "minority" and racial issues. Officers perma-nently assigned to the area and those attending thevarious schools at Quantico—The Basic School,Amphibious Warfare School, and the Commandand Staff College—attended the session. Partici-pants spanned the rank and racial and ethnic spec-trums. Among the recurring issues discussed were:promotions and the promotion process; schoolselection; command selection; affirmative actionand equal opportunity efforts; and long-range plansto increase minority officer representation.

The results of the forum revealed that the lackof cultural diversity arid racial understanding werethe root causes of a number of the issues con-fronting the officer corps. There was a consensusthat the Marine Corps needed to increase the num-ber of "minority" officers. There also was unani-mous agreement among all in attendance that low-ering standards or "special" treatment for minorityofficers, real or perceived, were not in the bestinterests of either the Marine Corns or the individ-ual officer. Among the follow-on actions recom-mended was to be the chartering of a QualityManagement Board tasked with reviewing theprocesses pertaining to the professional develop-ment of Marine officers.

The Total Quality Approach

In March 1992, prior to the Quantico forum, theMarine Corps launched a review of its OfficerCandidates School (OCS) and officer recruitingoperations as a result of "minority" attrition ratesand an allegation of racial and ethnic discrimina-tion made by an Asian-American officer candidate.The charter of the OCS Quality Management Boardtasked its members with studying the process ofaccessing and screening officer candidates in theMarine Corps to determine "why with an apparentincrease in the quality of officer candidates, (a)OCS attrition has increased and (b) in particular,among 'minority' and women candidates, whereattrition exceeds the OCS average, what factorsinfluence this variation."1 The composition of theboard, chaired by Colonel David A.Vetter, consistedof colonels who held assignments in the variousareas being examined. Initially, the board was com-prised of only white males. Some months later, a

black officer, Colonel James Booker, an artillerymanand former battalion commander, was appointedto the board upon being assigned to HeadquartersMarine Corps.

Historically, the Marine Corps was accustomedto high OCS attrition rates. An entry-level trainingprogram, known for its tough screening anddemanding physical regimen coupled with mentalchallenges, OCS had a long-standing reputation for"weeding out" the faint of heart. Race was not afactor, or was it? Attrition data for the five-yearperiod, 1989 to 1993, revealed that hlack officercandithte attrition ranged from one percent to 12percent higher than the attrition rates for whiteofficer candidates.11

The information included in Table 4.1 is notintended to be a complete or conclusive represen-tation of minority attrition rates; there have beeninstances where black officer candithte attritionwas lower than the overall attrition rate. Exit sur-veys conducted at OCS revealed that candidatesattributed their failure to either inadequate physi-cal preparation or a lack of focus. Further, a varietyof physical injuries were contributing factors.

Among the many issues examined by the OCSQuality Management Board was the relevance orstatistical correlation of standardized test scores onsuccess or failure at OCS. In this area the board dis-covered there was no correlation. It concludedthat "in several years, the avenge ScholasticAptitude Test (SAT) score and/or Grade PointAvenge (GPA) for OCS failures were actually high-er than for successful candidates."12

The Vetter Board completed its deliberations inMay 1993. Among the recommendations the boardmade to the Commandant were:

• That more highly qualified "minority"and female officers be assigned to the OCSpermanent staff.

• That the Marine Corps AffirmativeAction Plan be reviewed and updated with

consideration given to developing a morecomprehensive and aggressive plan.

• That the mentoring concept, under thebroader dimensions of a leader's basicresponsibilities, be further developed andimplemented; [however,] these programsshould not be designed exclusively for"minorities."

• That the Marine Corps raise the mini-mum officer EL score requirement to 120,but only after an expanded enlisted commis-sioning program with a special emphasis on"minorities" is in place.

• That the Marine Corps demonstrateinstitutional awareness, recognition, and sen-sitivity to the fact that minorities face certain"special challenges" that need to beaddressed.

• That the Marine Corps undertake a highpriority coordinated effort with the overar-ching goal of improving the opportunities of"minorities" and women for success .

Process Action Teams to develop specificplans of action in the following areas: perfor-mance evaluation system; officer assign-ment/MOS patterns; commissioning pro-grams (civilian and enlisted); education andawareness programs relating to culturaldiversity/"special challenges"; and the MarineCorps Affirmative Action Plan. 13

While the positive intent of the QualityManagement Board was widely recognized, therewere some questions and concerns regarding anumber of the conclusions which generated therecommendations, for example, the implication ormeaning of "minorities face special challenges."Second, did the recommendation to expand com-missioning opportunities for "minority" enlistedMarines imply that the traditional sources for civil-ian officer candidates were no longer viable?Lastly, does the expansion of opportunities for

Table 4.1 Selected OCS Race/Ethnic Attrition Rates

Black 20 30Hispanic 40 43White 21

25 5021 24

19OtherTotal

Fall (FY93) Winter (FY93) Fall/Winter Average (FY89-92)4440324734

33

'minority" enlisted Marines restrict opportunitiesfor whites? These are but a few examples of thequestions and concerns generated by the hoard'srecommendations. However, there were somevaluable opportunities for improvement uncov-ered that had the potential of bettering the organi-zational climate for equal opportunity.

Brigadier General Leslie M. Palm chaired the fol-low-on Quality Management Board. Palm was arecognized leader on issues of equal opportunityand mentor of a number of African-American offi-cers. This board learned a valuable lesson from itspredecessor; racial and gender diversity among itsmembership was to be achieved at the outset.Chartered on 2 July 1993, the Palm Board wastasked with "analyzing the processes by which we[the Marine Corps] access, train, educate, assign,augment, promote, and professionally develop ourofficers with the overarching goal of improving theopportunities of minorities and women for suc-cess."14 Among the criteria for a successful careerincluded attaining the rank of colonel.

The Palm Board's six areas of emphasis reflect-ed those that were recommended by the VetterBoard and comprised the core of the processaction teams. Later in its deliberations, the boardcombined the efforts of the commissioning pro-gram teams and added two areas of emphasis, theswimming requirements at The Basic School andmentoring. The ultimate objective of the boardwas to produce a campaign plan on minorityissues by 1 October 1994.'

The plan, labeled Operation Order 1-95(Campaign Plan to Increase Diversity Within theOfficer Corps of the Marine Corps), was publishedon 17 March 1995. It represented the work of thevarious process action teams, Headquarters MarineCorps staff agencies, Marine Corps RecruitingCommand, and Marine Corps CombatDevelopment Command. The initial conclusionsand recommendations of the Palm Board were"war-gamed" using active duty officers and collegestudents who included current officer candidatesand potential applicants. The active duty officersincluded lieutenants and captains assigned to theoperational forces at nearby Camp Lejeune, NorthCarolina. This racially diverse group providedcomments and data that would prove useful in

The QMB chairman's interpretation of the specific taskingrelating to the Affirmative Action Plan generated the idea todevelop Operation Order 1-95 (campaign Plan to IncreaseOfficer Diversity).

34

determining the strengths and weaknesses of thecampaign plan. The final plan presented to theCommandant, General Carl E. Mundy,Jr., was craft-ed to accomplish his vision and intent:

A Marine Corps that will access qualityofficers from different ethnic and racialgroups who will be motivated to remainbecause they are proud to be Marines, andbecause they have the opportunity to estab-lish a viable careei commensurate with theirpotential.

We must attack this challenge. [The goalisi a Marine Corps which reflects the racialcomposition of America and that continuesto treat all Marines fairly and affords them anequal opportunity for success. 16

The campaign plan reflected a three-phasedapproach: Phase I (Accessions); Phase II (Commis-sioning and MOS selection); and Phase III(Retention and Career Development). Among thetasks assigned to the supporting staff agencies andthe Recruiting Command were: 17

• The implementation of an officer acces-sion plan (exclusive of warrant officers) thatyielded accessions totaling 12 percent black,12 percent Hispanic, and 5 percent otherracial or ethnic categories by Fiscal Year2000.

• A training and education pLan to supportthe Commandant's vision.

• An analysis of the fitness report (perfor-mance evaluation system) to ensure it sup-ported the Commandant's intent.

Although the plan represented nearly three yearsof concentrated effort, the real tasks were ahead: acommitted, well coordinated, focused attack onthe impediments to achieving an officer corpsnumerically representative of the nation and freeof racial bias and "glass ceilings"

Enlightening the Leadershz

In August 1993, the yearly General Officers'Symposium included a day-long seminar on thevarious racial issues that were being discussedMarine Corps-wide. Major General Jerome Ci.Cooper, at the request of the Commandant, intro-duced and moderated the discussion on a numberof issues that were overdue for "some frank dis-

PtI

I'4

'1a

cussion." Included among the issues were: racialrepresentation in the rank structure; the findingsand recommendations of the Quality ManagementBoards; the Krulak 'Minority' Officer Symposium;the articles appearing in the Marine Corps Gazetteand Navy Times; and racial diversity18 In additionto the seminar, the Commandant provided the gen-era! officers with a book each quarter on a subjectrelating to race in America. Included were booksby widely read authors such as Roosevelt Thomas,Cornell West, and Benjamin Hacker. The seminarand readings prepared the general officer leader-ship of the Marine Corps for their roles in imple-menting the numerous initiatives that were devel-oped, informing their subordinate commanders,and facilitating discussions within their com-mands.

Confronting a Crisis

Amid the efforts begun in the early 1990sintended to energize the black officer recruiting

Commanding Officer Col Alphonse G. Davisinspects candidates at the Officer CandidatesSchool at Quantico, Virginia. This was a criticalleadership post at what is known as the"Crossroads of the Corps" and provided tangible

proof of challenges met

35

effort, a crisis ensued that not only had the poten-tial of derailing the efforts to attract new officers,but also the efforts to inculcate the organizationalethos of teamwork, acceptance, and mutualrespect. On the heels of a series of events that re-opened the healing wounds of race and equalopportunity (i.e., the series of Marine CorpsGazette and Navy Times articles, the QuanticoForum, and the Yamashita Class Action Suit), nownational television was the medium for surfacingthe race and equal opportunity issue. This time,however, the stakes were higher. Individual names,faces, andreputations became part of the equation.

In late October 1993, the CBS television maga-zine show 60 Minutes featured a segment on biasand discrinilnation against black officers withinthe Marine Corps. The pre-recorded segment fea-tured a number of black company-grade officers, aformer black Marine officer turned Navy pilot, andone Hispanic female officer, all alleging that insti-tutional bias and discrimination against black offi-cers existed within the Marine Corps. The officialresponse featured the Commandant, GeneralMundy, defending the allegations and respondingto a series of frank, probing questions from thehost of the segment. During the exchange, thetelevised portion of General Mundy's response to aquestion regarding the performance of black lieu-tenants at The Basic School, portrayed him general-izing about the blacks' lack of ability in the areas ofswimming, marksmanship, and land navigation.Mundy refuted the allegation and attributed theunfavorable characterization to comments takenOut of context. The network stood by its asser-tions. The airing of the segment reverberatedthroughout the active duty, Reserve, and retiredcommunities, and rekindled the firestorm on raceand the lack of equal opportunity for black officerswithin the Marine Corps.

The comments attributed to General Mundywere not consistent with the popularity andrespect he enjoyed among black officers (andenlisted Marines) and not characteristic of his posi-tions on equal opportunity and increasing thenumber of black officers in the Marine Corps.Indicative of his support for the latter issue was hisadvocacy of the Assistant for Minority OfficerProcurement initiative during the 1980s. Despitethe temporary setback caused by the 60 Minutesepisode, Mundy continued pursuing the initiativesthat would improve the racial climate within theCorps and increase the racial diversity within theofficer ranks. In response to the comments airedin the segment,he immediately issued a message to

all Marines reaffirming his position on equalopportunity and laid out his plan for improvingdiversity and opportunities in the officer corps.

Among the follow-on actions implemented byMundy was the reestablishment of theCommandant's Special Advisor on EqualOpportunity Matters billet instituted in late 1960.The officer selected to fill the position wasLieutenant Colonel Alphonse G. Davis,a battalioncommander with the 2d Force Service SupportGroup and a former infantry officer turned logisti-cian and head of the Marine Corps officer recruit-ing operations. Davis served in the billet fromSeptember 1993 to May 1995. In addition to thespecial advisor billet, Mundy also established agroup composed of individuals from the civilianconiniunity to act as an advisory and feedbackmechanism for policies and initiatives pertainingto increasing racial diversity in the officer ranks.Referred to as the Diversity Interest Group, it con-tained a mix of retirees, reservists, and civilianswith backgrounds in academic, corporate, and gov-ernment personnel and leadership matters.Among the group's membership were several pio-neers in the efforts of the 1970s, such as retiredBrigadier General George H. Walls, Jr., and retiredLieutenant Colonel Edward L.Green.

Another area of interest for Mundy was the or-ganizational location and effectiveness of the EqualOpportunity Branch. In addition to his specialadvisory duties, Davis was tasked with heading anorganizational development focused structurestudy, assisted by Mrs. DeAnna Sosnowski, a civilservant with extensive background in officerrecruiting and a Women's Executive LeadershipProgram graduate. The results of the structurestudy contained a number of recommendationsthat increased the relevance of the EqualOpportunity Branch. Included among the recom-mendations were:

• Changing the organizational location ofthe branch from the Human Affairs Divisionto the Manpower Policy Department.

• Increasing the rank of the branch headto that of colonel, instead of lieutenantcolonel.

• Increasing the size of the staff.• Mandating a racially diverse staff with

proven records of performance and compet-itiveness for future promotion.

• Establishing and expanding the respon-sibilities of the branch relative to the coordi-nation and communication with other

36

Headquarters staff agencies (to includeRecruiting, Advertising, and Public Affairs).

The recommendations not only served toincrease the branch's input on manpower policyand recruiting matters, but also were particularlyimportant in the efforts to increase the racial andgender mix within the officer corps. En addition,they enhanced the quality of the Marine Corps'participation in conferences and conventions iden-tified as potential sources for black applicantswhile also establishing the presence of the MarineCorps in the various communities. lastly, the rec-ommendations presented an opportunity to inte-grate the specific goals and objectives of the EqualOpportunity Branch, the Public Affairs Branch, andthe Officer Recruiting Branch. The result was asynergistic, comprehensive organizational strategyfor conference and convention participation. Withthe approval of the Commandant, the recommen-dations were implemented and Davis was tabbedto assume the position of branch head in additionto his special advisory duties.

Secretary of the Navy Interest

Shortly after the 60 Minutes flap, Secretary ofthe Navy John H. Dalton communicated his inter-est in improving opportunities for "minorities"within the Department of the Navy. In a 12November 1993 memorandum to the Comnian-dant of the Marine Corps and the Chief of NavalOperations, Dalton stated that he wanted to "real-ize the Department's goal of equal and maximumparticipation of minorities."19 Secretary Daltontasked the Assistant Secretary of the Navy forManpower and Reserve Affairs with heading the ef-fort. In a foliow-on letter to the Assistant Comman-dant and the Vice Chief of Naval Operations,Assistant Secretary of the Navy Frederick Y. Pangestablished an Executive Policy Group to assessminority career progression and representationwithin the rank structure and all career fields.

The Assistant Secretary's focus included sixfamiliar areas: accessions; officer commissioningprograms; assignments and promotions; the perfor-

The sub ject of the memorandum was enhancement oppor-tunity for minorities.The secretary cites the significant progrcssmade and the need to accomplish more. He also tasks theAssistant Secretary for Manpower and Reserve Affairs, FrederickY. Pang, to review the Marine corps and Navy programs toensure maximum contribution of all.

mance evaluation system; retention; and affirma-tive action plans.20* These six areas of emphasiswere similar to those of the Palm QualityManagement Board. Despite this, the Marine Corpswas a major participant in the Department of theNavy's review that began in January 1994.Amongthe major directives issued as a result of theExecutive Planning Group's findings were theneed for a format mentoring program and recrt.1t-ing and accession goals that would produce an offi-cer force that was racially reflective of the nationin the year 2000. The directives required theMarine Corps and the Navy to implement officerrecruiting and accession plans that would yield 10to 12 percent black, 10 to 12 percent Hispanic, and3 to 5 percent other racial and ethnic categories bythe beginning of the millennium. This requirementbecame known as the "12/12/5 Plan." The plan didnot include warrant officer accessions.

Employing New Approaches

The decision to improve racial diversity in theofficer corps by implementing several specificracial and ethnic category recruiting and accessiongoals instead of a single collective "minority" cate-gory, mandated the requirement for an innovativesupporting strategy. The staff agency responsiblefor officer recruiting and accessions (MRO) wasexpanded to include a section whose primary afeaof focus was "minority" officer recruiting. Thenewly added section (MROM) developed strate-gies, tracked and analyzed "minority" applicationtrends, and provided advice and support to theRecruiting Districts and officer selection officerteams. In addition, a training module was devel-oped to provide market and prospecting expertise.The first officer to head the section was MajorKeith Sewell, a former officer selection officer.SeweD, a white officer, was setected for the jobbecause of his previous success in this area. Hisselection also proved to be of value in convincinga group comprised mostly of white mates that race

'The letter to Lieutenant General Walter E.Boomer,AssistatstCommandant, was a follow-up to Secretary Dalton's memorarl-dum to the commandant and Chief or Naval Operations. Itincluded a timeline projecting the review to last for fourmonths, beginning the week of 3 January- t994 and cndisig theweek of 2 May 1994. Assistant Secretary Pang headed thereview until his appointment to another position within theDepartment of Defense. His replacement, Richard Danzig. tooka personal interest in the outcome of the review and had a par-ticular interest in the mentoring aspect.

37

was not a limiting factor in the recruiting ofMrican.-American officer candidates. In short, itwas the ageold "I did it and so can you" theory atwork.

Efforts in advertising and marketing wouldrequire laioring to locate and appeal to the targetmarket. This requirement was achieved by devel-oping productive relationships with organizationsand publications targeted towards the African-American college undergraduate and graduate mar-kets. Headquarters staff agency coordinationbetween Officer Recruiting, Recruit Marketing,Public Mfairs, and Equal Opportunity was the keyto maximizing effectiveness.

Publications such as Ebony, Black Enterprise,and The Black collegian proved to be effectiveprint mediums for advertisements featuringAfrican-American officers while extolling the ben-eflt of becoming a Marine officer. The BlackCollegian relationship was especially effective indistinguishing the difference between service asan officer and that of an enlisted Marine.This pointwas of particular importance in the African-American community because of the low percent-age (in comparison to whites) of parents and otherrelatives who may have served as officers in theMarine Corps or the other Services. The Collegianregularly featured articles about African-Americanofficers, many of whom were graduates of histori-cally black colleges and universities. Also, the pub-lication developed special edition calendars andbrochures to assist officer selection officers intheir recruiting efforts.

Another opportunity, which extended theappeal of the Marine Corps, was developedthrough its advertising agency,J.WalterThompson,with a well-known broadcasting conglomeratehaving nationwide Affican-American appeal. In1.991, the Marine Corps teamed with several wellknown companies to co-sponsor the AmericanUrban Radio Networks' Black College FootballAll-American Weekend. This yearly activity linked theMarine Corps with excellence in sports and citi-zenship. Thc Corps' participation was expanded toa "Leaders to Leaders" radio spot, featuring African-American officers and the awarding of an annualMarine Corps leadership prize to an athlete whobest exemplified leadership in the classroom, oncampus, and in the community This relationshipprovided an opportunity to impact black collegesand universities and black college football nation-wide.

In addition to the contacts developed with theprint and broadcast media, relationships were also

appeal, to publicize its needs for African-Americanofficers, and to develop sources for prospectivecandidates.

Assessing the Results

LtCol Henry T Go bar receives command supervi-sion from Gen Robert H Barrow during a com-mand visit, increased viibilitv in commandpositions was an essential draw to attractingprospective officers for inpiring juniors.

developed and/or expanded with military and pro-fessional organizations such as the National Societyof Black Engineers (NSBE), the National NavalOfficers Association (NNOA), and the NationalAssociation for the Advancement of ColoredPeople (NAACP). These mutually beneficial rela-tionships which culminated in annual nationalconference and convention participation, providedthe Marine Corps an opportunity to expand its

The revamped recruiting strategy implementedby the Marine Corps was a move in the right direc-tion; however, the success of any good plan isalways dependent upon its execution. A look atthe results in four essential areas provides the basisfor an analysis of the plan coupled with its imple-mentation. Those important areas are accessions,composition, retention, occupational field distribu-tion, and command assignments.

The Marine Corps Affirmative Action Plan. for1988 and 1989, published 17 November 1988,established racial and ethnic accession goals thatplaced black officer accessions at six percent peryear from 1990 through 1992. Hispanic officeraccessions were Set at three percent while totalaccessions for all other racial and ethnic categoriesranged from 3.2 to 3.4 percent for the same three-year period. As noted earlier, the CommandantsEqual Opportunity Task Force, established byGeneral Alfred Gray, increased black accessiongoals to seven percent in 1991 and then, increasingby two-tenths of a percent a year, reaching a goal of7.8 percent in 1995. This requirement was pub-lished on 6 September 1990 in the Marine Corps'Affirmative Action Plan (FY 9 1-95). Accession goalswere also increased for all other racial and ethniccategories. The long-term implication of this moverequired that the recruiting service place more

Percent of Total Accessions 4.7 4.6 5.7 7.1 7.8 7.4

Table 4.2 Black OfficerAccessions (1990-1995)

Fiscal Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Total Accession Goal 1,404 1,305 1,350 1,026 1,204 1,479

Black Goal 84 91 97 76 92 115

Percent of Accession Goal 6.0 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8

TotalAccessions 1,404 1,305 1,350 1,026 1,204 1,479

Total Black Accessions 66 60 77 73 95 110

Table 4.3 Black Officer Accession Sources (1991- 1995)*

emphasis on accessions from its undergraduateprograms. In the short term however, more acces-sions would be required from enlisted ranks andcivilian source graduate programs (the OfficerCandidates Course and the Enlisted Commission-ing Program).

The first five years of the 1990s brought about adecrease in the Marine Corps' requirement for newlieutenants .Yearly requirements from 1990 to 1994decreased by approximately 8.5 percent, from1,404 to 1,204.The impact on the accessioning ofAfrican-American lieutenants was revealed in year-ly total accessions that never exceeded 100. Blackofficer accessions ranged from a low of 60 in fiscalyear 1991 to a high of 94 in fiscal year 1994. In1995, however, new lieutenant requirements near-ly reached a level of 1,500 officers. The result ofthis increase yielded 110 African-American lieu-tenants.21

39

In four of the six years from 1990 to 1995, themajority of black officer accessions were from theOfficer Candidates Course (0CC), the conmüs-sioning program available to enlisted Marines withcollege degrees and civilian college graduates whowere not enrolled in the various undergraduatecommissioning programs. This was an indicationthat the Marine Corps was not tapping the fullpotential of its undergraduate Platoon LeadersClass (PLC) program, the Naval Academy (USNA),or the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps(NROTC).22

Historically, of all the commissioning programsrequiring attendance at OCS (0CC, PLC, andNROTC), the 0CC program presented the lowestprobability for successful completion (i.e., higherattrition rates). The various factors that con-tributed to that probability were age, motivationfor joining, and a lack of opportunity for the stoic-

Fiscal Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Programs

0CC 35 42 23 13 42

PLC 30 21 38 48 25

NROTC 22 10 16 12 10

USNA 03 14 14 17 09

ENL 10 13 09 10 14

The figures reflect percentages, are rounded to the next whole number, and include women.OENI] denotes thc enlisted commissioning programs.

Table 4.4 African-American Officer Population (As of 30 September 1995) 23Rank Total African-American Percentage of Total Black Females

0-10 3 0 0.0 -

0-9 9 0 0.0 -

0-8 22 0 0.0 -

0-7 34 2 5.9 0

0-6 626 18 2.9 0

0-5 1,637 73 4.5 5

0-4 3,161 112 3.5 6

0-3 5,457 249 4.6 11

0-2 2,859 182 6.4 08

0-1 2,044 165 8.1 13

Total 15,852 801 5.1 43

'C

I

tured mental and physical preparation regimencharacteristic of the undergraduate programs.

Between 1990 and 1995, the Marine Corpsexperienced a 12 percent reduction in its officerforce, from 18,105 to 15,852. During that sameperiod, the percentage of African-American officerrepresentation increased from 4.6 percent in 1990to 5.1 percent in 1995, despite a decline in thetotal number of African-American officers (834 to801). Although the representation of African-American officers did not reflect the percentagewithin the general population, there were someobvious signs of progress amid the statistics.

First, there were two general officers in theactive component; this was a significant "first" inthe history of the Corps. Second, from 1990 to1995, the number of colonels doubled to a total of18. And, five African-American women wereamong the lieutenant colonel population.Somewhat less encouraging was that the numberof African-American women officers remained rel-atively stable during this five-year period (46 in1990 to 43 in 1995).

A key component of the Marine Corps' effortsto racially diversify its officer force was in its reten-tion and augmentation efforts. The needs of theservice with regard to occupational specialtyrequirements, coupled with an officer's overalldocumented performance, are the primary deter-minants of who is selected for augmentation. Forexample, in several years, pilots and lawyers apply-

40

LtCol DebraA. Woodard, director of the FinancialManagement School, works with a staff memberShe was one of the first women Marines to com-mand a major activity.ing for augmentation and retention enjoyed aselection rate of nearly 100 percent. In the broad-er context, several of the initiatives explored by theCommandant's Equal Opportunity Task Force andthe Palm Board had a direct singular or combinedimpact on improving the augmentation and reten-tion of black officers. Items such as mentoring,

Table 4.5 Black Officer Augmentation Rates Versus Total Population Rate?

Applied Selected SelectionPercentage

1990 43/714 11/248 26/35

1991 43/635 25/352 58/55

1992 67/1066 13/307 19/29

1993 68/1151 22/349 32/30

1994 70/1268 45/648 67/51

1995 53/1114 34/736 63/65

'Total population includes officers of all nnks who applied for augmentation, including females.

occupational field selections, the performanceevaluation system, promotions, and professionalmilitary education were all relevant. During the1990-1995 period, augmentation rates for blackofficers exceeded those of the total populationconsidered dithng three of the six years.24

Racial diversity in military occupational fieldswas an organizational concern since the beginningof the Marine Corps efforts to attract more African-American officers. The need for role modelsthroughout the Corps coupled with increasedopportunity for command were the prime deter-minants. However, for various reasons, the vastmajority of African-American lieutenants did notconsider the various combat arms fields whenmaking their choices at The Basic School. The rea-sons were varied and understandable. Socially, theVietnam experience did little to convince theneighborhood "elders" or parents that the life of aninfantryman improved the social status and treat-

41

ment of black Vietnam veterans. Professionally,there was a general belief that the infantry andother combat arms fields offered no marketableskills. Culturally, many of the black officers recruit-ed in the early 1970s were first generation collegegraduates. Their parents and grandparents desireda better quality of life for their offspring, one thatwas better than their own. A college educationthat was later put to good use was considered theoptimum way of achieving that goal.

To a degree the Marine Corps bears some of theblame for the scarcity of African-Americans in thevarious combat arms fields. The pressures of find-ing and convincing the prospective young African-American officer that the Marine Corps is his call-ing is certainly increased when the recruiting pitchdwells on the virtues and adventures of life as aninfantry, artfflery or tank officer. Instead, the resid-ual benefit of "Marine officer" on a resume soundsmore impressive.

Table 4.6 Officer Combat Arms Representation25t

White/Percent Black/Percent

Total in OFTotal Officers

Hispanic/Percent

1992

Total Aviators

9,358/61.8415,1324,867

Other/Percent

291/38.65753

99

Total in OFTotal Officers

258/55.72463117

1993

Total Aviators

23 1/61.76374123

9,276/58.1015,9654,785

309/33.59920108

TotalTotalTotal

273/51.03535124

in OFOfficersAviators

1994

235/57.60408123

8,964/56.315,8714,700

332/33.57989120

285/48.22591137

Total in OFTotal OfficersTotal Aviators

1995

233/54.44428120

8,569/56.7515,0984,134

282/29.3968

77

247/40.65609

85

Total in occupational fields (OF) pertains to all combat arms specialties (i.e., infantry, artillery, armor, aviation, etc.).

194/46.52417

92

Col GildaA. Jackson's promotion marked a mile-stone for Marines and African-Americans. Shewas one of the pioneers to command Marineunits when restrictions involving women assign-ments were removed.

The Palm Board addressed the occupationalfield diversity dilemma from several directions.African-American officers with varied occupation-al specialties assisted officer selection officers asrole models and proof sources. The Basic Schoolstaff was targeted as a priority organization for theassignment of African-American officers. rn 1994,a mentoring program was established that focusedexclusively on African-American lieutenants. Staffofficers were paired with the lieutenants for thepurpose of informing them of the opportunitiesavailable in combat arms fields, to include aviation.These combined efforts effected the beginning ofa significant change in the racial make-up of thevarious occupational fields.

In addition to the increase of African-Americanofficers in the field grade and general officer ranks,command assignments loomed as one of the mostvisible signs of change. Unlike the 1970s and1980s, when African-American officers occupied alimited number of command assignments, the1990s witnessed an increase in the number ofcolonels and lieutenant colonels in command bil-lets in many areas and occupational fields.

In July 1992, the Marine Corps implemented a

42

system of selecting lieutenant colonels andcolonels by formal selection board. The commandselection and screening process incorporated twointerdependent activities, screening for probablecommand assignment based upon the needs of theMarine Corps and command slating. The slatingprocess involved the actual assignment to specificcommands. The major factor for consideration wasan officer's documented record of performance.Prior to then, commanders at the battalion orsquadron and regimental or group levels were nor-mally selected by the commanding general. Theresults of the command screening and slatingboards for the period July 1992 through September1995 reflected 25 African-American officers in theranks of colonel and lieutenant colonel slated forcommand.26 The commands included armor,artillery, aviation, combat support, combat servicesupport, enlisted and officer entry-level trainingand schooling, headquarters and service units,logistics and supply centers, and security forces.Included among those selected for command werethree African-American women, Lieutenant Col-onels Doris A. Daniels, Gilda A. Jackson, and DebraA.Woodard.

A number of other black lieutenant colonels andcolonels commanded units throughout the MarineCorps. In the infantry Lieutenant Colonels JohnT.Boggs,Jr., Ronald L. Bailey,Walter E. Gaskin, Sr., andReynolds B. Peele commanded battalions. Artifierybattalion commanders included LieutenantColonels Kenneth D. Dunn and Henry T. Gobar.Among the numerous combat service supportcommanders were Lieutenant Colonels Ronald S.Coleman, Alphonse G. Davis, Marshall Hampton,and Colonel James E. Smith. Support group andwing commanders included Lieutenant ColonelsErvin Rivers, Samuel E. Roberts, and Willie J.Williams. In the supporting establishment,lieutenant Colonel Anthony L. Jackson command-ed a security force, while lieutenant ColonelsThomas E. Minor and Ernest E. Hickson command-ed Inspector-Instructor units. The educationalbackgrounds of all these officers included theNaval Academy and a number of historically blackcolleges and universities.

Significant Accomplishments

The 1990s was a period of many notable firstsforAfrican-American Marines on the battlefield andin garrison. During Operation Desert Storm, ayoung captain received the Navy Cross for combat

¶1

Marine Corps Security Force King's Bay served as the site for an address by the Honorable John Dalton,Secretary of the Navy. Commanding Officer ItColAnthony Jackson stands to the right.

bravery. While serving as a company commanderin tile light armored infantry battalion on 25February 1991, Captain Eddie S. Ray used his lead-ership and knowledge of coordinating arms to leadhis unit in decisively defeating several Iraqi coun-terattacks. The heroics of Captain Ray and hisMarines led to the capture of more than 250 Iraqisoldiers during the 10-hour battle.27

In addition to Captain Ray and the other youngcompany grade officers answering the call of dutyduring Operation Desert Storm, LieutenantColonel Arnold Fields, an infantry officer and grad-uate of South Carolina State Universitç gainedprominence while commanding the 3d Battalion,6th Marines. In the 1st Tank Battalion, anotherblack officer made history on the smoke-filled bat-tlefields of the Persian Gulf. Lieutenant ColonelAlphonso B. Diggs,Jr., attained the dual distinctionof becoming the first black officer to command atank battalion while leading that unit in combat.Prior to these significant accomplishments duringthe Persian Gulf War, Colonel Clifford L. Stanley, aninfantryman and another South Carolina State grad-uate, became the first African-American to com-mand at the regimental level, assuming commandof the 1st Marine Regiment on 29 February 1992.

In June 1991, the Marine Corps advancedColonel George H.Walls,Jr.,to the rank of brigadier

43

general. With the promotion, Walls became thethird African-American to attain flag rank in the216-year history of the Corps. Prior to his volun-tary retirement to pursue his interest in the field ofeducation, Brigadier General Walls commanded the2d Force Service Support Group from July 1.991until his retirement in July 1993. During his tenureas commanding general of the group, he was ap-

BGen George H Walls, Jr., addresses personnel ofthe 2d Force Service Support Group at CampLejeune, North Carolina. Walls headed Joint TaskForce Operation Gitmo that supported Haitianrefugees.

4

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pointed Commanding General jointlask Force op-eration Gitmo, the humanitarian relief effort forHaitian migrants at Guantanamo Naval Base, Cuba.

In August of 1994, Colonel Clifford Stanleyadded to an illustrious career when he became thefourth African-American to don the stars of aMarine Corps general. During his years as abrigadier general, he served successively as theAssistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower andReserve Affairs (Manpower Plans & Policy) and asthe Director of Public Affairs, Headquarters MarineCorps. Both assignments added to the growing listof significant "firsts" achieved by Stanley.

In the aviation field, a Marine astronaut contin-ued to make history while assigned to the NationalAeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).Colonel Charles F. Bolden, a Naval Academy gradu-ate and native South Carolinian, flew four spacemissions, three of which he commanded. Amonghis contributions while at NASA were the HubbleTelescope experiment; Space Shuttle Atlantis,

which included the Atlas-I experiments; and thejoint U.S.-Russian Space Shuttle Discovery mission.Upon his return to the ranks of the Corps, his firstassignment was to his alma mater as DeputyCommandant of Midshipmen. In September 1995,Bolden teamed with Stanley for another significantmilestone, when he was advanced to the rank ofbrigadier general. Together, they became the firstAfrican-American general officers to simultaneous-ly serve on active duw. Shortly afterwards, he wasassigned as the assistant wing commander of the3d Marine Aircraft Wing.

There were other areas of significant accom-plishment in the Marine Corps occurring outsideof the operational Fleet Marine Forces. In June1995, for the first time, an African-American wasassigned to Officer Candidates School as its com-manding officer. Colonel Alphonse G. Davis, a grad-uate of Southern University and a veteran of threeprevious officer recruiting assignments, servedsuccessfully in that billet until July 1997.

Commanding General BGen Clifford L. Stanley of the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat CenteTwentynine Palms, Calff'ornla, receives the colors from the command sergeant major

44

In addition to Davis' assignment, a number ofother "high visibility" assignments were occurringaround the Marine Corps. For example, atHeadquarters, Marine Corps, successive Comman-dants had African-American officers as aide-de-camps. Major Christopher M. Bourne, an infantryofficer and early selection to the rank of major,served during the tenure of General Mundy.Captain Patrick R.Wilkes, a former enlisted Marine,was selected as an aide-de-camp to Mundy's suc-

45

cessor, General Krulak. In addition, African-Amer-ican officers served in the various staff sections atHeadquarters, Marine Corps to include recruiting,manpower (planning, policy, and officer assign-ments), fiscal, administration, and logistics. Collec-tively, these assignments reflected a significantchange in assignment policies and practice andcontributed to the Marine Corps' efforts to demon-strate its long-term commitment to equal opportu-nity for all Marines.

CHAPTER 5

Prospects

As the Marine Corps enters the new millenni-um, its prospects of increasing the presence ofAfrican-American officers are replete with chal-lenges and opportunities. The conditions foment-ing a broad array of challenges include:

• In the post-Desert Storm en, a 50-per-cent decline in the propensity of African-American males to join the military.1

• A general perception that military adver-tising is focused on the economically disad-vantaged, featuring the military as a rationalsolution to the lack of funds for college.2

• A perception among some that the civil-ian work force offers better opportuni-ties.3

• A categorization of the military by someas a "fullback" position if other options do notmaterialize.4

• A combination of national economictrends requiring an elevation of educationalstandards.5

• A rise in the avenge age of the popula-tion, accompanied by a reduction in the poolof young workers.6

• And predictions that question the com-petence and skills of new entrants into theworkforce.7

A number of forecasts for the future presentopportunities for increasing the racial diversity ofthe Marine Corps, the other military Services, andthe private sector. These opportunities for enhanc-ing racial diversity include:

• Blacks, Hispanics, and other racial andethnic groups will be a larger share of thenew entrants into the labor force.8

• Black women will comprise the largestshare of the increase in the non-white laborforce.9

46

• An increase in the percentage of blackcollege males possessing bachelor's degreesas compared to the 19805.10

It is obvious that the foregoing challenges andopportunities will in some fashion affect the vari-ous labor markets and subsequently the economy.Similarly, these fuctors will affect the recruitingefforts of the military The character and results ofthose singular and combined factors depend uponthe action taken to minimize the potentially nega-tive outcome of the challenges and to maximizethe potential benefits of the opportunities.

Enhancing the Prospects

The solution for minimizing the potentially neg-ative effects of the challenges and maximizing thepromise of the opportunities lies in a number ofareas addressed by the Marine Corps during thelast three decades. Those areas are recruiting andaccessions, advertising and marketing, mentoring,and equal opportunity education.

Based on past results, trends, and tendencies, thelogical direction for the Marine Corps' officer re-cruiting efforts includes increasing output from itsundergraduate accession sources. The PlatoonLeaders Class Program represents a service-uniqueopportunity to counter the internships and sum-mer job opportunities offered by corporateAmerica.

Further, Naval Reserve Officer Training Corpsscholarships offer a defmite motivation for the topall-around African-American high school students.Even more, the Naval Academy represents a pool ofsome of the finest African-American talent thisnation has to offer. The Marine Corps' targetedefforts to gain the interest of those midshipmenprior to their First Class (senior) year will enhancethe potential of maximizing the number of African-Americans under the current system.

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By decade's end the efforts of many paid off in the acceptance of the Marines as source of opportuni-ty as well as service. The image became realily Jbr those willing to accept the challenge

47

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The Corps strategy to attract and recruitAfrican-American women must include a methodof discerning why the Marine Corps is not rou-tinely considered as a viable career option. As of31 January 1998,69 African-American women offi-cers were on active duty; only one of those womenis among the 22 African-American colonels in theactive component.

In addition, the immediate requirement fornumbers to satisfy near-term goals and that lessenOCS attrition should not be entirely focused onenlisted accession sources. This over-reliancetends to lessen the presence on campus affordedto the undergraduate programs and essentiallycedes the college market to corporations and theother military services. Smart prospecting coupledwith effective supporting strategies and properand comprehensive preparation for OCS, maxi-mizes the opportunity for successful completionand an increase in accessions.

The advertising efforts focused on African-Americans should reflect a strategy that includesthe unique culture. Also, the perceptions about theMarine Corps that embody thoughts of a lack ofopportunity need to be addressed. The use ofAfrican-American role models featured in national

and local advertisements and commercials willcontribute to self-actualization and increase aware-ness, potentially enhancing the reputation of theMarine Corps and correct a number of mispercep-tions. Opportunities abound in televised collegiateand professional sporting events and other venuesfeaturing black excellence.

The marketing efforts of the Marine Corpsshould incorporate the relationships which alreadyexist with the various social and professional orga-nizations to include fraternities, sororities, theNAACP NNOA, and others. This comprehensiveapproach could position the Marine Corps as theArmed Service of choice for those young African-Americans considering a career option as a mili-tary officer

The benefits of a comprehensive mentoringeffort can be realized as early as an individual isidentified as a prospective officer program appli-cant. Pairing the potential officer candidate withan active duty or Reserve officer who shares oneor more common bonds such as race, gender,hometown, fraternity, sorority and other interestscan aid in influencing a variety of areas related toincreasing the presence of African-American offi-cers. Simccessful completion of OCS, acceptance of

The naming of Branch Hall at the Officer Candidates School in 1997 marked thefts/i circle in a jour-ney that began in 1945. Honored by the Marine Corps for his pioneering effort, Frederick C. Branchcredited his 35 years in education as his real legacy.

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commissions, the proper mental attitude and focusfor TBS, MOS selection, and augmentation and re-tention are among those areas. The gender match-ing strategy could be particularly helpful in in-creasing the number of African-American womenofficers.

The final area, and perhaps most important tosustaining the Marine Corps' efforts to increase thelong-term presence of African-American officers, isa progressive racial diversity education effort thatwill foster a paradigm shift. African-AmericanMarines no longer face the blatant acts of racialinjustice suffered by Frederick Branch, Edgar R.Huff, and other Montfort Point Marines. The racialproblems of the late 1960s are remnants of thepast. However, the Corps still has a need to incul-cate a pervasive organizational attitude and atmos-phere that does not equate efforts to ensure equal-ity of opportunity and enhance the racial diversityof its leadership with the lowering of stanthrdsand the erosion of quality. The thoughts and wordsof those who view African-Americans and others asindividuals or groups facing "special challenges"and the objects of "paradoxical" actions should notbe adopted as the organization's official position inits timely and proper efforts to increase the pres-ence of African-American officers in America'sMarine Corps.

Conclusion

Today's Marine Corps can step forward andboast a myriad of achievements in its efforts toincrease the presence ofAfrican-American officers.There is still work to be done, but role models doabound. If "a picture is worth a thousand words,"

49

then the photograph featured on the cover of thispamphlet is truly an indication of progress.

Today, there are four African-American generalofficers in the Marine Corps, three in the activecomponent and one in the Reserves. Those offi-cers, and a host of others from the same culturalbackground, are only a sampling of the talent andpotential that exists. There are others like themwho possess the potential to equal or exceed theirachievements. The fiscal year 1999 colonel com-mand slate included two graduates of historicallyblack colleges and universities as a future com-mander of an artillery regiment and a MarineExpeditionary Unit. In January 1998, the firstAfrican-American woman in the history of theMarine Corps donned the rank of colonel. In July1997, the Marine Corps honored its first African-American officer by dedicating a building in hishonor at the Officer Candidates School. The firstAfrican-American commander of OCS assisted himin cutting the ceremonial ribbon as a proud andand tearful Marine bride of the honoree said: "L'mso grateful that the Marine Corps gave him hisflowers while he still lives."

Things are changing. Those young African-American Marine officers, the lieutenants, the cap-tains, and the majors have an abundance of rolemodels to aspire to be like as they are poised to fol-low in their footsteps and make their contributionto and mark on the Corps. They only ask for andrequire an opportunity equal to that of their peers,who may or may not be of the same culture, eco-nomic, social status, or educational background.Despite those differences however, they all share acommon bond: Marine! Not, however, all green.They are red, yellow, black, white, and brown; dif-ferent, but nonetheless, they are stifi Marines.

Notes

CHAPTER 1A Look at the Past

1. Samuel I. Rosenam, Public Papers andAddresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Volume 10(New York: Harper & Brothers Publishing, 1941),pp. 216-217, 233-237.

2. Congressional Record Service, 80th Congress,2nd Session, 13 ER.4313,p. 2673.

3. Bernard C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight (NewYork:The Free Press, 1986), pp. 156,159.

4. Morris J. McGregor Jr., Integration of theArmed Forces (Washington, D.C.: The Center forMilitary History, U.S.Army, 1981), p.110.

5. Frederick Branch intvw with author, 27Jan98.

CFIAPTER 2The Efforts of the 1970s

1. George Q. Flynn, The Draft, 1940-1973(Lawrence, Kansas:The University of Kansas Press),1993), p. 209.

2. MajGen John McGowan, USMC (Ret), intvwwith author, 17Jan98.

3. Henry I. Shaw, Jr., and Ralph W. Donnelly,Blacks in the Marine Corps (Washington, I).C.:Marine Corps History and Museums Division,1973), p.72.

4. Secretary of Defense Cyrus Vance memo toSecretary of the Navy Paul H. Nitze, dtd 8May67.

5. BGen George H. Walls, Jr., USMC (Ret), intvwwith author, 10Feb98.

6. Cot Kenneth Berthoud, USMC (Ret), intvwwith author, 11Feb98.

7. Assistant Secretary of Defense Thomas D.Morris memo, dtd 9Jun67.

8. LtGen Frank E. Petersen, USMC (Ret), intvwwith author, 13Feb98.

9. Author's conversations with former officerselection officers: LtCol Anthony Ambrewster,USMC (Ret); LtCol Clarence E. Willie, USMC (Ret);lstLt Henry Ferrand, USMC (Ret); Gen Frank E.

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Petersen, USMC (Ret); and BGen George H. Walls,Jr.,USMC (Ret).10. LtCol Anthony Ambrewster, USMC (Ret),intvw with author, 11Feb98.11. LtCol Edward L. Green, USMC (Ret), intvwwith author, 12Feb98.12. End I to Bureau of Naval Personnel memo-randum Pers-21 1/tsb, Series 211/213, dtd 1Mar76.13. LtGen Frank E. Petersen, USMC (Ret), intvwwith author, 13Feb98.14. Marine Corps Personnel Procurement Divi-sion file document, "Minority Accessions by FiscalYear."

15. Ibid.16. Warren L.Young, Minorities and the Military.A Cross-National Study in World Perspective.(Westport, Connecticut/London, England: Green-wood Press, 1982), p.227.17. Marine Corps Personnel Procurement Divi-sion file document, "Minority Accessions by FiscalYear."

18. Defense Manpower Data Center. Distributionof Active Duty Forces by Service, Rank, Sex andEthnic Group. DMDC-3035, 30Jun71.19. Ibid., 30Sep79.20. Ibid.21. Ibid.22. Defense Manpower Data Center. DistributionofAciive Duly Forces by Service, Occupation, Sex,and Ethnic Group. DMDC-3690, Sep79.

CHAPTER 3The Efforts of the l9SOs

1. Marine Corps Personnel Procurement Dlvi-sion. file document, "Minority Accessions by FiscalYear"

2. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps (CodeMROA), "Officer Accessions Report for FiscalYears1983-1990, Annual Minority OfficerAccessions (Asof 30 Sep 90)."

3. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "Military

Equal Opportunity Assessment, FY86," ExecutiveSunmuryp.3.

4. Ibid.5. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "Military

Equal OpportunityAssessment, 1W 84," p.i-3.6. Ibid.,p.2-l.7. Statistical Abstract of the US. (Washington,

D.C.: U.S.Departnient of Commerce, Bureau of theCensus, 1997), p.18.

8. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "MilitaryEqual Opportunity Assessment, FY 84," p. 2-1.

9. ElGen Clifford L. Stanley, USMC (IRet), intvwwith author, 4Mar98.10. Peter E Kostiuk, Minority Officer RecruitingGoal Allocations, (Alexandria, Virginia: Center forNaval Analyses, 1989), pp. 1-5.11. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "MilitaryEqual Opportunity Assessment, FY84," p.2-4.12. Ibid., p.2-2; Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps(MROA), "Officer Accessions Report, Fiscal Years1983-1990."13. Defense Manpower Data Center. Distributionof Active Duty Forces by Service, Rank, Sex andEthnic Group. (DMDC-3035) 9/30/80 & 30Sep89.14. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "MilitaryEqual Opportunity Assessment 1W 85:' p.4-2.15. Defense Manpower Data Center. Distributionof Active Duty Forces by Service, Occupation, Sexand Ethnic Group. (DMDC-3694) 30Sep79 &30Sep89.16. Defense Manpower Data Center. Distributionof Active Duty Forces by Service, Rank, Sex andEthnic Group. (DMDC-3035) 30Sep85.

CHAPTER 4The Efforts of the 1990s

1. Comments from a draft copy of Gen AlfredGray's White Letter on the subject of Equal Oppor-tunity Goals and Oblectives.

2. Ibid.3. Daniel Harrington, "The Equal Opportunity

Misconception and the Accession/SelectionParadox," Marine Corps Gazette ,Apr93, p. 38.

4. Samuel J. Strotman, "Minority Officer Procure-ment and the OSO," Marine Corps Gazette,Apr93,p.43.

5. Reynolds B. Peele, "Quality Minority OfficerProcurement: An Issue?," Marine Corps Gazette,Dec93, p48.

6. EugeneA. Herrera, "The Minority Controversy:Enough is Enough," Marine Corps Gazette, Mar94,p.37.

7. Marcus U. Hartman, "Is the Corps Keeping

51

Blacks from Senior Ranks?" The Navy Times,22Jun92, p.29

8. Gerald H.Gaskins, "Bias and the Corps: Look-ing for Leadership," The Navy Times, 28Jun92,p.32.

9. Leslie M. Palm, "Corps is Working Hard toEliminate Racism," The Navy Times, 19Jul93, p.31.10. OCS Quality Management Board Report,Jun93, p.2.11. Ibid.,p.27.12. Ibid.,p.1113. Ibid., pp. iv-iv.14. Executive Steering Committee Tasking Letter,5000/C061, dtd 2Jul93 in Officer Career Devel-opment Quality Management Board.15. Ibid.,p.5.16. Marine Corps Operation Order 1-95,(Campaign Plan to Increase Officer Diversity), p.2.17. Ibid.,pp.3-4.18. Marine Corps 1993 General Officer's Sym-posium Brochure, Ethnic Diversity in the USMC.19. Secretary of the Navy Memorandum to Chiefof Naval Operations and Commandant of theMarine Corps, dtd 12Nov93.20. Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Manpowerand Reserve Affairs) Memorandum to the AssistantCommandant of the Marine Corps, Gen Walter E.Boomer, dtd 10Dec93.21. Marine Corps Recruiting Command (OA),"Officer Accession Data, Fiscal Years 1991-1997."22. Ibid.23. Defense Manpower Data Center, Distributionof Active Duty Forces by Service, Rank, Sex andEthnic Group. DMDC-3035. 9/30/95.24. "Marine Corps Military Equal OpportunityAssessments, Fiscal Years 1992 and 1995:' pp.6-iand 6-2.25. "Marine Corps Military Equal OpportunityAssessments, FiscalYears 1992-1994:' pp.9-i to 9-2;9-i; 9-2 to 9-3, in Defense Manpower Data Center,Distribution of Active Duty Forces by Service,Occupation, Sex and Ethnic Group. DMDC-3694.30Sep95.26. Msgs announcing results and commandassignments of the Marine Corps LieutenantColonel and Colonel Command Screening Hoardsfor Fiscal Years 1993-1995.27. Capt Eddie S. Ray Navy Cross citation.

CHAPTER 5Prospects

1. Susan G. Berkowitz, Shelley Perry, PamelaGiambo, Michael J. Wilson and Jerome D. Lehnus,

An In-Depth Study of Military Propensity: Follow-up Interviews with 1995 }outh Attitude TrackingStudy Respondents, (Arlington, Virginia: DefenseManpower Data Center, 1997), p. 1-1.

2. lbid.,p.2-53. lbid.,p.2-74. lbid.,p.4-195. William B. Johnston and Arnold H. Packer,

52

Work Force 2000; Work and the Workers for ihe21st Century (Indianapolis, Indiana: HudsonInstitute, 1987), p. xiv

6. Ibid., p.757. Ibid., p.1028. Ibicl.,p.89.9. Ibid., p.89.

10. Ibid.,p.89.

Books

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Green, Edward L., "Equal Opportunity." US. NavalInstitute Proceedings. June 1974, pp. 41-44.

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Kehrmeyer, Randall K., "The Officer CandidateClass: A Myopic Approach to 12-12-5." MarineCorps Gazette. September 1997, pp. 38-40.

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ISBN 0-16-050474-0

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9 780160 504747

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