Sustainable Use and Management OfMPs ECOS Proceedings1

8/12/2019 Sustainable Use and Management OfMPs ECOS Proceedings1

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Sustainable Harvesting and Management of Medicinal Plants in the

Nepal Himalaya: Current Issues, Knowledge Gaps and Research

Priorities

Suresh K. GhimireCentral Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmanduemail: [email protected]

Abstract

Medicinal plants (MPs) form a high percentage of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) collected from theHimalaya. They are the major source of medication for a wide range of ailments for the rural people. Besidestheir importance in health care, MPs have high socio-cultural, symbolic and economic values, providing incomeand employment to millions of people living in the region. Unfortunately, in recent decades, the use of many

plant-based NTFPs, including MPs, has gone from subsistence collection to large-scale commercial extraction,increasing the probability of over-exploitation. Knowledge of the sustainability of the use of such plant resourcesis thus urgently needed. Sustainability of the use and management of plant resources can be assured with anunderstanding of the biological/ecological, economic, socio-cultural and political aspects of resource base;understanding of the complex interactions between many of these factors; and with careful planning andmanagement grounded in ecological principles. Management also requires understanding local perceptions,knowledge and decision making systems relating to the resources. Unfortunately, these aspects of research aregreatly lacking from the Himalaya. There is a general lack of precise scientific knowledge regarding both the

biological and socio-cultural aspects of the resource base and potential for sustainable harvest. This paperreviews the biological and socio-cultural aspects of research on Himalayan MPs; evaluates current issues andgaps on MP research; and outlines the approaches of ecological research in achieving harvesting sustainability ofwild MP resources.

1. IntroductionPeople have used medicinal plants (MPs) in health care since the time of earliest human evolution. Inmany countries, MPs still remain the major source of medication for a wide range of ailments.Therapeutic effects of MPs are associated with their chemical peculiarities, which are in realitycomponents of the defense strategies of plants. Only 5 to 15% of the approximately 270,000 species ofhigher plants occurring in the globe have been systematically investigated, and plants remain a richsource of novel bioactive compounds. The potential value of medicinal compounds derived from

plants has been proposed as a tangible benefit of biodiversity and therefore a basis for promoting itsconservation (Coley et al. 2003).

The role of MPs is particularly important in the Himalayan region, where a large proportion of therural population depends on wild MP resources to meet their health care needs. Besides theirimportance in health care, MPs have high socio-cultural, symbolic and economic values, providingincome and employment to millions of people living in the region. In the Himalaya, MPs are highly

valued in different folk healing systems and in scholarly systems of traditional medicine, such as Ayurveda,Unani, Chinese and Tibetan. In addition, Himalayan medicinal plants and their products are also popular inother traditional medical systems (such as Siddha, homoeopathic) as well as in modern allopathicmedicines.

Plants used in traditional medicine are important sources of novel bio-molecules (Heinrich andGibbons 2001), with application for the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and cosmeceuticals. Besides,the incorporation of medicinal herbs into health foods, dietary supplements, herbal teas, cosmetics,massage oils, fragrances, and dying and coloring agents has dramatically increased the internationaldemand in medicinal plants. The global market for herbal medicines has been estimated to be worthUSD 40-60 billion, annually growing at the rate of 7-10% (for review see Nagpal and Karki 2004;Subrat 2005). The Himalayan region is one of the major repositories of high value MPs in Asia concerned

by international trade. India and China alone consume hundreds of MP species from the Himalaya. The

annual demand for raw materials of MPs in India, for example, is estimated at 24 million metric tons,which is increasing at the rate of 20% per annum (Karki 2001). Similarly, the traditional Chinese medicine


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market has been valued at US$ 4830 million, which is projected to reach over 1.21 billion by the year 2010(Nagpal and Karki 2004).

The recent trend of large-scale commercial extraction of MPs, to meet the growing demand ofherbal industries, has increased the probability of over-exploitation of many valuable species. The

pace, depth, and magnitude of human pressures in the Himalaya are known to have exerted ecologicalstresses not only on the individuals and the populations of MPs but also on the life supportecosystems. This has lead to the degradation of diversity, quality and availability of many valuablespecies on the one hand and their habitats and ecosystems on the other. Knowledge of thesustainability of the use of such plant resources is thus urgently needed. In the Himalaya, there is ageneral lack of precise scientific knowledge regarding both the biological and socio-cultural aspects ofthe resource base and potential for sustainable harvest. This paper reviews the biological and socio-cultural aspects of research on Himalayan MPs, focusing on MPs from the Nepal Himalaya. Itevaluates current issues and gaps on MP research; and outlines the approaches of ecological researchin achieving harvesting sustainability of wild MP resources.

2. Research on Medicinal Plants: Historical Perspective and Current ApproachEnormous literature exists on MPs of the Himalaya. However, much of these represent compilation ofthe use and properties of MPs. In fact, MPs of the Indian subcontinent, including the Himalaya, have

been explored since the Vedic period and compiled in different Ayurvedic texts dating back to theVedic ages (ca. 2500 and 500 B.C.). In Nepal, the earliest work on MPs and their uses can be traced

back to 7thCentury A.D, when Shausruta Nighantuwas hand copied in Post Likshivi script (Subediand Tiwari 2000). Another earlier effort towards the compilation of MPs of Nepal is the hand writtenherbal pharmacopoeia, Chandra Nigantuwritten in the 19thand the beginning of 20thcentury.

Scientific study of the flora of Nepal started at the beginning of 19th century when Francis

Buchanan-Hamilton made first botanical exploration in 1802-1803, followed by Nathanial Wallich in1820-1821. Plants collected by these earlier explorers were later published with some account of theirethnobotanical importance (reviewed by Rajbhandari 2001). Despite floristic works, scientific researchfocusing solely on MPs in Nepal started only in the mid 1950s and 1970s (e.g. Banerji 1955;

Dobremez et al. 1971).A total of 450 reference (journal articles, conference papers, theses, books and reports) related to

MP research in Nepal have been accessed in this paper. Most of the research works (53%) were relatedto the inventory (identification of major species, product and their ethnomedical and trade values) ofMPs; 17% research works were concerned with phytochemical and pharmacological screening; 10%with commercialization and livelihood; 8% with ecology (these are further limited to the inventory toassess availability, distribution and status); and the rest were concerned with cultivation (focusing invitrostudies and propagation methods), management and sustainability. Dhar et al. (2000) reviewedand analyzed research on MPs in the Indian Himalaya and found similar results. They reported thatthat 50% of the studies were concerned primarily with inventories of species, 24.4% with cultivationand propagation, 16.3% with status, and the rest with trade and conservation. They further stated thatlack of location specific and abundance data in most inventories limits their utility.

3. An Overview of the Himalayan MPs: Diversity, Distribution and Specificities3.1 Diversity and distributionThe total number of medicinal plant species in the Himalaya is still not clearly known as severalsystems of traditional medicine (both classical and folk) are being practiced which differ in their

preference of species used. It has been estimated that the Himalayan region is home to over 10000 speciesof MPs, which support livelihood needs of about 100 million people living in the area (Pei 2001). Thediversity of MPs in different Himalayan countries is presented in Table 1.

The diversity of MPs is very high in a country like Nepal, which is well known for its biologicaland socio-cultural diversity and in which nearly 90 indigenous languages/dialects are spoken. The

estimates of total number of MP species found in Nepal differ widely with authors. DPR (1970, 1984),for example, compiled 571 species of MPs from Nepal. Later, Malla and Shakya (1984) reported 630


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species; and Baral and Kurmi (2006) recently compiled 1,792 species of MPs (including lichens andfungi). Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Nepal has developed Medicinal andAromatic Plant Database of Nepal (MAPDON) in 1999, which was based on Nepalese Plant Database(NPD) prepared by the collaborative project of The Natural History Museum (London) and TribhuvanUniversity (Kathmandu). The compiled data of the database was fist published in 2000 (Shrestha et al.2000), which listed 1624 species of MPs. The database has been updated frequently to incorporateadditional species and verify the existing information. Recent analysis of the database revealed a totalof 1950 species of MPs in Nepal. Out of which 1906 species are represented by vascular groups(angiosperm, gymnosperms and pteridophytes) (Table 1 and 2), comprising 1614 native, 192introduced and/or cultivated, and 100 naturalized taxa.

Table 1 MP species diversity in different Himalayan countries.

Country Total number MP species References for number of MPs

of plantspecies

Number % of totalflora

China 37604 10644 28.30 Pei et al. (2006)

India 17000(8644)

7500(1748)

44.1(20.2)

Samant et al. (1998)

Nepal 7034 1906 27.10 Present analysis

Pakistan 6000 600-1500 - Ahmad (1997), Shinwari et al. (2000)

Bhutan ? 322 - Rinjin (2006)

Himalaya ? >10000 - -

World 270000 52885 19.6 Hamilton (2004)Numbers of species recorded from Chinese Himalayan region [Yunnan, Sichuan, Tibet (Xizang), Qinghai and Gansu]

In the case of India, species for whole country are given first and numbers of species recorded only from the Indian Himalaya are

presented in the parentheses.

Only vascular plants (angiosperms, gymnosperms and pteridophytes) are taken into account

Table 2. Diversity of medicinal plants in Nepal Himalaya (only vascular groups are considered)

Plant groups Families Genera Species

Pteridophytes 24 41 77

Gymnosperms 7 11 19

Angiosperms 169 897 1810

Total 200 949 1906

Himalayan MPs comprise a diverse array of species varying in life-forms, reproductive modes, growthstrategies and habitat specificities. MPs are distributed from low-lying forests (5500 m). Some species even grow above 6000 m. Corydalishendersonii (Fumariaceae), Delphinium brunonianum (Ranunculaceae), Gentiana urnula (Gentianaceae)andLamiophlomis rotata(Lamiaceae) are some of the high-altitude MP species growing as high as 6100-6300 m altitudes.

Preliminary analysis of the distribution pattern of MPs along altitudinal gradient in the NepalHimalaya shows that the lower sub-tropical level (1000-1500 m) harbor proportionally maximumnumber of MP species (Fig 1a), with a peak in richness of MP species at 1200 m (with 679 species)(Fig 1b). Despite lower MP species richness, the sub-alpine (3000-4000 m) and lower alpine (4000-

4500 m) levels provide important habitats supporting diversity of potential species which are highlyvalued by regional and international trade (Lama et al. 2001; Ghimire et al. 2006).


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0

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Lt

Ut

Lst

Ust

Col

Mon

Lsa

Usa

Lal

Ual

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Species(%)

(a)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

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Numberofspecies

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Figure 1 Distribution of MPs in Nepal (only wild or naturally growing species were considered;

introduced/cultivated species were excluded): (a) distribution along ecological zones [Lt & Ut lower& upper tropical (1000-2000 m),Col Collinen(>2000-2500 m),Mon Montan (>2500-3000 m),Lsa & Usa lower & upper sub-alpine(>3000-4000 m), Lal & Ual lower & upper alpine (>4000->5000 m)]; (b) distribution along elevationgradient (at 100 m altitudinal intervals). The fitted line in (b) is based on quadratic polynomialregression model.

In broad outline of their specialization, the MPs in the Himalaya exhibit peculiarities in a number ofcharacteristics, such as morphology, physiology, life form and growth pattern. In the Himalaya, mostof the species considered to be medicinal are long-lived and many show clonal growth (Dhar et al.2000; Lama et al. 2001; Ghimire et al. 2006). However, the relative diversity of species of given lifeform varies differently along the altitudinal gradient. As an adaptive strategy to progressive cold and

aridity along altitudinal gradient, plants in the Himalaya show slow growth with longer life spans andhave a higher degree of vegetative propagation than the plants at lower altitude (Wang et al. 2002;


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Klime 2003). Annual herbs are quite common in the lower altitudinal area, which decrease sharplywith altitude, reaching a minimum (2500 m) aretaken into account. The second largest life form category of MPs is shrubs (16.6%), followed byannual/biennial herbs (15.6%). Trees account for 13.6% of the total naturally growing species, andwoody and herbaceous climbers account for 6.5% and 2.3%, respectively.

3.2 PhytogeographyFloristically, Himalaya is a meeting place of the Holarctic and Paleotropical regions, with influences ofthe Mediterranean, Indo-Malaysian and E. Asian floras. In the Himalaya, isolation of a number of highaltitude valleys has created marked bioclimatic barriers, which has also helped in the development ofendemism. A large number of MPs used in traditional medicine in the Himalayan region have beenreported to be endemic to this region. Samant et al. (1998), for example, reported that about 25.8% ofthe total species of MPs in the Indian Himalaya are endemic to the Himalayan region. Similarly,

majority of the naturally growing MP species (28.5%) reported from the Nepal Himalaya are endemicto the Himalayan region (Fig. 2). In Nepal Himalaya, the second largest group is represented by Sino-Himalayan elements (17.0%). Some 7.1% of the MP species had very broad geographical distributions(such as Holarctic/cosmopolitan). Regarding country level endemism, 25 species of MPs (1.5% of totalspecies) have been reported to be endemic to the Nepal Himalaya. Most of the endemic species of MPhave narrow distribution range, high habitat specificity and small population size (see Shrestha andJoshi 1996; Ghimire 2006).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

NE HE SH TR ML IN HO SJ IM Oth

Origin

Species(%)

Figure 2 Distribution according to phytogeographical domains of wild MP species found in Nepal Himalaya.NE-Nepal endemic, HE-Himalayan endemic, SH-Sino-Himalayan, TR-Tropical, ML-Southeast AsianMalaysian, IN-Indian, HO-Holarctic, SJ-Sino-Japanese or Eastern Asiatic, IM-Indo-Malayan, Oth-other.

3.3 Mode of utilizationStudies have shown that for about 70% of taxa of Himalayan MPs the mode of harvesting is


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destructive, with underground parts or whole plant being most frequently exploited (Dhar et al. 2000;Lama et al. 2001). For example, in Nepal Himalaya, for about 36.0% of MP taxa underground partsare most frequently utilized and for 35.0% of taxa whole plant parts are used. In both of these casesharvesting mostly involves uprooting the whole plants. Besides, reproductive (including flower, fruitand seed) and other vegetative plant parts (leaf, bark, stem, plant exudates, tender shoot) frequentlyharvested for local medicine and trade accounted for 27.5 and 41.0% of total MP species, respectively.A large number of high-altitude MPs are aromatic and many are also the sources of food, condiments,fiber, dye, fats and essential oils.

3.4 Phytochemical and pharmacological specificitiesAlthough little is known about biochemical specificities of Himalayan MPs, some evidence suggeststhat such plants offer great potential for discovery of novel molecules and new sources of activecompounds, mainly because of the environmental stress to which they are subjected. Jackson andDewick (1984), for example, found that the content of podophyllotoxin, which is isolated from

podophyllin (a resin produced by species of the genus Podophyllum, commonly known as may-apple), is much higher (4.3% of dry weight) in the Himalayan species Podophyllum hexandrumthan

in the American species P. peltatum(0.25%). Similarly, Bos et al. (1997) reported that the patchoulialcohol, and b- and g-patchoulene, which are characteristic of the essential oil of Himalayan valerian,Valeriana wallichii (Valerianaceae), have not been described to be present in other species, such as V.officinalis. Concentrations of active phytochemical constituents of some Himalayan MP species have

been reported to be high in populations growing at higher altitude as compared to the populationsgrowing at the lower altitude (Mikage et al. 1987; Yang et al. 2005; but see Mikage and Mouri 1999,2000; Yang et al. 2005a). In mountains, plant secondary compounds exhibit patterns of variation inrelation to stress associated with elevation, which relates to plant competition for resources, defensestrategies against herbivores and pathogens, and the harsh climate. Plastic increases in leaf secondarycompounds have been reported in some high altitude Himalayan MPs (such as Rheum nobile) as anadaptive strategy to reduce the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation (Iwashina et al. 2004).However, altitudinal trend is not universal. In some species with a narrow altitudinal range, habitat

temperature is influenced more by habitat geography that controls daylight hours than by altitude andinfluence the active phytochemical constituents (Mikage and Mouri 2000). Other factors, such as soiltype, temperature, precipitation, and abundance of microbial populations also have greater effect onthe synthesis and turnover of secondary compounds in MPs (Mikage and Mouri 2000; Yang et al.2005a,b).

Himalayan MPs are known to possess memory-enhancing, anti-aging, hair growth promoting, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulating, hepatoprotecive, anti-allergic, anti-diabetic, anti-stress, anti-cancer, and anti-epileptic activities (Chandra Sekar et al. 1987; Dev 1997, 1999), in addition toantifungal (e.g., Agarwal et al. 2000), antibacterial (e.g., Taylor and Towers 1998), antiviral (Taylor etal. 1996a,b) and other properties widespread in medicinal plants. Several species have beenextensively used in the traditional system of medicine as rejuvenators (which prevent diseases and

promote health), slowing the process of aging and rejuvenating whole functional dynamics of the body

system (Govindarajan et al. 2005). This group of plants generally possesses strong antioxidant activity(reviewed by Scartezzini and Speroni 2000). Free radicals and other reactive oxygen species areconsidered to be important causative factors in the development of diseases of aging (Scartezzini andSperoni 2000; Govindarajan et al. 2005). Several antioxidant compounds (e.g., mangiferin,emblicanins, curcumin, polyphenols, etc.) have been isolated from Himalayan MPs as potentialsources of free radical scavenging compounds that remove these toxic species (reviewed byScartezzini and Speroni 2000). Li et al. (1999), for example, isolated nardosinone as a neuritogenicsubstance from Nardostachys, which has been reported to play an important role in the survival andmaintenance of cholinergic neurons in the central nervous system. Similarly, picrosides (I and II),isolated from Picrorhiza, have been shown to cause a marked enhancement of the NGF-mediatedneurite outgrowth by amplifying a step in the NGF-receptor-mediated intracellular signaling pathway(Li et al. 2000).


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4. Trade Status of MPs in Nepal HimalayaThe gathering of NTFPs including MPs for trade is an important aspect of local culture in manymountain districts of Nepal. Total number of MPs involved in trade within or from Nepal is not wellknown as many products are involved in trade through illegal channels. Subedi (2006) estimates a totalof 161 plant-based NTFP species which are harvested for commercial purpose in Nepal. Out of whichover 50% of the species are used for medicine. Bhattarai and Ghimire (2006), on the other hand, listeda total of 143 species as commercial MPs.

Until 1960 the export of MPs from Nepal was limited to India and China. Later, the drive todiversification has promoted herbal trade to overseas countries as well, although the bulk (>90%) oftrade is still with India (Malla et al. 1995; Edwards 1996; Olsen and Larsen 2003). Most of the herbsare exported in raw forms, except some protected species, which are traded after primary processing.From India, products are re-exported to other countries either in crude forms or after primary

processing, in addition to being used in the Indian pharmaceutical and aromatic industries.The trade in MPs is an important source of revenue to the government and a major source of cash

income to rural people. In the mountains of Nepal, 10-100% of households in rural areas are involvedin commercial collection of NTFPs including MPs, and in certain rural areas this provides up to 50%

of the family income (Shrestha et al. 1995; Edwards 1996; Olsen and Helles 1997a; Olsen and Larsen2003). The revenue from NTFPs, including MPs, for the government of Nepal is more than 10% of thetotal revenue generated from the forest based products (GN 1999). The trade in MPs has increasedrapidly from 1990 onwards. According to Malla et al. (1995) the annual quantities of medicinal herbsexported amounted to over 4,000 tons during the mid-1970s, reaching over 13,500 tons after 1992.However, the real export value of MPs is not clearly known. Estimates of volume of trade greatly varyaccording to the author. Edwards (1996), for example, estimated the annual export value to be USD8.6 million, involving 10-15 thousand tons of raw NTFPs. Olsen (2005a) estimated the annual exportvalue of MPs from Nepal to be USD 3.2-12.8 million, but the same author (Olsen 2005b) estimatedthe annual export value, calculated using regional wholesaler purchasing prices in the main markets inIndia, to be USD 730 million, with a value of USD 16 million in 1997-1998. Recently, Subedi (2006)estimated the total export value of NTFP (involving 161 species) from Nepal to be USD 35 million.

Some five high-value products constitute over 50% of the volume and value in trade, including twohigh altitude MP species, Nardostachys grandiflora and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Olsen2005a). This trend has led inexorably to greater pressure on selected species. Cultivation of MPs isstill at the trial stage; thus almost all of the MPs involved in trade are harvested from the wild.

5. Conservation and Development IssuesIn the Himalaya, conservation and management of MPs and other NTFPs is challenged by variousfactors. The major conservation issue related to MP resources is over-harvesting due to trade pressure.In addition, habitat destruction, livestock grazing, forest fires, etc., are also considered importantfactors responsible for the depletion of many species (Shrestha and Joshi 1996). Depletion of manyMP species has also been attributed to the lack of comprehensive policies and regulations for

sustainable collection, use, trade and management (Olsen and Helles 1997b; Pandit and Thapa 2003).Issues pertaining to equity in benefit sharing from the commercialization of MPs are quite complex asthe MP sub-sector involves diverse group of stakeholders (Subedi 2006; Olsen and Bhattarai 2005).The trade in MPs is mostly based on traditional trade channels and networks, which are generallysecret and usually work against the interests of primary collectors (Olsen and Helles 1997a; Karki2001). The prices paid to the primary collectors are too low than the actual value of the product, whichcompels the local collectors to over-exploit the resources to supplement their income.

There is a lack of precise scientific knowledge regarding both ecological and social aspects of theresource base and potential for sustainable harvest. Data about MP consumption, volumes of trade andlevels of demand are also inadequate. There are large variations in the estimates of volume of tradeshowing the difficulty of actually estimating the amount collected due to lack of transparency in themarket circuit. Harvesting methods used by commercial collectors are particularly unsustainable as faras high altitude MPs are concerned. Most of these are herbaceous with perennial roots, rhizomes ortubers. Plants are generally uprooted to collect underground parts. It is very likely that underground


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parts are very old and will take long to regenerate.The threat status of many species of MPs in the Himalaya is not known. The first attempt for threat

assessment of Nepalese flora was that of Shrestha and Joshi (1996). In January 2001, a ConservationAssessment Management Plan (CAMP) workshop held in Nepal assessed the threat status of selectedMP of Nepal based on IUCN threat categories (Tandon et al. 2001). Based on these two works it isestimated that a total of 138 native vascular plant taxa are threatened in Nepal, including over 50species of MPs. Of the total threatened taxa, 73 (52.9%) are high-altitude plants growing mainly above2500 m. Among the high-altitude threatened taxa, 55% are naturally rare and 56% are threatened dueto various levels of anthropogenic pressures. Human-induced rarity may be more harmful than naturalrarity, if the species is not adapted to low numbers. Many follow a common decline syndromewhereby their wild distributions have recently contracted owing to continued habitat destruction andover-exploitation (Shrestha and Joshi 1996). Over-exploitation may lead to decrease in effective

population size, which may have great genetic consequences (Cruse-Sanders et al. 2005).

Figure 3 Interlinked dimensions of sustainability of use of MPs. Achieving sustainable use of MPsrequires the consideration of many interlinked dimensions biological/ecological, socio-cultural, andeconomic and all within a supportive political (and policy) environment (after Cunningham 2001).

6. Sustainability of Harvesting of Medicinal Plants: Ecological and EthnoecologicalApproaches

6.1 Ecological sustainability: knowledge gaps and research needsOver the past decade, the use of NTFPs has been introduced as a conservation and developmentstrategy (Nepstad and Schwartzman 1992; Arnold and Perez 2001). In the early 1990s manyresearchers argued that adding economic value to forests through the extraction of NTFPs is a strategyfor sustainable forest exploitation, capable of conserving biological diversity while providingeconomic incentives to rural communities (Nepstad and Schwartzman 1992). This has resulted in anupsurge of projects aiming, through the setting up of local enterprises, at adding value locally to

NTFPs. However, very few of these projects have had demonstrated effects on the ecologicalsustainability of harvesting. More recently, other economic tools have been put forward as a means of

Biological/Ecological(Individual, population,community, ecosystem,

landscape levels)

EconomicSocio-cultural

Political environment

Policy and legalmeasures

Sustainability

(Patterns & practices of

resource use, decision

making system, local

institutions & networks,management systems)

(Market demand, amountused, commercialization,

enterprise, value

addition, employment)


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the structure and dynamics of populations. Thus, designing sustainable management of NTFPsrequires information on the impact of harvesting on life history parameters (recruitment, survival,growth, mortality) of focal species, knowledge on how populations of these species respond todifferent harvesting regimes, and estimation of the level of harvest that will ensure their long-term

persistence (Hall and Bawa 1993; Peters 1994). Only the long-term monitoring of dynamics ofunharvested populations as well as of those subjected to different harvesting intensities will generatesufficient information to evaluate the sustainability of harvesting (Hall and Bawa 1993; Ticktin 2004).

The information at population level can then be analyzed using demographic models. Amongdifferent types of demographic models, size or stage-based transition matrix models are widely usedfor calculating population growth rate, extinction probability, and sensitivities (e.g., Caswell 2001).These models can provide powerful tools for the study of population dynamics of threatened plantspecies and the application of results to sustainable management. This approach integrates the effectsof management on life-history components (i.e. survival, growth, reproduction) in such a way thateffects are measured at the level of population dynamics (Ghimire et al. 2008).

6.3 Factors affecting harvesting sustainabilityDemographic studies have shown that the impact of harvesting and patterns of post-harvest recoveryof NTFP populations can be influenced by various factors, such as the biological characteristics of the

plant species (e.g., life form, growth pattern, regeneration capabilities), the plant parts harvested, thecharacteristics of harvesting regime (e.g., amount, intensity, frequency, timing of harvest),environmental conditions where plants grow and finally on the capacity of plants to survive, recoverafter damage and reproduce (reviewed by Ticktin 2004). NTFPs include a large number of plantspecies and plant parts with a diversity of growth patterns and life forms which may have diverseresponses to harvesting (Ticktin, 2004). Harvesting of leaves and reproductive parts (fruits or flowers),for example, may have far less impact on individual plants than does by harvesting of roots, bark,stems, or removal of the whole plant (Cunningham 2001). However, at population level, harvesting offruits or flowers may have long-term ecological consequences on seedling recruitment and population

persistence. Sustainable harvesting of underground parts (rhizomes, roots, bulbs or other storage

organs) of long-lived species presents a particularly great challenge (Ghimire et al. 2008). Long lifespans may allow populations to withstand long periods of unfavorable environmental conditions.However, if population numbers are reduced, recovery in long-lived species can be slow, becausechanges in demographic parameters strongly affect recruitment. Thus at the population level,extraction may be considered sustainable only when the population size (and the availability of theextracted product) does not decline as a result of harvesting, and there is enough recruitment to

perpetuate the population growth. Similarly, achieving sustainable harvesting also requires thatextraction of NTFP does impose deleterious effects on biodiversity at community, ecosystem andlandscape levels.

6.4 Integrating local knowledge and practices: ethnoecologyIn addition to the present lack of knowledge about ecological aspects of MP harvesting, knowledge ofits socio-cultural background, in particular concerning local knowledge and management systems, isalso scarce. Local extraction and management practices are among the socio-economic factorsinfluencing sustainability of MP harvesting (Cunningham 2001). Thus, designing sustainablemanagement practices implies understanding the plants ecology within the context of how it is locallyused (Ghimire et al. 2004, 2005). In recent years, there has been growing interest in simulating localmanagement strategies in experimental studies to assess sustainable levels of NTFP/MP extraction(e.g., Endress et al. 2004; Ghimire et al. 2005, 2008). Simulation of local management strategies inexperimental studies to assess sustainable level of plant part extraction is important because it not onlymimics the actual local practices but also provides opportunities to interact with the local people, alearning process both for the users and the scientists.

Local resource users often have profound knowledge about the ecology of plants they use, and theycan provide both theoretical and practical information concerning the use, habitat, distribution, andvarious other aspects of natural history and ecology of plant resources (e.g., Ticktin and Johns 2002;


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Ghimire et al. 2004). Understanding of local ecological knowledge is essential to appreciation ofpeoples relationship to their nature and such local knowledge has been reported to have great potentialuse in the design of sustainable management of natural resources (Gadgil et al. 1993; Berkes et al. 2000).Researches on ecological knowledge of traditional societies relating to NTFPs have also made importantcontributions to develop strategies and practices for their sustainable harvesting (Ticktin and Johns 2002;LaRochelle and Berkes 2003; Ghimire et al. 2004). Incorporation of such local knowledge and practicesin the process of scientific research may also help to develop new hypotheses for research experimentsrelevant to management (Posey 1998; DeWalt 1994). Because the Himalayan region is culturally veryrich, application of resource management systems needs to consider closely local cultural contexts, howknowledge about plant resources has developed within each particular context, and how local

perceptions and beliefs relate to practices and management systems.

7. MP Management: Community-Based ApproachManagement for MPs and other NTFPs in most of the rural areas of Nepal is part of traditional forestmanagement system. However, such resources are collected for trade and export with the permissionof District Forest Offices of the Government of Nepal, which control and regulate collection and trade

of forest products. Although government policies and legislative measures in the forestry sector inNepal provide a framework for the improved utilization of forest products, these are often criticized asineffective due to the lack of proper implementation (Larsen et al. 2000). Government management is

particularly difficult and costly in remote high-altitude areas. Studies showed that a large number ofhigh value species are traded without proper management and control. In a study of MP trade fromManang district, Shrestha et al. (1995), for example, showed that only 6.5% of the total amount ofMPs is legally exported and the rest amount is harvested without permission. Even the species whichare banned by the government for collection contribute a high proportion of total value to the ruralcollectors (Shrestha et al. 1995; Olsen and Helles 1997b), showing the inefficiency of centralizedcontrol systems.

As the government-based centralized management system is not effectively enforced in the remotehilly districts of Nepal, the long-term sustainability of harvest of MPs in the area thus largely depends

on local peoples knowledge and their management ability. Recent researches in Nepal havehighlighted the importance of addressing village poverty through management of MPs and other

NTFPs, leading to recommendations that the present centrally-based regulation mechanisms bereplaced by the handing over of NTFP resources for community management (e.g., Larsen and Smith2004). Community Forestry User Groups (CFUGs), legitimized by the Forest Act, are the importantlocal institutions governing access to forests even in the buffer zone around the national parks andconservation areas. Experiences of two decades of community forestry practices in Nepal indeed showthat local communities can manage their forests effectively and efficiently. However, the field ofcommunity-based approaches for conservation and use of MPs and other NTFPs in Nepal is new andrequires more attention as trade has increased dramatically.

In Nepal, the richness of traditional knowledge systems and experience in community involvementin the management of forests form a good background for developing community-based management

system of MPs/NTFPs, which address the issues of biodiversity conservation as well as the promotionof local livelihood. Support to such community-based approach would help to preserve resources as anintegral part of the socio-cultural landscape. Conservation and sustainable use of MPs andenhancement of livelihoods can be improved if : (i) communities take an increased responsibility formanagement of such resources; (ii) community rights to manage MP resources are legally secured;(iii) local knowledge and practices are recognized and acknowledged in the process of resourceassessment and conservation management; (iii) sustainable harvesting systems are developed (basedon sound ecological principle) and followed; iv) community-based monitoring mechanisms of NTFPharvesting are developed and followed; (iv) communities have greater access to and understanding ofthe market system; and (v) sustainable enterprises bring local benefits especially to poorer households.This can be achieved through building capacity of community institutions, such as the communityforest user groups (CFUG) to develop NTFP/MP management plan addressing conservation andlivelihood issues through sustainable harvesting and marketing of key species and effectiveimplementation and monitoring of the management plan.


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