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Personnel ReviewEmerald Article: Re-thinking training needs analysis: A proposed frameworkfor literature review

Warren Chiu, David Thompson, Wai-ming Mak, K.L. Lo

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Warren Chiu, David Thompson, Wai-ming Mak, K.L. Lo, (1999),"Re-thinking training needs analysis: A proposed framework foriterature review", Personnel Review, Vol. 28 Iss: 1 pp. 77 - 90

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Re-thinkingtraining needs

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Re-thinking training needs

analysisA proposed framework forliterature review

Warren Chiu, David Thompson, Wai-ming Mak andK.L. Lo

Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

Keywords Assessment, Training, T rain ing needs

Abs t rac t T his paper reviews the literatu re on tr aining needs analysis with the intention of

organising conceptually the var ious approaches. It offers a way of going beyond simple descr ipt ions

to a quant itati ve approach. A simple yet comprehensive model is proposed which consists of fouraspects focusing on four related questions: Who are the key ini ti ators of the TNA studies? Whatare the levels of i nterest in the studi es (i.e. organ izati on, process, group and indi vidual)? What

methods of analysis are used? What is the intended outcome of the analysis? Based on these, four

hypotheses are proposed. A l it erat ure search produced a total of 118 ar ti cles, of whi ch 44 were

randomly picked for detailed review. As expected, the li terat ure was dominated by supply-led

players, i .e. tr ainers and academics, but with an unexpectedly strong emphasis on the demand-led aspects of the organisation, especial ly it s business result s and growth.

IntroductionSurvey evidence from the UK and the USA suggests that over 90 per cent offirms engage in some forms of development activities for managers (Constable,1988; Loo, 1991; Saariet al., 1988). To design such development activities, it hasbecome of prime importance to conduct a training needs analysis (TNA) priorto embarking on management development (Berger, 1993). Although there is adifference in the label, both of them represent a systematic effort to gatherinformation on performance problems within the organization which might beremedied by training and development (Anderson, 1993; Bennett, 1992;Ferdinand, 1988).

The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on TNA, with theintention of organising conceptually the various approaches, based on fourrelated questions: who are the key initiators of TNA studies? What are thelevels of interest in the studies? What methods of analysis are used? What is theintended outcome of the analysis? Based on these, four hypotheses are testedand discussed.

Supply-led approach to TNAThe information can be obtained from a variety of sources (e.g. McGehee andThayer, 1961; Rossett, 1987). One major source of information about trainingneeds is what scholars describe as the pedagogical approach (Delahaye, 1992)

Personnel Review,Vol. 28 No. 1/2, 1999, pp. 77-90,

MCBUniversity Press, 0048-3486

Received January 1997Revised/Accepted April

1997


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or supply-led approach. This approach is largely trainer-driven and authorityoriented coming from the vested interests of trainers (Thompson, 1994).

Traditionally, trainers are responsible for identifying training needs and the

scope of the assessment can cover any level of the organization. To assesstraining needs, it is not an uncommon practice for trainers to adopt a skill modelor taxonomy as a framework to help compile a list of tasks, and ask jobincumbents to indicate their training needs for every item on the list. However,this approach may unwittingly introduce problems to needs assessment.

Trainers often lack line management experience and do not understand the realoperational issues (Bucalo, 1984). The skill model often captures imprecise traitlabels and global behavioral descriptions (Campbell et al., 1970; Powers, 1987;Whetten and Cameron, 1991). These trait labels and behavioral descriptionsmay simply reflect the trainers preconceptions of the job which may or may notmatch with that of the potential trainees.

Demand-led approach to TNA

Business-or iented. The supply-led approach of TNA has been increasinglychallenged by changes in the business world which emphasize the bottom-line, profitability, growth, etc. This leads to such sources of information abouttraining needs as the organizations business plan. Ferdinard (1988) described

TNA as a rational process by which an organization determines how todevelop or acquire the human skills it needs in order to achieve its businessobjectives; hence, it is anticipatory in nature intending to meet long-termorganizational objectives (Snape et al., 1994). Thompson (1994) has identifiedthis with a demand-led approach. Top managers chief executives anddirectors are conceived to be committed to investment in training becausethey see its importance to the success of the business. The key to the approachis seen to be the business planning process, which establishes the context and

mission of the organisation. This therefore identifies the context for trainingand demonstrates how the training effort is integrated with the wider businesspurpose. Demand-led training suggests needs analysis techniques such asmanagement by objectives (MBO) as a means of linking individual objectiveswith business purpose and of identifying the areas where the individual mayneed training in order to achieve his or her objectives. To summarize, thisbusiness-oriented approach is characterized by a top-down, finance-drivenprocess (e.g. profit, growth) emphasizing more on the business outcome and lesson employees needs.

Process-or iented. Besides the business-oriented approach, we propose thatthe demand-led aspect of TNA has another counterpart the process-orientedapproach. The process-oriented approach is different from the business-oriented approach in terms of its scope and emphasis. While the business-

oriented approach focuses on the whole organization, the scope of the process-oriented approach is mainly on a localized division or a department. Very often,training needs arise because of the introduction of new processes such asbusiness process reengineering, total quality management (TQM), ISO 9000 in


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a subdivision of an organization. The purpose of identifying training needs atthis level is to ensure the new work processes can be introduced in an effectiveand efficient manner.

Trainer-centred.The demand-led approach (i.e. business and processoriented) may be contrasted with a more trainee-centred approach or whatDelahaye (1992) described as the andragogical approach. Unlike the demand-led approach, the trainee-centred approach is characterized by a bottom-up,self-development driven (e.g. performance, promotion) emphasizing more onemployees needs and less on the business outcome or work efficiency. Thetrainee-centred approach often relies on self-assessment as the source ofinformation. Research findings suggest that self-assessment may be a truereflection of trainees development needs and should be considered as animportant component of a valid needs assessment process (McEnery andMcEnery, 1987). However, self-assessment of training needs is also under strongcriticism because it may sometimes reflect trainees training wants but not theactual training needs (Nowack, 1991). Trainees tend to be more lenient on theirratings and make relatively more attributions (i.e. excuses) to externalenvironment. All these tendencies would inevitably undermine the accuracy ofthe TNA data.

Using this framework of TNA approaches, it is interesting to know whethera particular approach is more prevalent than the others in the TNA literature.However, the majority of the studies in the TNA literature has been descriptiveand anecdotal in nature, making the detection of these differences in TNAapproaches difficult. One major purpose of the present research study is toreview the literature on training needs analysis with a view to organizingconceptually the various TNA approaches. A simple and yet comprehensiveframework is proposed here which attempts to identify the prevalent TNApractice as reported in the literature (see Figure 1).

The model consists of four aspects aiming at answering four relatedquestions. The four questions being:

Figure 1.The proposed TNA

model

Key Actors Levels of Interest Methods Outcomes

Organizationalrepresentatives

Organizations Business Assessment(e.g., businessplanning)

Profits

Trainers

Trainees

Process Process Assessment(e.g., process review)

Efficiency

Groups Assessment by trainer(e.g., assessmentcentres)

ProfessionalEffectiveness

Individual Self-assessment (e.g.,learning resourcescentres)

PersonalEffectiveness


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(1) Who are the key initiators of the TNA studies?

(2) What are the levels of interest the TNA studies seek?

(3) What methods are used?(4) What is the intended purpose of the analysis?

We believe that the background of an initiator would, to a great extent, affectthe approach used in TNA. For example, organizational representatives tend touse a demand-led approach, whereas, the trainers and trainees would adoptthe supply-led and the trainee-centred approach respectively. Although thesupply-led and the trainee-centred approach are equally importantcompared to the demand-led approach, we believe that the trainers are still thedominant key initiators. The dominance of trainers in this field would logicallyimply that the level of interest is mainly supply-led. That is, trainers areconcerned more with the group level groups of trainees for theircompetency-based analysis and less with other levels of interest, especially the

individual and the organisational levels. The supply-led approach wouldfurther imply that trainers would take an active role in assessing training needs.Examples of these methods include interviews or observations (e.g. assessmentcentres) in which trainers play a major role in needs assessment as well asquestionnaires designed by trainers (e.g. job analysis questionnaires) to collectinputs from job incumbents on a specific job position. Finally, the supply-ledapproach will further imply that most TNA studies were conducted with an aimof enhancing managerial and professional effectiveness. Based on the abovearguments, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1:Trainers as a group constitute the largest proportion of initiators ofTNA among all other groups of initiators.

H2:The proportion of TNA studies targeted at the group level is larger than

at other levels.H3:The largest proportion of assessment methods used in assessing

training needs are done either by trainers themselves or through someform of structured questionnaires designed by trainers.

H4:The largest proportion of the intended purpose of the TNA activitiesaims at enhancing managerial/professional effectiveness.

MethodSampling str ategyA literature search was undertaken through the CD-ROM of the UniversityLibraries system for the past 25 years. Initially, four databases were inspected.

They are ANBAR, Psylit, ABI/Inform and ERIC. Subsequently, ERIC was

dropped because the studies are mainly for education rather than for business.In searching for relevant articles, many key phrases have been used (e.g.managerial training, training needs, self-development). However, many articlesidentified using these phrases were not directly relevant to TNA. We decided to


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restrict the search to two key phrases that are directly related to TNA. Thesetwo phrases are training needs analysis and training needs assessment. As aresult, 130 articles were identified, of which two were from ANBAR, 29 from

Psylit, 99 from ABI/Inform. Among the 130 articles, 12 were cross-referenced bymore than one database and that reduced the total number of articles to 118.Next we randomly picked half of the articles, that is 58, for the review. Of these58 articles, 14 were dropped during the review process because the content wasnot relevant to TNA even though they carried the key phrases of TNA in thetext. A complete list of the 44 studies is included in the Appendix.

Classification scheme of the proposed frameworkThe TNA model covered four aspects. The first aspect was the key initiators. Akey initiator was defined here as the one who initiated the study. In most cases,the key initiators might well be the author of the study but, occasionally, theauthor simply reported on a TNA study conducted by someone else. In thiscase, the originator(s) of the study should be considered as the key initiator(s).

A TNA study could be initiated by organizational representatives (e.g. CEO, thedirector, or the manager), trainers (e.g. training consultants or academics), orfrom the trainees themselves.

Also, the model tries to distinguish various levels of interests in the TNAstudies. These levels can be macro (i.e. the business performance), micro (i.e.individual performance) or at a level somewhere in between (i.e. theperformance of a localized system or a specific incumbent group). There areseen to be four possible levels. If the aims of the study targeted at the macrolevel involving analyses of organizational goal or companywide changes likecultural change, market change, we would consider it as the organizationallevel. A study is classified as the process level if the training need arises becauseof the introduction of new processes such as TQM or ISO 9000 in a localized

division or a department. The third level is at the task level. At this level,training is catered to the needs of a group of job incumbents on some specificjob related skills. Finally, training programmes may focus on the needs of aperson. The skills being taught in these training programmes are generic innature (e.g. stress management, problem-solving skills, presentation skills) withno direct job relevancy and are highly transferable from job to job.

The third aspects of the model is about the different assessment methodsused for the need assessment. If the TNA is demand-led in nature, thetechniques should be different from those in the other three categories. Ademand-led approach to TNA would employ methods such as organizationalscanning and SWOT. The former example is a useful method for identifyinginternal needs of the organization whereas the latter put the organization in aenvironment context when assessing needs for development. To analyse

processes or systems, methods like process analysis or taskflow analysis aregood examples of this category. The third category of methods includes varioustypes of interviews or observations (e.g. assessment centre, peer evaluation).Very often, the assessment involves an interviewer or observer to solicit


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comments from respondents. Compared to the last two kinds of methods, thisassessment approach may require more subjective interpretation on the part ofthe assessors. Finally, there are methods used to assess the development needs

of an individual. A good example of such a self-assessment method is thinkaloud protocol.Finally, it covers the kinds of intended purpose of the analysis. These levels

differ in whether the study mainly aims at the organizational effectiveness (e.g.profit, growth, etc.), the system/process effectiveness (e.g. effectiveness,efficiency), managerial effectiveness, or personal effectiveness.

Inter judge reliabil ityBefore coding the contents of the sampled studies, a training session was heldhaving team members reviewing five articles together using the classificationscheme. The purpose of the training session was to ensure a uniforminterpretation of the coding scheme. Next, the team members were divided upinto two pairs. Each pair was responsible for reviewing half of the sampled

articles. Team members of each pair coded the articles independently accordingto the classification scheme and the coding results were then compared withthose of the other team member. The Kappa statistics (Cohen, 1960) were usedas a measure of agreement between the two pairs of judges on the sampledarticles using nominal scales.

ResultsThe following section first reports the Kappa statistics on interjudge agreementon the four aspects of our proposed model. It is followed by reporting theobserved proportions of various categories in the model. Finally, hypothesistestings will be conducted using a series of Huberty one-tailed t-tests toexamine whether the observed proportions are significantly greater thanchance.

Inter judge reliabil ityTable I gives summary statistics for each of the dimensions proposed in thepresent model. The results show that interjudge reliabilities of the fourdimensions are extremely high. The values of Kappa are between 0.75 to 0.94.

Category inij2 P

ikj Var (kj) ki/SE (kj)

Actors 174 0.97 0.91 0.07 3.5**Levels 165 0.82 0.75 0.11 2.3*Approach 168 0.96 0.94 0.01 9.4***Purpose 163 0.85 0.79 0.003 15.8****Notes:* =p< 0.05; ** =p< 0.01; *** =p< 0.001; **** =p< 0.0001

Table I.Statistics for measuringagreement on the fouraspects of the model


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The degree of agreement (corrected for the amount expected by chance) is atleast 75 per cent between any randomly selected reviewer. In fact, interjudgereliabilities in two cases are up to 91 per cent and 94 per cent. All the values of

kjare significantly greater than chance.

The key ini tiatorsThe overall proportions of the three proposed initiating sources of TNA, thedemand-led, the supply-led, and the trainee-centred, are 13, 87, and 0 per cent,respectively. Of the 87 per cent of the supply-led contributors, two-thirds areaffiliated with universities and the other one-third are training consultants. Tofind out whether the observed proportion of trainers/academics is actuallybetter than chance (i.e. 33 per cent in a three category case), the Huberty one-tailedztest was used (Stevens, 1986, p. 257). The result of the test indicated thatthe observed proportion was highly significant,z= 11,p< 0.0001. The findingsconfirmedH1 and hence supported the idea that the key initiators of TNA inthe literature are predominantly trainers and academics. Contributions solely

made from top or line managers (i.e. demand-led approach) are rare and none sofar was found from trainees (i.e. trainee-centred approach).

Another interesting observation is that, despite the fact that joint effortsamong players of different professional backgrounds are encouraged, there waslittle evidence that academics, consultants and managers would work togetherin TNA research. Of all the papers reviewed, there were only three mixed caseswith an academic and a manager co-authoring a paper.

Levels of analysisResults showing that the proportion of studies done on analysingorganizational needs is the highest (36 per cent) and this is followed by thegroup level (26 per cent) and the process level (24 per cent). Investigations at the

individual levels are relatively few (14 per cent). The Huberty one-tailedz

testindicated that the observed proportion found in the group level was notsignificant, z= 0.5, p= ns. Although we cannot find support for H2, thefindings are not entirely unexpected. The findings suggest that organizationalneeds often take precedence over those of the groups or individuals. It is theorganization which determines what the training needs are in order to meetwith its business objectives. The Huberty one-tailed z-statistic test indicatedthat the observed proportion found in the organizational level was significant, z= 2.2,p< 0.05. Again, the findings confirmed, to a certain extent, a frequent useof demand-led approach in the TNA literature at the level of analysis regardlessof who are the initiators.

Such a demand-led approach is even more obvious when the data are plottedagainst time intervals. Figure 2 shows that while number of TNA studies are

steadily increasing, the rate of increase in demand-led approach is the fastest.According to the present findings, the approach first surfaced in the early 1980sand then increased drastically from late 1980s onward. A similar pattern can befound for the process level though the trend of increase is less extreme. One of


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the possible reasons for an exponential growth in the demand-led approachmay be due to the rapid changes in business environment during the past twodecades making the demand-led approach a priority in TNA.

A significant portion of the demand-led studies aims at improving thelinkages between organizational strategies and TNA. These studies criticize,one way or the other, the limitations of some existing models. The existingmodels are called by different names. They are coined as the traditional model(Bucalo, 1984), the objective model (Hiebert and Smallwood, 1987), products-oriented model (Macleod, 1987), closed system model (McClelland, 1993), and

deficit model (Anderson, 1994). There are several themes of criticism withregard to these existing models. Many of the existing models were accused ofbeing too simplistic (McClelland, 1993), wrongly assumed that jobs areinvariably embedded in a relatively static business environment (Hiebert andSmallwood, 1987), measured merely past deficiencies (Anderson, 1994), failed tolink with the organizational operations (Bucalo, 1984) and corporate strategies(Macleod, 1987). The contributors recommended that TNA models should bemore comprehensive, adopt an open system approach, anticipate futureefficiencies and align closely with organizational operations and strategies.

Assessment methodsThe overall proportions of the four kinds of assessment methods, the

organizational assessment, the process assessment, the assessment by trainers,and self-assessment, are 15, 9, 40, and 36 per cent respectively. The findingsconfirmedH3 that the methods used in many studies are mostly traditionalmeans such as interviews, observations and questionnaires. Again, the Huberty

Figure 2.Distributions of TNA

studies by year

Number of Studies

Year

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

76-80 81-85 86-90 91-95

Key

IndividualGroup

Process

Organization


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one-tailedztest indicated that the observed proportion of supply-led methodswas significant, z = 3.48,p< 0.05 (assessed by trainers). However, it should benoted that most of the traditional assessment methods were not employed to

assess group needs. Most of the studies using interviews and observations werefocused on identifying training needs for other levels of interest.

Intended purpose of TNAThe overall proportions of the four possible beneficiaries are 39 per cent for theorganization, 28 per cent for the effectiveness of the process, 22 per cent forspecific incumbent groups, and 11 per cent for the personal effectiveness. TheHuberty one-tailed z test for testing H4 was not significant. However, it isworthwhile to note that regardless of at what levels of analysis the TNA isconducted (whether it is at the level of the process, the group or the individuals),the manifest purpose is either obscure or often targeted to the effectiveness ofthe organization. A post hocanalysis reviewed that organizational outcome wasthe most cited objective for conducting TNA studies (the Huberty one-tailed z-

statistic test was significant at z= 3.0,p< 0.01). One reason is that the trainerswho provide service to the organization will tend to highlight the benefits to theorganization so that their proposals would be accepted by the seniormanagement. Yet, in essence, the purpose of conducting the TNA should bebeneficial to the parties other than the organization. The stated purpose, thus,depends very much on who is the user of the service. Since individuals arerarely the buyers, few studies would mention that the benefits are targeted toindividuals. Nevertheless, individuals are, in fact, benefited.

DiscussionThe present paper contributes to the TNA in several ways. First, it is the onlypaper, as far as we know, that uses quantitative method to review the TNA

literature. The great majority of articles reviewed were based, to a greater orlesser extent, on case study evidence. Some were carefully conducted studies.For example, Nelson et al.s (1995) recent study of US Internal Revenue Serviceis an empirical test of the content framework derived from the literature ofMcGehee and Thayer (1961) and Ostroff and Ford (1989). But most of thearticles did not derive data in such a systematic way. All too often, aninteresting framework of new approach was supported by no more than theauthors experience and anecdotal evidence. It is to be hoped that use ofquantitative methods in the present paper will encourage more systematiccollection and analysis of data in studies which go beyond single cases toembrace wider cross-sectional and longitudinal perspectives. In addition, theremay be added value from greater collaboration between academic researchers,training and development practitioners as suppliers and business managers

as demand-led users.Second, we have successfully introduced a simple but reliable model centringon the concepts of different TNA approaches to capture various aspects of

TNA. It builds on the pioneering work of McGehee and Thayer (1961) and


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Ostroff and Ford (1989). These writers focused on level and content. To theseimportant aspects, we have added methods of analysis and expected outcomes,as a means of enriching understanding of the analytical process. The model is

therefore useful in guiding further research into TNA and in helping to classifyfuture studies. It is clear that some cells in the matrix have received lessattention than others.

Third, the findings of the present paper shed light on what range of work hasbeen done and what may remain to be done. We confirmed as expected that the

TNA literature was dominated by the supply-led initiators (i.e. trainers andacademics). Nevertheless, the supply-led initiators did not focus on oneparticular level of analysis. They covered pretty evenly on three of the fourlevels (i.e. organizational, process and group) and less so on the individual level.In addition, the TNA literature was flooded with recommendations on whatmethods should be used; nonetheless, the development of methods is laggingbehind in a number of ways. First, although the tools being recommended areuseful to the training field, most of them are generic in nature and not developed

originally for needs assessment purposes. For example, in a series of papers,McClelland (1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1994d) introduced four data-collection tools,namely, surveys, individual interviews, focus groups and on-site observation,as four important TNA tools. Others (e.g. Schwarzkopf et al., 1980; Stein, 1981)modified some generic tools and found applications in the assessment oftraining needs. These generic tools may be appropriate under the existing TNAmodels; however, they are somewhat inadequate with the advancement of newassessment models (e.g. the emphasis on linking training with corporatestrategies and anticipating future performance efficiencies on a changingbusiness environment). A few studies have introduced new tools to fit in thenew TNA models. For example, action research techniques such as front-lineanalysis capture the dynamic nature of training needs in the actual working

environment (Anderson, 1994). Nevertheless, there are no empirical studies tovalidate these models. This is another limitation to TNA methods.Organizations tend to neglect the developmental needs of individuals. As a

result, there are not many self-assessment tools developed for self-developmentpurposes. One of the major reasons is that the assessment of individual needs isvery expensive and in the companys perspective, the needs of an individual arenot important to bottom-line issues. It is clear from our evidence that the trendis now concentrating on the business effectiveness rather than the personaleffectiveness. The focus of the training debate should be on how to balance theneeds of the individual and the organisations. There is a danger that if it movestoo far away from the individual needs to the business bottom-line issues, in thelong run, a demoralised workforce will hinder the growth of the organisation.

This message has been picked up by a number of professional organisations

who have launched programmes such as continuous professional development(CPD).The strength of our approach is also a limitation. It focuses on and organises

a particular moment in the training and development cycle. It helps to clarify


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that moment but, in doing so, it is ignoring the total sequence of analysis,design, implementation, evaluation. This risks a fragmented look at what is inreality so often a more integrated process. It can also give an impression that

TNA is done once at the beginning of training and development, whereas it isoften part of an integrative process, revisited in the light of subsequentexperience. Future research should examine the whole process of TNA ratherthan a cross-sectional analysis. A second limitation of the present study is thatwe have confined ourselves to published articles, both academic or practitioner,which are available to us from the three chosen databases. There may be a lot of

TNA articles and activities not brought to our attention and, hence, the findingsof this study may be somewhat limited. Interpretation of the findings should bedone with this caution in mind.

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