Symmetry Groups in Arts and Architecture Frieze Patterns ... · Symmetry Groups in Arts and...

National University of Singapore

Poh Kim Muay

Undergraduate Research Opportunity Programme

Symmetry Groups in Arts and Architecture

Frieze Patterns on

Ming Porcelains

NUROP Congress Paper Symmetry Groups in Arts and Architecture

Aslaksen H.1, and Poh K.M.2

Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore

10 Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 117546

ABSTRACT The use of geometric principles of symmetry for the description and understanding of decorated forms represented the union of two normally separate disciplines-mathematics and designs. The only limitation to the types of designs that can be described by these principles is that they must consist of regularly repeated patterns. In this paper, we will see how to use the geometric principles of crystallography to develop a descriptive classification of patterned design. This description of designs by their geometric symmetries makes it possible to study their functions systematically and meaning within cultural contexts. We are interested in how Mathematics can play a part in arts and architecture and even our daily life. We will be using Ming (1368-1644) blue and white porcelains as the study subject of frieze patterns. We will classify the designs by their symmetries and hope to gain insights from these designs in their cultural context. To add a local flavour to the paper, we also take a look at the Peranakan porcelains. FOUR ISOMETRIES It is necessary to know the underlying structure of aesthetically pleasing plane figures. By a plane figure, we mean any subset of the plane i.e. we will assume that the figures we are going to study can be flattened out into a plane. To understand the underlying structure, we need to examine the symmetries of the plane. Symmetry of a figure is an isometry that maps the figures back onto it. Isometries are transformations that do not distort the shapes of objects in the process of moving them. By this, we mean that it is a distance-preserving transformation of the plane onto itself. They are four isometries: translation, reflection, rotations and glide refection. Translation

1 Associate Professor 2 Student

A translation of a plane figure means to move it without rotating or reflecting it in a given direction. There are no fixed points and every point moves by exactly the same distance, d in a translation Reflection A reflection is a mapping of all points of the original figure onto the other side of a “mirror line” such that the distance between the image (the figure that is mapped from the original one) and the mirror line is the same as that between the original figure and the mirror line. The mirror line is known as the axis of reflection. Reflections are isometries that have infinitely many fixed points Rotation We completely specify a rotation when we know its centre and angle of rotation. A figure with an angle of rotation θ is said to have an order of rotation n if n = 360o/θ and n is a natural number. We define a symmetry region as a subset of the figure that generates the whole figure by rotations. Glide Reflection A glide reflection is a combination of two transformations: a reflection and a translation. Whether the original figure is reflected or translated first does not affect the final result; the final figure generated will be the same. SYMMETRY GROUPS In our context, we will call figures with at least one (non-trivial3) symmetry designs. We will call designs that have a translation symmetry patterns. Each pattern has a basic unit, which is a smallest region of the plane such that the set of its images under translations of the pattern generates the whole pattern. We call designs that do not admit translation symmetry finite designs. They are two other types of patterns, namely frieze patterns that admit translation in only one direction and wallpaper patterns, which admit translations in two or more directions frieze patterns and wallpaper. We are concerned with frieze patterns in this paper only. Frieze Patterns The symmetry groups of frieze patterns are named in the form of a four-symbol notation pxyz. They are seven classes for frieze patterns. Each name begins with the letter p. The following shows how to derive the rest of the four-symbol notation for each symmetry group for frieze patterns. x = { m if there is vertical reflection { 1 otherwise y = { m if there is horizontal reflection

3 The trivial symmetry is the identity transformation, which maps the figure back to itself.

{ a if there is a glide reflection but no horizontal reflection { 1 otherwise z = { 2 if there is a half turn { 1 otherwise MING BLUE AND WHITE PORCELAINS In the long history of world ceramics, there has been no single ware more appreciated and imitated than Chinese blue and white porcelain. As a ceramic tradition, it has the longest continuous development in ceramic history and has acquired a worldwide reputation unmatched by any other Chinese art form. It is perhaps the best-known category of all decorative arts. This is the reason why we are looking at Ming porcelains. Key Findings We are able to find all seven types of frieze patterns on the porcelains from the Ming Dynasty using the classification of the symmetries. We find that frieze pattern type pm11 (vertical refection only) appears most frequently on the porcelains and that p1m1 (horizontal reflection only) is a rare pattern that has only appeared once. The frequency of the rest of the patterns seems to be quite even showing that the decorators of the porcelains frequently use these frieze patterns without obvious preference. We are able to see that the frieze patterns are mostly distributed at the top rim (33%), followed by body (24%) and base (19%). Both the top and the foot ring share the same percentage (12%). We also find that all seven types of frieze patterns are present on the body of the porcelains with pm11 type been frequently used. Beside the body of porcelains, the top rim has six out seven types of the frieze pattern and the different types of frieze seem to be more evenly spread out unlike on the body where pm11 is the distinct type. Unlike the top rim, we find that the decorators only use two types of frieze patterns, p111 (only translation) and pm11 at the base. pm11 is the distinct pattern type for the top, body and base portion of the porcelains. One interesting finding is that we do not find p112 (half turns only) and p1a1 (glide reflection only) frieze pattern at the top and the base of the porcelain at all but we can find pm11 in all five parts of the porcelains. We also find that, except for the period of Tianqi and Chongzhen, do not have frieze patterns at the base and that foot ring, all the other periods have frieze on the all parts of the porcelain. We also see a gradual decline in the frieze pattern being used on the body of the porcelains towards the end of Ming dynasty. This may be a result in the increase use of decorating using narrative themes on the porcelains. We also see an increase in the frieze patterns found at the foot rings from Yuan to Xuande period but this trend dies off at the end of the Ming dynasty. This may be due to change of the design of the porcelains. Peranakan Porcelains We also went to the Asian Civilisation Museum to have a look at the Peranakan porcelains. Peranakan is a Malay word that simply means, “ born locally”. From about six hundred years ago, Chinese traders came from China and settled in what we now

known as Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. They brought with them their traditions from China but slowly developed a different way of life in their new country. Their offspring became known as the Paranakan Chinese. Key Findings We are able to find only six out of the seven classes of frieze patterns. We find that pm11 is the most preferred frieze pattern on the Peranakan porcelains. We are not able to find any p1m1 frieze pattern in this case. We find that half of the frieze patterns are distributed at the base of the porcelains and only 3% of the frieze patterns can be found at the foot ring. We find that pm11 dominates four of the five parts of the porcelains. We can only find one frieze pattern that is p111 at foot ring. Unlike the Ming porcelains, where we can only find two frieze types at the base area, we can find four types at the base of Peranakan porcelains. Also in the Ming period, we are not able to see any p112 frieze type on the top that we can find in the Peranakan porcelains. REFERENCES Catalogue of Special Exhibition of early Ming Period Porcelain, National Palace

Museum, 1990. Min Lee, Siu. Mathematics in Art: An Exhibition at the Singapore Art Museum, Honours

Thesis Project of Department of Mathematics in National University of Singapore, 2001/2002.

Harrison-Hall, Jessica. Catalogue of Late Yuan and Ming Ceramics in the British

Museum, The British Museum Press, 2001. Schattschneider, Doris. The Plane Symmetry Groups: Their Recognition and Notation,

American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 85, Issue 6 (Jun-Jul, 1978), 1978 Washburn, Dorothy K. and Crowe, Donald W., Symmetries of Culture, University of

Washington Press, 1988 http://www.xahlee.org/Wallpaper_dir/c5_17WallpaperGroups.html http://www.clarku.edu/~djoyce/wallpaper/trans.html

Chapter 1 Symmetry Groups of Patterns ________________________________________________________________________________________________

Introduction

The use of geometric principles of symmetry of the description and the understanding of decorated forms represented the union of two normally separate disciplines – mathematics and designs. The only limitation to the types of designs that can be described by these principles is that they must consist of regularly repeated patterns. In this paper, we will see how to use the geometric principles of crystallography to develop a descriptive classification of patterned design. This description of designs by their geometric symmetries makes it possible to study their functions systematically and meaning within cultural contexts. We are interested in how Mathematics can play a part in arts and architecture and even in our daily life. It is interesting to know that although crystallographers and designers were describing repeated patterns but they do not seemed to take cognisance of each other’s work. Although the designers saw the rhythm and repetition inherent in the patterns, they never discovered that patterns could be more systematically, precisely and objectively described by their symmetries. We will be using Ming (1368 - 1644) blue and white porcelains from the book “Catalogue of Late Yuan and Ming Ceramics in the British Museum” as the study subject. Although this book shows most of the blue and white porcelains that is left in the world, it may not be representative enough as this sample size may be too small compared to the number of porcelains that is produced during the Ming dynasty. However, it is still worth studying them because in many ways, Chinese blue and white porcelain is the ‘global artifact’, as it has probably left the greatest legacy of any single art form for the world at large. Everywhere it went; it had a tremendous impact and left an indelible imprint. It was not only treasured by the emperors of China, but also avariciously collected by the sultans of the Near East and the royalty of Europe. We will classify the designs by their symmetry. We hope to gain insight from the designs found in both the Yuan (1280 - 1368) and the Ming dynasties. One might even consider symmetry grouping as cultural DNA. In the last section of this paper, we will take a look at some Peranakan porcelains, adding a local flavour to report. These Peranakan porcelains were on exhibit in the Asian Civilisation Museum when this report is written. Although these porcelains are use by the Peranakans in the Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia, they are actually made in China. Some of the pieces were even made during the Qing dynasty. We will be able to see the differences and similarities between the designs of these two types of porcelains.


Chapter 1 Symmetry Groups of Patterns 1.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will look at the fundamentals of grouping plane figures. As we will be looking at some porcelain in the later part, it is necessary to know the underlying structure of aesthetically pleasing plane figures. By a plane figure, we mean any subset of the plane i.e. we will assume that the figures we are going to study can be flattened out into a plane. To understand the underlying structure, we need to examine the symmetries of the plane. Symmetry of a figure is an isometry that maps the figures back onto it. Isometries are transformations that do not distort the shapes of objects in the process of moving them. By this, we mean that it is a distance-preserving transformation of the plane onto itself. That is, with an isometry, the distance between any two points p and q in the original image is the same as the distance between the corresponding points T(p) and T(q) in the transformed image.

Fig1.1.1 Isometry

There are four types of isometries – translation, reflection, rotational and glide reflection. A short description will be given in the following sections. We will classify a figure in terms of its symmetry group, which is the set of all symmetries of the figure. We will also show how to recognize the symmetry group of the figure. If a figure admits a symmetry, it is said to be symmetrical.

To have a better idea of the symmetry groups in patterns, the reader is advise to read the honors project thesis, Mathematics in Art: An exhibition at the Singapore Art Museum, by Siu Mee Lin. Please note that sections of this chapter is directly from her project as she has gives a good explanation on the different symmetry groups.


1.2 The Four Isometries of the Plane Translation A translation of a plane figure means to move it without rotating or reflecting it in a given direction. There are no fixed points and every point moves by exactly the same distance, d in a translation

@

@

@ @ @ @ @

@ Fig1.2.1 Horizontal translation Fig1.2.2 Vertical translation

Note that a translation need not take place horizontally or vertically. It can take place in any direction.

Reflection A reflection is a mapping of all points of the original figure onto the other side of a “mirror line” such that the distance between the image (the figure that is mapped from the original one) and the mirror line is the same as that between the original figure and the mirror line. The mirror line is known as the axis of reflection. Reflections are isometries that have infinitely many fixed points

Fig1.2.3 Vectical refle ction In fact, the reflection axis needs not be a vertical line or a horizontal line; it can be any straight line at any angle to the horizontal.


Rotation We completely specify a rotation when we know its centre and angle of rotation. A figure with an angle of rotation θ is said to have an order of rotation n if n = 360o/θ and n is a natural number. We define a symmetry region as a subset of the figure that generates the whole figure by rotations.

Fig1.2.4 A 90° rotation The table below illustrates the concepts of angle, order and center of rotation. Please refer to the explanation beneath the table to understand what is illustrated in the table.

Order of Rotation

Angle of Rotation Figure Symmetry Regions

2 180o

1.2.5a

1.2.5b

3

120o

1.2.6a

1.2.6b


Table 1.2.1

For each figure in the third column, we obtain information about its angle of rotation by drawing lines as shown in the forth column. The lines show three details:

1) The lines divide the figure into smaller regions, such that each region is identical (except in the orientation of the figure in each region) and each region is the smallest possible such that sufficient rotations of it will generate the whole figure. The number of such regions as partitioned by the lines will give the order of rotation of the figure.

2) The angle of intersection of the lines shows the angle of rotation.

3) The point of intersection of the lines shows the centre of rotation.

Note that for Fig 1.2.6a, there is only one line dividing the figure. This line divides the figure into two identical regions (apart from the orientation of the figure in each region), so the order is two and the angle of rotation is 180o. Now, the question is: where is the centre of rotation since there is no intersection of lines? Take a point p in the original figure and locate the image of p. Call this image p’. Draw the line pp’ and the midpoint of this line is the centre of rotation of the figure. Glide Reflection A glide reflection is a combination of two transformations: a reflection and a translation. Whether the original figure is reflected or translated first does not affect the final result; the final figure generated will be the same.

Order of Rotation

Angle of Rotation Figure Symmetry Regions

6

60o

1.2.7a

1.2.7b


Consider the following figure, in which the original figure is ╩. ╩

╦ Fig 1.2.8

Let us try to obtain Figure 1.2.8 from ╩ using two methods, which differ only in the sequence of reflection and translation transformations. First Method : Reflection first, then translation

╩ ╩ ╩

╦ ╦ ╦ ╦

Reflection Translation Final figure Second Method: Translation first, then reflection ╩ ╩ ╩ ╩ ╩ ╦ ╦ Translation Reflection Final figure A glide reflection is non-trivial if its translation component and reflection component are not symmetries of the figure. We say a figure admits a glide reflection if and only if the glide reflection is non-trivial. The glide reflection axis is the axis of its reflection component.


We are done with the description of the four transformations. However, if we consider both orientation and fixed points behavior, each type of isometry has a unique character. Rotations and translations are those which are a product of even number of mirrors; they are “orientation preserving” and mirror reflections and glide reflections are those which are a product of odd number of reflections; they are orientation-reversing”

fixed points orientation

Translation none preserving

Rotation one preserving

Glide Reflection none reversing

Reflection infinite reversing Table1.2.2. 1.3 Designs, Patterns, Motifs and Fundamental Regions In our context, we will call figures with at least one (non-trivial4) symmetry designs. We will call designs that have a translation symmetry patterns. Note that patterns are unbounded figures, since with translation the figures must extend to infinity. We will be concerned with only two types of patterns, namely frieze patterns that admit translation in only one direction and wallpaper patterns that admit translations in two or more directions. In particular, each pattern has a basic unit that is a smallest region of the plane such that the set of its images under translations of the pattern generates the whole pattern. Finally, we call designs that do not admit translation symmetry finite designs. Note that since the square of a glide reflection is a translation, therefore a finite design can only admit rotation and reflection symmetries.

a b

Fig 1.3.1 Examples of finite designs

Fig 1.3.2 A frieze pattern

4 The trivial symmetry is the identity transformation, which maps the figure back to itself.


Fig 1.3.3 A wallpaper pattern Some comments have to be made about Figures 1.3.2 and 1.3.3. Though by definition patterns extend to infinity, it is not possible in real life to have infinitely many translations of a figure. Therefore, as a general rule, we consider a figure to be a frieze pattern if it has at least the basic unit and a copy of it by translation. For a plane figure to qualify as a wallpaper pattern, it must have at least the basic unit, one copy by translation, and a copy of these two by translation in a second direction. There must be at least two rows, each one at least two units long. Hence, it can be seen easily that Figure 1.3.2 is a frieze pattern with as a basic unit and Figure 1.3.3 is a wallpaper pattern with the

basic unit . Let us now discuss the generation of a wallpaper pattern. Within each basic unit, we can find a smallest region in the basic unit whose images under the full symmetry group of the pattern cover the plane. This smallest region is known as a fundamental region. If the pattern consists of a figure on a plain background, we can instead focus on the part of the figure that generates the pattern. A motif is a subset of a fundamental region which has no symmetry but which generates the whole pattern under the symmetry group of the pattern. To understand the difference between a fundamental region and a motif, think of the fundamental region as a region, which together with the symmetry group, determines the structure of the patterns. The motif on the other hand, determines the appearance of the pattern. To make the idea clearer, let us use Figure 1.3.3 to illustrate what is a fundamental region and a motif. Firstly, observe that the symmetry group of Figure 1.3.3 comprises vertical reflection, horizontal reflection, reflection with axis at 45o clockwise from horizontal, reflection at 135o clockwise from horizontal, 90o rotation, vertical translation and horizontal translation. A fundamental region of this wallpaper pattern is a triangular region with

the motif . So the fundamental region is indeed . Note that the grey shading of the triangular fundamental region has no role in the generation of the pattern; the shading is done to allow the reader to see the shape of the fundamental region. The following sequence of steps is just one of the ways the region can generate the pattern.


1) Reflect horizontally to form .

2) Rotate by 90o to form where the dot represents the center of rotation. 3) Reflect about the axis that is 135o counter-clockwise from horizontal to form

. So we get a unit of the pattern. 4) Translate the unit vertically and horizontally and we get the desired pattern.

1.4 Symmetry Groups of Finite Designs Recall that a finite design is a figure that

1) has at least one of rotation symmetry or reflection symmetry 2) does not have translation symmetry.

We can categorise finite designs into two classes of symmetry groups Cn and Dn. Cn refers to cyclic groups of order n. Designs that fall into type Cn are those that have rotation of order n but no reflection symmetry. On the other hand, Dn refers to dihedral groups of order n. Designs that fall into type Dn have exactly n distinct reflection axes and rotation of order n. A note of caution though: C1 is the group for a finite figure which has no symmetry at all- neither rotational nor reflection. D1 is the group for designs that have reflection symmetry but no other symmetries. Examples of designs in cyclic groups are shown in Table 1.2.1:

Fig 1.2.6a is of C2, Fig 1.2.7a is of C3, Fig 1.2.8a is of C4, Fig 1.2.9a is of C6.

We can have designs in C50, C999, or of even higher orders! Therefore, cyclic groups form an infinite class.


Let us now move on to dihedral groups. The following table illustrates some examples of designs in dihedral groups. Order of Dihedral Group Figure Figure with Reflection Lines

1

1.4.1a

1.4.1b

3

1.4.3a

1.4.3b

6

1.4.4a

1.4.4b

8

1.4.5a

1.4.5b For each dihedral group, we analyse the rotational symmetries the way we do for cyclic designs. Observe that the reflection axes also partition the figure into the symmetry regions. As in the case of cyclic groups, dihedral groups also form an infinite class.

Table 1.4.1


1.5 Symmetry Groups of Frieze Patterns Like finite designs, frieze patterns can also be classified according to the kinds of symmetries they admit. There are seven classes of frieze patterns. Unlike cyclic and dihedral groups that are infinite classes, there are only finite number of classes into which frieze patterns can be put into. The reader is invited to take a look at the proof in Appendix 2 of Washburn and Crowe. In the later part of the paper, we will identify frieze pattern on Ming and Peranakan porcelains using this classification. The symmetry groups of frieze patterns are named in the form of a four-symbol notation pxyz. Each name begins with the letter p. The following informs the reader how to derive the rest of the four-symbol notation for each symmetry group for frieze patterns. x = { m if there is vertical reflection { 1 otherwise y = { m if there is horizontal reflection { a if there is a glide reflection but no horizontal reflection { 1 otherwise z = { 2 if there is a half turn { 1 otherwise We can also use a two-symbol notation xy proposed by Senechal (1975): x = { m if there is vertical reflection { 1 otherwise y = { m if there is horizontal reflection { g if there is a glide reflection with no horizontal reflection { 2 if there is a half-turn with no glide nor horizontal reflection { 1 otherwise


The following table illustrates some examples of each of the seven symmetry groups for frieze patterns. Symmetry

Group 4-symbol/ 2-symbol

Figure Figure with symmetry axes and centers of rotation as

blue dots

Isometries present (besides

translation)

Pmm2 / mm

Fig 1.5.1a

Fig 1.5.1b

vertical and horizontal

reflections; 2-fold rotation5

pma2 / mg Fig 1.5.2a

Fig 1.5.2b

vertical reflection; horizontal

glide reflection; 2-fold rotation

pm11 / m1 Fig 1.5.3a

Fig 1.5.3b

only vertical reflection

P1m1 / 1m

Fig 1.5.4a

Fig 1.5.4b

only horizontal reflection

P1a1 / 1g

Fig 1.5.5a

Fig 1.5.5b

only horizontal

glide reflection

P112 / 12

Fig 1.5.6a

Fig 1.5.6b

only 2-fold rotation.

P111 / 11

Fig 1.5.7a

Fig 1.5.7b

No other symmetry

except translation.

Table 1.5.1

5 A 2-fold rotation is a rotation of order 2. In general, a n-fold rotation is a rotation of order n.


An Approach to Analyse the Symmetry Groups of Frieze Patterns I would recommend the use of the following flow chart to analyse the symmetry groups of frieze patterns.

Chart 1.5.1 Flow chart for the 7 symmetry groups of frieze patterns


1.6 Symmetry Groups of Wallpaper Patterns Although we will not be looking at any wallpaper pattern, we will still look at the symmetry groups of wallpaper patterns, we need to learn about lattices of points and primitive cells of the patterns. We obtain a lattice of points of a wallpaper pattern by the following method:

1) Start by choosing a point p. If the pattern admits rotations, then p is a centre of rotation of the highest order. If the pattern does not have rotational symmetry, then p is any arbitrary point in the pattern.

2) Apply translations of the pattern on p. The set of all images of p under the translations form the lattice.

A primitive cell is a parallelogram such that the following hold:

1) Its vertices are lattice points. 2) It contains no other lattice points inside it or on its edge. 3) The vectors, which form the sides of this parallelogram, generate the

translation group of the pattern. There are only five types of primitive cells: parallelogram, rectangular, square, rhombic and hexagonal (the hexagonal cell is a rhombus consisting of two equilateral triangles). Schattschneider gives a descriptive proof for this. To determine which cell the pattern actually takes, we need to obtain a lattice of points and form a parallelogram whose vertices are lattice points and whose interior and edges have no other lattice points. Sometimes, we get more than one type of parallelogram using the way just described. When such circumstances arise, we need a way to choose which parallelogram is the primitive cell. Below is a method to determine what is the primitive cell of each wallpaper pattern.

1) A pattern with order of rotation three or six takes a hexagonal cell. 2) A pattern with order of rotation four takes a square cell. 3) For a pattern with order of rotation one or two,

i) if there is neither reflection nor glide reflection, then it takes a parallelogram.

ii) otherwise, it takes either a rectangular cell or a rhombic cell. Plot the lattice and draw a parallelogram as described initially.

a) It takes a rectangular cell if the four corners of the primitive cell are right angles.

b) Otherwise, it takes a rhombic cell.


The following table illustrates the lattice of points and the primitive cell.

Figure Lattices (green dots) with primitive cell

(in purple)

Type of primitive cell

1.6.1a 1.6.1b

Hexagonal (Observe that it is

made up of 2 equilateral triangles.)

1.6.2a 1.6.2b

Square

1.6.3a 1.6.3b

Parallelogram

1.6.4a 1.6.4b

Rectangular

1.6.5a

1.6.5b

Rhombic

Table 1.6.1 Note that for a rhombic cell, we extend it to a rectangle as shown dotted in the above table. This extended cell is known as a centred cell. The notion of the centred cell is useful only in the notation of the symmetry groups of wallpaper patterns.


Now, we are ready to talk about the symmetry groups of wallpaper patterns. The names for the symmetry groups describing wallpaper patterns, like the frieze patterns, adopt a four-symbol notation qrst. The notation comes from crystallographers who use it to classify crystals. The interpretation of the crystallographic notation is as follows:

q = { p if the primitive cell is not a centred cell { c if the primitive cell is a centred cell r = n, the highest order of rotation s denotes a symmetry axis normal to the left edge of the primitive or centred cell This left edge is known as the x-axis. s = { m if there is a reflection axis

{ g if there is no reflection axis, but a glide-reflection axis { 1 if there is no symmetry axis t denotes a symmetry axis at angle θ ( ≤ 180o ) to the x-axis. In particular, θ = 180o if n = 1 or 2 ; θ = 45o if n = 4 ; θ = 60o if n = 3 or 6. t = { m if there is a reflection axis { g if there is no reflection, but a glide-reflection axis { 1 if there is no symmetry axis No symbols in the third and forth positions indicate that the group contains neither reflections nor glide-reflections. Some comments have to be made about the left edge of the cell that is known as the x-axis. Recall in 3-dimensional space with (x,y,z) co-ordinate system, the x-axis is the axis that points towards the reader. In other words, the x-axis is the left axis in the horizontal x-y plane. Hence, defining the left edge of cells as the x-axis makes sense to the crystallographers who deal with symmetry groups of 3-dimensional objects. However, here, we are dealing with the groups for 2-dimensional patterns. The x-axis in our wallpaper patterns is not necessarily the literal left edge of the primitive cells. To get the x-axis of the primitive cell of a wallpaper pattern requires the pattern to be aligned in a certain way or choosing the primitive cell in a certain way. For example, observe the following figures and decide what is the left edge of the primitive cell.

a b Fig 1.6.6 Choosing the hexagonal primitive cell in different ways for the same pattern


For Figure 1.6.6a, it is easy to see where is the left edge of the cell, but for Figure 1.6.6b, it is ambiguous where the left edge is! I suggest the following way to determine the x-axis, the third symbol and the forth symbol of the notation of the symmetry groups.

1) Draw the primitive cell. If it is a rhombic cell, replace it by a centred cell. 2) i) If there is a reflection that is perpendicular to an edge of the cell, that edge

is the x-axis and the third symbol is m. ii) Otherwise, if there is a glide reflection axis that is perpendicular to an edge of the cell, that edge is the x-axis and the third symbol is g. iii) Otherwise, any edge is the x-axis and the third symbol is 1.

3) If there is a reflection or glide reflection axis that is not normal to the x-axis,

then the forth symbol is m or g respectively. Otherwise, the forth symbol is 1.

The table on the following pages illustrates examples of wallpaper patterns for each symmetry group. In all, there are seventeen wallpaper symmetry groups.

Chapter 2 Ming Blue and White Porcelains ________________________________________________________________________________________________

Notation For Symmetry

Group (4-symbol / short form)

Figure

Figure with primitive cell (in purple)

symmetry axis (in dark green)

centre of rotation (green dot)

Remarks on deriving the correct symmetry group

(Note: let a glide reflection be denoted as a glide for convenience)

C1m1/cm

1.6.6a

1.6.6b

Centred cell. There is a reflection axis normal to the

horizontal edges of the centred cell. Pick one of these 2 edges as the x-axis.

So the 3rd symbol is m. No other symmetry.

P1m1/pm

1.6.7a

1.6.7b

Rectangular cell. There is a reflection axis normal to the

horizontal edges of the cell. Pick one of these 2 edges as the x-axis.

So the 3rd symbol is m. No other symmetry.

P1g1/pg

1.6.8a

1.6.8b

Rectangular cell. No reflection axes.

There is a glide axis normal to the vertical edges of the cell. Pick one of these 2 edges as

the x-axis. So the 3rd symbol is g. No other symmetry.




Figure

Figure with primitive cell (in purple) symmetry axis (in dark green) centre of

rotation (green dot)



p1/p1

1.6.9a

1.6.9b

Parallelogram cell. No other symmetry besides translations.

P2mg/pmg

1.6.10a

1.6.10b

Rectangular cell. 2-fold rotation.

There is a reflection axis normal to the horizontal edges of the cell. Pick one of these

2 edges as the x-axis. So the 3rd symbol is m.

There is a glide axis parallel to the x-axis. So the 4th symbol is g.

P2mm/pmm

1.6.11a

1.6.11b

Rectangular cell. 2-fold rotation.

Both reflection axes are normal to some edges of the cell. So the x-axis is any of the edges

and both the 3rd and 4th symbols are m.



Figure







C2mm/cmm

1.6.12a

1.6.12b

Centred cell. 2-fold rotation.

Both reflection axes are normal to some edges of the centred cell. So the x-axis is any of the edges and both the 3rd and 4th symbols are m.

P2gg/pgg

1.6.13a

1.6.13b

Rectangular cell. 2-fold rotation. No reflection.

Both glide axes are normal to some edges of the cell.

So the x-axis is any of the edges and both the 3rd and 4th symbols are g.

P211/p2

1.6.14a

1.6.14b

Parallelogram cell. 2-fold rotation.

No other symmetry.

p4/p4

1.6.15a

1.6.15b

Square cell. 4-fold rotation.

No other symmetry.




Figure






p4mm/p4m

1.6.16a

1.6.16b


Both reflection axes are normal to some edges of the cell.

So the x-axis is any of the edges and both the 3rd and 4th symbols are m.

P4gm/p4g

1.6.17a

1.6.17b


No reflection axis that is normal to any edges of the cell.

There is a glide axis normal to the vertical edges of the cell. Pick one of these 2 edges as

the x-axis. So the 3rd symbol is g.

There is a reflection axis that is not normal to the x-axis.

So the 4th symbol is m.

p3/p3

1.6.18a

1.6.18b

Hexagonal cell. 3-fold rotation.

No other symmetry.




Figure






p3m1/ p3m1

1.6.19a

1.6.19b


There is a reflection axis normal to the horizontal edges of the cell. Pick one of these

2 edges as the x-axis. So the 3rd symbol is m.

No other symmetry.

p31m/ p31m

1.6.20a

1.6.20b


No reflection or glide axis that is normal to any edges of the cell. So the 3rd symbol is 1.

There is a reflection axis not normal to all edges.

So the 4th symbol is m.

p6/p6

1.6.21a

1.6.21b


No other symmetry.




Figure






p6mm/p6m

1.6.22a

1.6.22b

Hexagonal cell. There is a reflection axis normal to the

vertical edges of the cell. Pick one of these 2 edges as the x-axis.

So the 3rd symbol is m. There is a reflection axis not normal to the x-

axis. So the 4th symbol is m.

Table 1.6.2


Chapter 2 Ming Blue and White Porcelains 2.1 Introduction

In the long history of world ceramics, there has been no single ware more appreciated and imitated than the Chinese blue and white porcelain. As a ceramics tradition, it has the longest continuous development in ceramic history and has acquired a worldwide reputation unmatched by any other Chinese art form. It is perhaps the best-known category of all decorative arts. In its more than six hundred years of active production from the 14th century to the present, it has constantly introduced new ideas of decoration and technique. Chinese blue and white porcelain formed an important and popular export ware, and has been imitated in Japan, Korea, Southeast Asia, the Near East, Europe and America. For these reasons, we are interested to study them.

In this section, we will try to identify all seven types of frieze patterns found in

the Ming blue and white porcelains. To get a better picture of what kind of pattern appears in the Ming porcelains, we will also look at some of the Yuan porcelains. We will see how the designs between these two dynasties influenced each other. We will start off with the definition for blue and white porcelains, followed by a brief account of its origins. 2.2 Definition of Blue and White Porcelain Blue and white wares are porcelains with undeglaze cobalt painted decorations. They are also commonly known as kaolin or china. Porcelain is a hard, translucent ceramic ware, usually with a pure white body, fused at high temperature with the aid of a high proportion of feldspar, which causes it to ring when struck. The famous Chinese blue and white porcelains underwent its major development in the 14th century. A blue pigment from cobalt was painted directly on the dried clay body, which was then covered with a glaze. This piece was then fired at a temperature between 1280°C to 1300°C, causing the glaze to become transparent. The blue decoration underneath this glaze is therefore referred to as underglaze blue. The colour tone of the blue depends on the cobalt itself and on conditions during firing. If the exact temperature is not attained at each firing, pieces made at the same time and with the same material can differ in colour. Finer quality wares were first fired, then painted and glazed and fired again. The majority of the blue and white wares were fired only once, after being painted and glazed.


2.3 Origin of Blue and White Porcelain The exact date for the first manufacture of blue and white wares in China is being debated. The main reasons for the controversy are that some relatively recent excavated items found were from the Tang dynasty (618 - 906) and besides that some items were from the Song (960 – 1279) dynasty. However, these isolated cases of blue and white wares from the Tang and Song dynasties are so insignificant in number, that at the present time, one might conclude they could have been purely experimental and may not have even influenced or been related the early chronological progression of the Chinese blue and white porcelain of Jindezhen, Jiangxi province, which is the main production area for porcelains.

It is thought that Chinese blue and white porcelain received a significant impetus to its development from porcelains of the Song and Yuan. The earliest blue and white wares have similarities to a white ware from Yuan dynasty in the clay body, glaze and construction. A crude blue and white covered urn was found in a tomb at Jiujiang, Jiangxi province, dating to 1319. This suggest that blue and white wares must have begun their development early in the first half of the 14th century, but it was not until the mid-14th century that blue and white were being produced on a substantial scale at Jindezhen. 2.4 Frieze Patterns in Ming Blue and White Porcelains In this section, we have used the classification method of frieze patterns to identify the frieze on the Ming porcelains. We are able to find all seven types of frieze patterns on the porcelains from the Ming dynasty. For now, we will show all the seven types of frieze patterns that are found. A more detailed list showing the frieze types found on each of the porcelains during the different time periods is showed in the later part.

The p111 pattern :

The p111 pattern on the two vases with underglaze blue decoration has been magnified on the right. The only transformation in this pattern is a translation.

The two vases are from Jindezhen, Jiangxi province produced in Ming dynasty, Jingtai to Tianshun period 1450-1464.


The p1m1 pattern :

The p1m1 pattern on the Qizuo (stand) has been magnified on the right. We can clearly see the transformations in this pattern are a translation and a reflection across a horizontal mirror. This is the only Ming porcelain with this frieze pattern type.

This Qizuo (stand) is from Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province produced in Ming dynasty, Yongle period 1403-1424.

The pm11 pattern :

The pmm1 pattern on the Bian hu moon flask has been magnified on the right. We can clearly see the transformations in this pattern are two parallel reflections across vertical mirrors.


This Bian hu moon flask is from Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province produced in Ming dynasty, Yongle to Xuande period 1403-1435.

The p112 pattern :

The p112 pattern on the bowl has been magnified on the right. The transformations in this pattern are two half turns. This is the only design for this frieze pattern type and it is known as leiwen or thunder pattern. A rough sketch of the pattern is shown below.

This bowl is from Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province produced in Ming dynasty, Xuande mark and period 1426-1435.

The pmm2 pattern :

The pmm2 pattern on the bowl with underglazed blue decoration has been magnified on the right. The transformations in this pattern are three reflections, one across a horizontal mirror and the other two across parallel vertical mirrors and two half-turns.


This bowl is from Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province produced in Ming dynasty, Wanli period 1573 - 1620.

The pma2 pattern :

The pma2 pattern on the lianzi bowl has been magnified on the right. The transformations in this pattern are a reflection across a vertical mirror, a glide reflection and a half-turn.

This lianzi bowl is from Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province produced in Ming dynasty, Yongle period 1403 -1424.

The p1a1 pattern :

The p1a1 pattern on the stem cup has been magnified on the right. The transformation in this pattern is a glide reflection. This design is also most common in this frieze pattern type except for few slight variations.

This stem cup is from Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province produced in Ming dynasty, Xuande mark and period, 1403-1424.


In the next section, we will show the Yuan and Mind porcelains that we find in the Catalogue of Late Yuan and Ming Ceramics in the British Museum that has frieze patterns on them. We will divide the porcelains into five main parts – top rim, top, body, base and foot ring. Any frieze pattern that is at the mouth or the rim of the porcelain will be considered as the top rim. Any frieze pattern that is below the rim and within the top 25% of the porcelain will be considered as the top. Needless to say, any frieze pattern found on the body of the porcelain is considered body. Any frieze pattern that is found at the base area and is within bottom 25% of the porcelains is considered the base. Any frieze pattern that is found at the foot ring is considered the foot ring. We are dividing the porcelain into parts because we would like to find out on which part of a porcelain are we most likely to find and under which class type.


2.5 Yuan Dynasty Porcelains 1280-1368

Stem cup with raised moulded and underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p111

p1a1


Yuhuchun bottle with underglaze blue decoration and cut-down neck Foot Ring

p1a1


Yuhuchun bottle with underglaze blue decoration and cut-down neck Top

pmm2

Body

p1a1

pma2

Base

pm11

Yuhuchun bottle with underglaze blue decoration and cut-down neck Base

pm11


Meiping and cover with underglaze blue decoration Body

p1a1

Base

pm11

Large guan wine jar decorated in underglaze blue with fish-dragon handles and with a silver rim mount Top Rim

pm11

Base

pm11


Large guan wine jar decorated in underglaze blue with broken side handles and crackled glaze Top Rim

pmm2

Body

p1a1

Base

pm11

Ovoid guan jar and cover with underglaze blue decoration Top

pm11

Body

p1a1

Base

p111


Flower vase with lingzhi-shaped side handles and underglaze blue decoration Body

p1a1

pm11

Flower vase with wing-shaped side handles with attached rings and underglaze blue decoration Top

pm11

Body

pmm2

Base

pm11


36

2.6 Hongwu Period Porcelain 1368-98

Large guan jar with underglaze red decoration and ground-down rim We are looking at this underglaze red jar because a large jar of this form with similar decoration in underglaze blue was excavated in 1994 at Dongmentou, Zhushan, Jindezhen. That vase was also made during the Hongwu period just as the one above. This jar has a pm11 frieze pattern on the top rim and three beautiful bands of p111 frieze pattern on the body. Although the red decoration has blurred due to the passage of time, the outline of the patterns can still be clearly seen. The blurred patterns at the base looks like a pm11 frieze pattern but we cannot be sure as the patterns are not clear at all. If only the pattern were clearer, we could actually say that this whole jar is decorated with frieze patterns. This is would be really rare as we could in the later part; there is no single porcelain that is totally covered with frieze patterns. Note that this is the only piece of porcelain that we show produced in the Hongwu period. This is because there is actually very few underglaze blue and white porcelains been produced at that time. Reason behind this was that there was actually a shortage of imported cobalt that is used for the blue decoration. Also, the potters at Jindezhen seemed to prefer to make underglaze copper (red) to using impure local cobalt for underglaze blue.

pm11

p111

pm11??


37

2.7 Yongle Period Porcelains 1403-24

Tankard decorated in underglaze blue Top Rim

pm11

Body

pm11

Base

p111

Ewer decorated in underglaze blue Body

p1a1

pm11


38

Ewer decorated in underglaze blue Top

pm11

Foot Ring

p112

Ewer decorated in underglaze blue Body

pm11

Foot Ring

p112


39

Large flask with underglaze blue decoration Body

pm11

Meiping with underglaze blue decoration Top

pm11


40

Bianhu moon flask with underglaze blue decoration Body

p111

Bianhu moon flask with underglaze blue decoration Body

pma2


41

Qizuo (stand) painted in underglaze blue decoration

Body

p1m1

Base

pm11

Large bowl with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p1a1

Bowl with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p1a1


42

Mantou bowl with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pm11

Base

pm11

Lianzi bowl with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pma2

Top

pm11


43


pma2

p112

Base

pm11

Foot Ring

pma2


44


p1a1

p112

Body

pm11

Foot Ring

pma2


44

2.8 Xuande Period Porcelains 1426-35

Stem cup with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p1a1

Foot Ring

pma2

Large flask with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p1a1


45

Bianhu moon flask with underglaze blue decoration, cut-down neck and ground-down base Top

pm11

Base

pm11

Globular jar with underglaze blue decoration Top

pm11

Base

pm11


46

Globular stem bowl with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pma2

Body

pm11

Base

pm11

Small globular bowl with underglaze blue decoration Base

pm11


47

Small globular bowl with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pm11


p112

Foot Ring

p1a1


p112

Foot Ring

p1a1


48


p112

p1a1

Foot Ring

p1a1


p111

p112

Body

pm11


49


p112

p1a1

Body

pm11

Foot Ring

pma2

Large vase with underglaze blue decoration, cut-down neck and gilt-bronze mount Body

pm11

pm11


50

Zhadou (leys jar) with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pm11

Body

pm11


51

2.9 Zhengtong to Tianshun Period Porcelains 1436-64

Meiping with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pm11

Vase with underglaze blue decoration Body

p112

Base

pm11


52

Two vases with underglaze blue decoration Base

p111


53

2.10 Chenghua Period Porcelains 1465-87

Meiping with underglaze blue decoration Base

pm11

Bowl with underglaze blue decoration Foot Ring

p112

Palace bowl’ with underglaze blue decoration Foot Ring

pm11


54

2.11 Hongzhi Period Porcelains 1488-1505

Bianhu flask with underglaze blue decoration and ground-down neck Foot Ring

pm11

Guan jar with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p112

Base

pm11


55

Jar with underglaze blue decoration Top

pm11

Jar with underglaze blue decoration Body

p111

Base

p111

Chapter 2 Ming Blue and White Porcelains ________________________________________________________________________

56

2.12 Zhengde Period Porcelains 1506-21

Rectangle ink slab and cover with underglaze blue decoration Body

pm11

Incense burner with three legs decorated in underglaze blue and with missing handles Top Rim

p112

Note: There is Arabic inscriptions on the body of the burner. If we ignored the inscription, we can consider the band as a pmm2 frieze pattern.

Large bowl with underglaze blue decoration, ground-down rim and glaze enamel on the base Top Rim

pm11


57


pm11

Foot Ring

pm11


p112

pm11


58

Vase with underglaze blue decoration Top

pm11

Base

pm11

Foot Ring

p112

Chapter 2 Ming Blue and White Porcelains __________________________________________________________________________________________________________

60

2.13 Jiajing Period Porcelains 1522-66

Stem cup with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pma2

Bowl with underglaze blue decoration

Top Rim

p111

Large bowl with underglaze blue decoration Body

p111


60

Brush and ink-stick stand decorated in underglaze blue Top

pma2

Octagonal brush and ink-stick stand decorated in underglaze blue Top Rim

pm11

Base

p111


61

Double gourd-shaped bottle with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p111

Body

pm11

Foot Ring

p1a1

Large double gourd-shaped bottle with underglaze blue decoration Body

p111

Base

p111


62

Hexagonal jar with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p112

Top

pm11

Base

pm11

Jar with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p112

Top

pm11


63


pm11

Base


pm11

pm11 p111


64

Large water jar with underglaze blue decoration, dedicatory inscription and metal-bound rim Top Rim

p112

Base

p111

Jar with underglaze blue decoration Base

pm11


65

2.14 Wanli Period Porcelains 1573-1620

Bottle with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pma2

Hexagonal bottle with underglaze blue decoration Body

pm11

Foot Ring

p112


66

Bottle with moulded tiger-head handles and underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

p111

Foot Ring

p111


pm11


67

Large meiping with underglaze blue decoration Top

p111

Base

p111

Large jar decorated in underglaze blue Top Rim

p111

Base

pm11


68

Large jar and cover decorated in underglaze blue with replacement silver knob Top Rim

p1a1

Base

p111


p111

Foot Ring

p112


69


p1a1


pmm2

Gui with underglaze blue decoration Base

pm11


70

Bowl with underglaze blue and green enamel details Top Rim

pmm2


71

2.15 Tianqi and Chongzhen Period Porcelains 1620-44

Bowl with underglaze blue Top Rim

pmm2

Large bowl with carved patterned ground and underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pmm2

Bowl with pierced latticework panels and underglaze blue Top Rim

p111


72

Ovoid jar and cover with underglaze blue Top

pma2

Jar with underglaze blue Top

p111

pm11


73

Jar and cover decorated in underglaze blue Top

p111

Top Rim

pm11

Vase with underglaze blue decoration Top Rim

pmm2

Body

pm11


81

2.16 Analysis on Ming Porcelains In this section, we will analysis the distribution of the seven types of frieze patterns, the distribution of frieze pattern on porcelains (both Yuan and Ming) and also the difference in this distribution in different time periods.

From the graph above, we can see that frieze pattern type pm11 appears most frequently in the Yuan and Ming porcelains and that p1m1 is a rare pattern that has only appeared once. The frequency of the rest of the patterns seems to be quite even showing that the decorators of the porcelains frequently use these frieze patterns without obvious preference.

From the pie chart above, we are able to see the distribution of the frieze patterns on the porcelains. It shows that frieze patterns can be found most often at the top rim (33%), followed by the body (24%) and the base (19%). Both the top and the foot ring share the same percentage.

66

2921 20

13 91

0

20

40

60

pm11 p111 p1a1 p112 pma2 pmm2 p1m1

Frieze Patterns Types

Seven Types of Frieze Pattern

Distribution of Frieze patterns on Ming Porcelains

Top Rim33%

Top 12%

Body 24%

Base19%

Foot Ring12%


82

From this graph, we can see that all seven types of frieze patterns are present on the body of the porcelains with pm11 type been frequently used. Beside the body of porcelains, the top rim has six out of seven types of the frieze pattern. Furthermore, on the top rim, the different types of frieze pattern seem to be more evenly spread out unlike on the body where pm11 is the distinct type. From the pie chart, we also see tat 33% of the frieze pattern can be found on the top rim. With the frieze patterns types evenly spread out, it show that the decorator uses different frieze patterns on the top rim with no bias to any one particular type. Unlike the top rim, we can see that the decorators on use two types of frieze patterns, p111 and pm11 at the base. pm11 is the distinct pattern type for the top, the body and the base portion of the porcelains. One interesting thing to note is that we do not find p112 and p1a1 frieze pattern at the top and the base of the porcelain at all but we can see pm11 in all five parts of the porcelains.

Distribution of Frieze Patterns on Ming Porcelains

0

5

10

15

20

25

Top Rim Top Body Base Foot Ring

Area on Ming Porcelainsp111 p112 p1a1 pm11 pmm2 pma2 p1m1


83

This chart shows the distribution of the frieze patterns on the porcelains at different time periods, starting from Yuan dynasty right to the end of Ming dynasty. For most of the periods, we can find frieze patterns on all five parts of the porcelains. For time periods like Hongwu, Zhengtong and Chenghua, we do not have enough evidence to say that frieze patterns cannot be found on all the five parts of the porcelains. This is because we do not have enough porcelain in this research to prove that.

Looking at Tianqi and Chongzhen (T&C) period, there is no frieze pattern found at the base and the foot ring. Furthermore, only 10% of the frieze patterns are found on the body of the porcelains. This is because potters decorated the porcelains with narrative themes that include romantic images, battles, scenes of popular myths and legends at that time. This change in decoration is a result of the decline in the imperial order. This decline meant that fewer items are decorated with formal dragons and phoenix, or with lotus scroll designs, than in previous era, which is normally decorated with frieze as well. Potters may also want people to focus on the narrative themes such that they cut down on decorations using frieze patterns. Furthermore, using narrative themes on the porcelains means that there is space constraint on the porcelains to add in the frieze patterns. A possible reason for not having any frieze patterns on the foot ring is because there is a change in design of the porcelains. For example, vases have a broader base for stability instead of having foot rings.

Distribution of Frieze Patterns on Ming Porcelains in Different Periods

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Yuan

Hongwu

Yongle

Xuande

Zhengtong

Chengh

ua

Hongzh

i

Zhengde

Jiajin

gWanli

T&C

Period



84

Distribution of Frieze Patterns on Ming Porcelains in Different Time Periods

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Yuan Yongle Xuande Jiajing Wanli T&CTime Period


As mention in the previous page that we do not have enough information, six time periods have been chosen for the use of this graph. We can see that except for the period of Tianqi and Chongzhen that do not have frieze patterns at the base and that foot ring, all the rest have frieze on the all parts of the porcelain. We have already explained that in the previous page. What we want to look at is the trend of where the frieze can be found. We can see that a gradual decline in the frieze pattern being used on the body of the porcelains in the Ming dynasty. This may be a result in the increase use of decorating using narrative themes on the porcelains. We can see an increase in the frieze patterns found at the foot rings from Yuan to Xuande period. However, during Jiajing period there is a sharp drop in the frieze pattern at the foot ring. Although, there is an increase during the Wanli period, frieze patterns at the foot ring cannot be seen in the Tianqi and Chongzhen period. This may be as mentioned before due to the designs of the porcelains produced.


85

Distribution of Frieze Patterns Types in Different Time Periods

02468

10121416

Yuan Yongle Xuande Jiajing Wanli T&C

Time Period

p111 p112 p1a1 pm11 pmm2 pma2 p1m1

From the chart above, we can clearly see the main distinct between the frieze patterns types used in Yuan dynasty and Ming dynasty. In Yuan dynasty, p112 frieze type cannot be found at all. p112 can be found in all except Tianqi and Chongzhen period. We can also see that pm11 frieze type has been favoured till Jiajing period where it starts to decline. With pm11 frieze pattern declining, we can see that the use of p111 frieze type has actually increased and finally overtake pm11 as the most preferred pattern in Wanli period. Although during Tianqi and Chongzhen period, there is no difference in preference on the use of p111, pm11 and pmm2. We see that there is no p112 and p1a1 found. This may be because there is no foot ring frieze pattern. Refer back to the chart on the distribution of frieze patterns on porcelains; we will notice that p112 and p1a1 are the main types of patterns found at the foot ring.

Chapter 3 Peranakan Porcelains ________________________________________________________________________________________________

81

Chapter 3 Peranakan Porcelains 3.1 Introduction In this section, for a change of flavour, we will take a look at Peranakan porcelains. We will analysis them the same way as the Ming porcelains. As the Peranakan porcelains are currently on exhibition at the Asian Civilisation Museum, we could only take pictures of them on display. As the lighting is poor, some of the pictures may be blurred. In the section showing the porcelains pieces, not all of them with frieze patterns are shown. Thus, if the reader is interested in looking at them, he/she may head down to the museum 3.2 Brief Background The word Peranakan is Malay word that simply means, “born locally”. From about six hundred years ago, Chinese traders came from China and settled in what we now known as Malaysia, Indonesian and Singapore. They brought with them their traditions from China but slowly developed a different way of life in their new country. Their offspring became known as the Peranakan Chinese. The men are called Babas and the women, Nonyas. Wealthy Peranakan Chinese specially commissioned colourful enameled porcelain from Chinese manufacturers. These included large dinner sets with matching serving vessels and other utensils used during weddings, birthdays, and other special occasions. Many of the wares were probably made at private kilns in Jindezhen. They have been called “Shanghai wares” as it is thought that orders were placed with the distributors in Shanghai. They have also been called “Nonya ware” in reference to their Nonya owners. Although these porcelains were made in Jindezhen, they have their own distinctive designs such as using the phoenix and the kirin as motifs. Whilst there are stylistic similarities with other types of export wares there is little evidence of their consumption outside of the Straits Settlements. More revealing, however, are the shared stylistic elements found across the spectrum of Peranakan material culture. For example, the elaborate colour schemes with brilliant designs found on Nonya embroidery, beadwork and batik. The parcel designs typically incorporate an abundance of convention religious and auspicious motifs in compact symmetrical


82

arrangement. The Peranakan taste for elaboration has been attributed to horror vaccui or “fear of space” as well as desire for display of wealth. The family matriarch usually owned Nonya ware. Peranakan families were matrilocal, which meant that the daughter live at home after marriage. Family heirlooms such as porcelains were thus inherited and passed on by the women. Large porcelain dinner sets were received as wedding or birthday gifts and the Nonya thus influenced the demand for porcelains. There was a significant quantity demanded during the Guanxu period (1875-1909), Qing dynasty and also during the late 1950s when there was an influx of female Chinese immigrants to Straits Chinese Settlements.


83

3.3 Peranakan Wares Coral Red Ground Wares

Large kamcheng with phoenix-and-peony Top Rim

p112

Body

pm11

Base

pm11

In-out kamcheng with figures Top Rim

pmm2

Body

pm11

Base

pm11


82

Yellow Ground Wares

Egg-yolk yellow and lemon yellow chupu Base

pm11

Lemon yellow and sky blue altar vase Top Rim

pm11

Base

pm11


83

Blue Ground Wares

Indigo blue kamcheng Top Rim

p112

Turquoise wine warmer Base

pm11

Turquoise and olive tray Top Rim

p111


84

Pink Altar Wares

Altar teapot Top Rim

p1a1

Turquoise and pink offering dish with phoenix and peony Base

p111

Pink cylindrical censer and joss stick holder Top Rim

pm11

Base

pm11

Picture not available

P111


85

Pink cylindrical joss stick holder Top Rim

pm11

Base

pm11

Pair of pink vases Top Rim

pm11

Base

pm11

Chapter 3 Peranakan Porcelains ________________________________________________________________________

86

Lime Green Ground Wares

Lime green steamer and wine warmer with cup Base

pm11

pm11

Lime green and pink covered bowl Top

pm11


87

Large pink and green kamcheng with goldfish inside Body

pm11

Base

pm11

Lime green cylindrical teapot Top Rim

p112


88

Lime green vase with dragon and phoenix Top

pm11

Base

pm11

Pale Pink Ground Wares

Pale pink kamcheng with goldfish inside Body

pm11


89

Vase with flowers Top Rim

pm11

Base

pm11

In-out chupu Base

pm11

pma2


90

Café au lait Ground Wares

Café au lait kamcheng Top Rim

p112

Base

pm11

Brown /olive green chupu Base

pm11

Picture not available


91

Brown cylindrical teapot Base

pm11

Brown cylindrical joss stick holder Base

pm11


92

Green Ground Wares

Large green and pink kamcheng Base

pm11

Penang green joss stick Base

pm11


93


94

Penang green chupu Base

pm11


95

3.4 Analysis of Peranakan Porcelains with Ming Porcelains From the graph above, we can see that pm11 frieze pattern is the most preferred frieze pattern in the Peranakan porcelains. We are not able to find any p1m1 frieze pattern in this case. p1a1, pmm2 and pma2 are equally rare as we can only find one for each type. Compared with the Ming porcelains, we see that p112 is preferred to p1a1 by the Peranakans whereas in the Ming porcelains, these two designs are equally preferred. From this pie chart, we can see that half of the frieze patterns are found at the base of the porcelains as compare to the Ming dynasty where the top rim is a preferred decoration area. We can also see that only 3% of the frieze can be found at the foot ring.

50

137

1 1 1 00

1020304050

pm11 p111 p112 p1a1 pmm2 pma2 p1m1

Frieze Patterns Types

Seven Types of Frieze Pattern

Distribution of Frieze patterns on Peranakan Porcelains

Top Rim21%

Top 16%

Body 10%

Base50%

Foot Ring3%


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From this graph, we can see that pm11 dominates four of the five parts of the porcelains. We can only find one frieze pattern that is p111 at the foot ring. Unlike the Ming Porcelains, where we can find only two frieze types at the base, we are able to find four types at the base of the Peranakan porcelains. In the Ming porcelains, we are also not able to see any p112 frieze types on the top of which we are able to in the Peranakan porcelains.

Distribution of Frieze Patterns on Peranakan Porcelains

0

5

10

1520

25

30

35


Area on Peranakan Porcelainsp111 p112 p1a1 pm11 pmm2 pma2 p1m1

Conclusion ________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Conclusion

As we can see that by classifying the frieze patterns, we will be able to see what influence the changes in the use of different types of frieze patterns. For instance, when there is a change in the design of the porcelains vase where potters omit the foot ring, we do not find any frieze patterns on the part of the porcelains. This tells us a change in the preference of the people. We can always relate the changes to some social happenings. For instance, when we could not find any porcelain in the Hongwu’s reign, we can trace back to the fact that there is a shortage in raw materials. From the classification of the frieze pattern, we can make inferences to the social and cultural context of a particular period.

We have tried to compare the Ming and the Peranakan porcelains together.

Although not much can be say about the two because the Peranakan porcelain pieces are very few, we can still see some differences between them. Peranakan porcelains are also made in Jindezhen but because of the time period difference we see a shift in the use of different frieze pattern types on the different part of the porcelains. However, the basic patterns are still being used in both time periods. They are the leiwen (thunder pattern) and the lotus petals design. These two designs are the all time favourite frieze patterns of the potters and the public. All the p112 frieze pattern type in this paper is leiwen and almost all pm11 type is the lotus petals design. It is not easy to identify the lotus petal design because many times flowers motifs or small decorations are painted on the petals such that one would not think that it the lotus petals design.

Leiwen from the Ming Porcelain Leiwen from the Peranakan Porcelain

Lotus petals design from the Ming Porcelain Lotus petals design from the Peranakan Porcelain

Conclusion ________________________________________________________________________________________________

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An interesting finding is that leiwen can only be found at the top rim, the top or

the foot ring but never on the body and at the base and the lotus petals design only appears at the base. This explains the dominance of the pm11 frieze pattern type at the base. It is not known why these two are use but they might be some auspicious meaning to them.

Another interesting finding is that in the Peranakan porcealain, we able to see that

a pm11 frieze pattern called the ruyi (meaning always goes in one’s accord) is frequently used. However, we do not see that it is frequently used in the Ming porcelains.

Ruyi pattern on Peranakan Porcelains

With these interesting findings, we have come to the end of the paper. A constrain in this paper is that research on all the frieze patterns in this paper are solely based on the pictures in the book. As a result of this, we might missed out some of the frieze patterns that we cannot observed from the pictures and that we might classify them wrongly. This is especially so in the case for the Ming porcelains.

Chronologies ________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Chronologies Ming Emperors (AD 1368-1644) Reign Title Reign Period Year in Power Name of Emperor Temple Name Hongwu 1368-98 31 Zhu Yuanzhang Taizu (lived 1328-98) Jianwen 1399-1402 4 Zhu Yunwen Huizhong (lived 1377-1402) Yongle 1403-24 22 Zhu Di Chengzu (lived 1360-1424) Hongxi 1425 1 Zhu Gaozhi Renzong (lived 1378-1425) Xuande 1426-35 10 Zhu Zhanji Xuanzong (lived 1427-64) Zhengtong 1436-49 14 Zhu Qizhen Yingzong (lived 1428-57) Jingtai 1450-6 7 Zhu Qiyu Daizong (lived 1428-57) Tianshun 1457-64 8 Zhu Qizhen Yingzong (lived 1427-64) Chenghua 1465-87 23 Zhu Jianshen Xianzong (lived 1447-8) Hongzhi 1488-1505 18 Zhu Youtang Xiaozong (lived 1470-1505) Zhengde 1506-21 16 Zhu Houzao Wuzong (lived 1491-1521) Jiajing 1522-66 45 Zhu Houcong Shizong (lived 1507-67) Reign Title Reign Period Year in Power Name of Emperor Temple Name

Chronologies ________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Longqing 1567-72 6 Zhu Zaihou Muzong (lived 1537-72) Wanli 1573-1620 48 Zhu Yijun Shenzong (lived 1582-1620) Taichang 1620 1 Zhu Changle Guangzong (lived 1582-1620) Tianqi 1621-7 7 Zhu Youjiao Xizong (lived 1605-27) Chongzhen 1628-44 17 Zhu Youjian Sizong Note 1. Zhu Zhanji’s son Zhu Chizhen reigned as Zhengtong and later as Tianshun emperor.

Chronologies ________________________________________________________________________________________________

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