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Cover Story To be Published on November 7, 2013 in November 2013 issue of GOA TODAY, Goas largest and oldest English

Magazine subscribed in 64 countries

Sustainable Ecotourism Planning For Happier and Wealthier Goa

Nandkumar M. Kamat,

Asst. Professor, Department of Botany, Goa University, Taleigao, Goa

Introduction:-

Suppose you are watching the Taj Mahal. But do you remember to pay a tribute to the white

Marble quarries of Makrana in Nagaur district of Rajasthan?. That marble made Taj Mahal the

global tourist attraction possible. Greeks believed in creation of Cosmos from Chaos. There is a

chaos in white marble quarries of Makrana. But it helped to create Emperor Shah Jahans Taj

Mahal. What would be thoughts of those who patronize cruises on River Mandovi or the dolphin

tours on Arabian sea close to coast?. Do they think about the river and the sea, the estuarine and

marine ecosystems as natural resources which made their recreation, tourist experience

possible?. Such thoughts are not easy because the marketing culture doesnt permit such

insights.

Tourism as integral part of ecosystem goods and services

Stripped of econometric computations, trade, business and management models; all tourism is

basically subsidized by nature and ecosystem services. Ecological economists, Robert Costanza

and 14 others in 1997 showed that ecosystems of the world contribute $16 to 54 trillion per year

in terms of services which are outside the markets. But tourism planning in Goa or elsewhere is

seldom done by engaging ecological economists, ecophiles or biophiles. The modern model of

Tourism is actually a model of profit based management of natural goods and services. My topic

is important and special and it touches me deep down and hard intellectually and spiritually

because it talks about environmental protection. I thought initially that tourism automatically

means ensuring environmental protection. Because common people , local residents dont see

and experience what tourists see, feel and experience. The colonial rule can also be seen as rule

of tyrant as well as benevolent tourists who preferred to stay a little longer- the Portuguese were

the first to arrive and the last to leave. The benevolent colonial tourist rulers are today known as

Indologists. As travelers and tourists they found tremendous natural and cultural wealth in this

subcontinent, along and across the western ghats and the beautiful, scenic coastlines. Who

discovered the scenic site at Dona Paula on a rocky island with a low hanging cliff, separated

from Cabo or Cape of Goas Governor by 80 metres?. Whose idea was it to build a causeway, a

flight of steps leading to a canopied pergola on top of the cliff for posterity?. No tourist visiting

Goa can go without ascending the steps and having a look at the western horizon. That small

project of our colonial masters made Dona Paula world famous. A much more impressive spot

on this planet is the Jesuit retreat house at Baga. It is just perfect location for meditation and

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spiritual , intellectual contemplation. The same can be said about the location of major seminary

of Pilar, Curca chapel or conception church on Cansaulim hillock.

The material and spiritual dimensions of Tourism

Tourism touches our lives both materially and spiritually. The story of human evolution is story

of our travels through geographical space and various testing times. At some point of time we

discovered the spiritual dimension of travel and tourism together. After birth of religious beliefs,

pilgrimages to various holy, sacred places emphasized the spiritual dimensions of tourism. I

think, although violent, every medieval crusade was a project in tourism. After deep

contemplation on this topic , I see the modern problem of tourism management from a different

angle- it is basically a failure of the linear economic model, the private profit based business

model which has managed to delink the material dimension of tourism from spiritual dimension.

All our efforts to generate wealth and employment from tourism miss the spiritual and

ecospiritual dimensions. This is at the very roots of environmental crisis associated with tourism.

A tourist keeps his house clean but pollutes the outdoor environment. So I suggest that we should

neither accept or support directly or indirectly any policy , plan, program or model of tourism

which only looks at the material side and promotes hedonism. Besides no discourse on

environmental protection in tourism is possible without acknowledging the inviolable role of

ethics- the dos and donts in tourism.

Tourism is mans spiritual covenant with nature

Why people , tourists travel?. What is so exciting in travelling, visiting places, experiencing

something?. Nature means novelty and diversity. All great prophets, saints travelled a lot- and

never without a purpose and never without showing profound respect for nature.

Buddhas travels

The Tipiaka records some of the Buddhas itineraries. For example, in the 12 months after his

enlightenment he went from Uruvel to Srnth, back to Uruvel and from there to Rjagaha via

Gay, a distance of about 315 kilometres. One of the longest journeys mentioned in the Tipiaka

has him going from Rjagaha to Svatthi via Vesli, and then back to Rjagaha on the alternative

route by way of Kgiri and av, about 920 kilometres altogether. His final journey took him

from Rjagaha to Patna, Vesli and eventually to Kusinr, a 275-kilometre trek. The Buddha

once said to his monks, Go forth for the good of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of

compassion for the world, for the welfare, the good and the happiness of gods and humans.

Teach the Dhamma which is beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle and beautiful in

the end. Explain both the letter and the spirit of the holy life, completely fulfilled and perfectly

pure. (Vin.I,20). In saying this, the Buddha was expressing his own reason for undertaking the

many long and arduous journeys he did, out of compassion for the world.

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Fascinating ministry of Jesus

I was just glancing in biblical studies and found to my amazement the stupendous journeys

undertaken by Jesus Christ. In all those journeys for his ministry you find the local environment,

ecosystems, topography, landscape, flora and fauna so well and naturally integrated that Jesus

comes before eyes as a traveler with an ecospiritual purpose. Thirty years old Jesus, traveled

from his home-town of Nazareth in Galilee to Bethany-across-the-Jordan, where he was baptised

by John the Baptist. Then he goes in to the Judean Desert , Bethabara , returns north to Galilee ,

Cana, continues on to Capernaum, travels south to Jerusalem, leaves for the countryside of Judea

, continue northwards from Judea passing through the territory of Samaria , visits Sychar,

reaches Galilee , returns to Cana and visits Capernaum then his home-town of Nazareth, moves

to Capernaum, travels from Galilee south to Jerusalem , visits Bethesda, returns north to Galilee,

delivers the Sermon on the Mount , then returns to Capernaum, continues his second Galilee tour

, sails across the Sea of Galilee, lands at Gerasenes, sails back across the Sea of Galilee and

lands at Capernaum. Jesus then travels from Capernaum to Nazareth, continues through Galilee.

With the twelve apostles from Capernaum, they go off by boat with Jesus to Bethsaida then

return across the Sea of Galilee and land near Gennesaret and make their way back to

Capernaum. Jesus then retires from Galilee to the region of Tyre and Sidon in Syrian-Phoenicia,

then leaves Syrian-Phoenicia via Sidon for Galilee and travels through the Decapolis. Reaching

the Sea of Galilee, He crosses by boat to the Magadan /Dalmanutha region. Then He continues

on to Bethsaida, travels from Galilee, north to Caesarea Philippi in Iturea and Trachonitis.

Continuing on from Caesarea Philippi possibly further north towards Mount Hermon. Jesus

leaves Capernaum and Galilee for the last earthly time and heads for Jerusalem travelling by

Samaria, then withdraws to Bethany-across-the-Jordan (or Bethabara) and into the province of

Perea, returns to Bethany near Jerusalem, then crosses the River Jordan and works in Perea.

Jesus now travels towards Jerusalem for the last time passing through Jericho and reaches

Bethany. During the Easter week, Jesus returns to Jerusalem each day after staying overnight in

Bethany on the Mount of Olives.

The intensity seen in journeys of Buddha and Jesus is sufficient to tell us what we miss in our

business model- humility towards nature. Without humility it is difficult to impose any plan to

protect environment.

Modern Tourist and Modern Tourism

The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) defines Tourism as travel for recreational, leisure

or business purposes and tourists as people who "travel to and stay in places outside their usual

environment for more than twenty-four hours and not more than one consecutive year for leisure,

business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the

place visited." This definition is more concerned about economic and employment issues.

Loosely we can distinguish three categories of tourists and tourism-

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1. Emphasis on material aspects

2. Emphasis on spiritual aspects

3. Emphasis on both material and spiritual aspects.

Modern tourism promotes the fist category. The second category is very restricted. The third

category would cause problems for tourism management because secular governments do not

believe in spiritual dimensions of anything. But it is precisely the third category which is most

suitable and appropriate for a small and ecologically vulnerable state of Goa. If we dismiss

spiritual dimension of tourism and accept everything else then we automatically enter into the

booby trap of vicious market forces. These dont permit luxury of environmental protection.

The Goa material-spiritual (GOMASPI) knowledge based model for environmental

protection (Kamat, 2013)

Environment is a very complex entity. So environmental protection in tourism raises two issues-

what protection and whose protection?. If we follow the ecosystem specific approach then we

need to begin from the marine ecosystem, then move to our bays, continental shelf, the estuaries,

marine islands, the mangroves, the khazans and salt pans, the rich plateaus, rivers and river

banks, wetlands, lakes, rivulets, streams, ponds, springs, fountains, hillocks, mountains, forests,

waterfalls, cliffs, caves. Then there is another area of cultural assets - the built or manmade

heritage. Goas only world heritage monuments exist in old Goa. But whats the present

environmental status of the place and its environs within a radius of a few kms. ?. Massive

concretization and drastic land use change is impacting the perimeter of this once great city. If

any tourism product is based on whole ecosystems, habitats, natural or cultural resources then

there has to be built in provision for conservation and protection. There are adequate powers with

the local authorities, the village panchayats and municipalities to discipline tourists and manage

tourism products and services. But these powers are seldom used. So environmental protection

remains just an academic issue at the ground level, village level, micro level. There are specific

cases which highlight the real crisis- in first incident people of Gaudongari resolved to prohibit

nuisance by visitors near the Ambeghat waterfalls by banning their entry. In second incident

youth volunteers from Yuva Kumbhar, the traditional potter community of Goa collected

truckloads of solid waste created by picnickers at seasonal waterfalls on Sanquelim Belgaum via

Chorlem road. In third incident the shack owners at Morajim clashed with forest department

officials over the Oliver Ridley turtle conservation project. These three incidents clearly indicate

that tourism in Goa has lost ethical and spiritual principles. If fun and moneymaking are the only

objectives of tourism promotion then it would make Goa homologous to other heavily developed

destinations.

Towards simplification and monoculture

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The real fear from the forthcoming tourism products is of rapid simplification and

monoculture. These products would be imposed at heavy environmental costs. Goa had

prepared a tourism master plan and policy at the end of 20 th century. Very soon the work of

preparing a fresh master plan on tourism may be outsourced to a foreign or multinational

agency. Advisors may be needed for mega projects but not for planning sustainable or

community based tourism in a small state. We can predict what business model these expensive

advisors would recommend. The ideas need to flow from bottom and from stakeholders willing

to share diverse ideas. Neither the forest department nor the tourism department follows any

ecotourism guidelines. A set of ecotourism guidelines sent to the chief minister of Goa was not

accepted by forest department. White water rafting in Sattari was introduced without any

guidelines and by keeping local community ignorant. Besides natural ecosystems, the air and

water resources are precious. Tourism means heavy consumption of energy. So how Goa would

reduce the Carbon footprint?.

How complex is the issue of environmental protection in tourism ?. It is just a matter of

knowledge and perception. There are macro and micro issues like aesthetic pollution and

elevation controls. In a small campus of our university spread over just 1.7 square kms. in the

island of Tiswadi we have more than 100 different habitats and about 5000 different species

which include 600 species of plants and 110 species of birds. During monsoon we see highest

number and density of peafowls in this area. But such plateaus often get classified as

unproductive barren lands. The 105 kms long beach belt of Goa has a complex ecology. It is

natural habitat of ant eaters or pangolins which are now threatened. Sea grasses like Spinifex

have been eliminated by tourism activity. A single rocky outcrop , the beautiful intertidal stretch

of Anjuna harbours a record number of marine algae. Some of Goas oldest rocks are found at

Palolem- visit this place the end of monsoon at low tides and you would be amazed to see carpets

of Enteromorpha- the velvety green alga covering the monoliths. The ecotones in the capital city

of Panaji are so smooth that it is difficult to identify the mosaic of various ecosystems which

makes the layout of the city. If one descends from Dona Paula plateau there is a smooth

transition from a grassland to sand dunes and coastal ecosystem which faces a rich semicircular

Caranzalem bay and further an estuary and zone of mangroves girdled by khazan lands.

Sustainable tourism in Panaji or centred around Panaji is impossible without integrating these

ecosystem resources and their services. The planning needs to begin from higher ground at

Altinho which is major watershed in Tiswadi island. Panajis urban tourist assets are totally at

mercy of nature and natural forces. The Mandovi river is heavily polluted. Cruises and casinoes

choke the life of the river.

Respect for ecological history and concern for climate change

Ecology and environment was never same in Goas geological or historical period. Millions of

years old petrified forests in Sattari and six to eight thousand years old marine fossils in Bardez

and Tiswadi show how natural forces have impacted Goa. A west coast tsunami or Megatsunami

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can wipe out the coastline of Goa. With climate changes looming large there is greater danger

from natural calamities. Sea level rise would engulf the coastal land assets and all the estuarine

islands. Tourism development in past 40 years has heavily impacted the ecosystems, habitats and

species in Goa. NIOs scientist Antonio Mascarenhas had prepared status report on sand dunes

of Goa. But we have not seen any micro level plan with any village panchayat to conserve and

protect any sand dune. The government doesnt even have an atlas of the surviving sand dunes

indicating their location on cadastral level plans with area, elevation and contours.

Community creativity, humility and spirituality to be integral components

GOMASPI model would be based on a new ecoethical charter. I envisage ten central dogmas

/tenets/ beliefs of the charter

1. Tourism is for Goa- Goa is not for Tourism

2. Tourism without ethical foundation is exploitation and sin

3. Material dimension of tourism cant be separated from spiritual obligations

4. Centralized model of tourism planning destroys ecology and environment

5. Decentralized, people oriented micro level planning promotes sustainable tourism

6. All tourism products are sourced and are subsidized by nature-directly or indirectly

7. Tourists are to be treated as participants and partners not as just passive consumers,

guests and travelers in ensuring environmental protection

8. Communities are creative and are entitled to project, promote this potential in planning

tourism products and services

9. Sustainability is built in traditional lifestyle of Goans and it can ensure sustainability of

participatory, ethical tourism and environmental conservation

10. Surplus wealth creation from tourism for private profits is less important than work, food,

shelter , employment and justice for all

The charter would be binding on all followers who would get necessary ethical accreditation

if they are in tourist business. It would first demand total humility before nature. It is

envisaged that at micro level each inhabitant of Goa is self aware or made aware of the

natural resource endowments in his or her own backyards. The real crisis in villages is

knowledge crisis. People are not still ecologically literate. All the tools and techniques need

to be made available and accessible for this purpose. This needs prolonged and widespread

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community sensitization movement. It may be considered as a new mission of the church for

sustained and meaningful ecological evangelization in Goa.

GOMASPI model would borrow deeply ingrained values of ecosophy and ecospirituality for

micro level, village level tourism product formulation and management. All natural assets would

be considered inviolable and to be kept free from degradation and pollution. Gramsabhas and

municipal councils would consult independent experts , non governmental organizations ,

educational institutions, social activists, spiritual leaders to discuss and prepare their plans for

tourism development and environmental protection. Heavy fines and penalties would be fixed for

environmental violators like those who are found chronically and habitually polluting Sal river or

Colva creek. Once drivers and forces of environmental changes are identified it is possible to

suggest specific mitigative, preventive measures.

Ecological decay is offshoot of moral, ethical, spiritual decadence

Having observed the general moral decay and economic, social and cultural transformation over

past 40 years- I have reached the conclusion that environmental protection in tourism ( in other

sectors as well) is impossible at any level from people to politicians , merely by belief in

instrument of laws, rules etc. without unquestionable acknowledgement of our ethical and

spiritual duties. Tourism without ethical principles and ecotourism without guidelines would

destroy Goa.

Bring back ethics and spirituality in tourism in Goa without any compromise and then see how

our state becomes much better than Bhutan on the west coast of India.

Guidelines suggested to state government since 2008 but not considered

The full report on sustainable ecotourism management in Goa prepared under my supervision by

my student Ms. Sonali Naik, Corjuem, Aldona was submitted to ex tourism minister Mr. Fillipe

Nery Rodrigues during 2001-02. Thereafter this matter I raised this matter in the meetings of

state wildlife advisory board from 2008 to 2010. I had even volunteered to prepare the

ecotourism guidelines without any expenses to the government. But no progress was seen. These

guidelines were then presented once again to the chief Minister and PCCF forest department

Richard De Souza in August 2013.

In the light of the national policy we had recommended the following operational guidelines for

sustainable ecotourism management in Goa for the government, developers and the operators,

visitors, local population:-

The key players in the eco-tourism business are the government including the state governments

and local authorities, the developers and operators, the visitors and the local community. Each

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one of them has to be sensitive to the environment local traditions and follow a set of guidelines

for the successful development of tourism

A) The government of Goa should follow the following guidelines:

1) The management plan for each area proposed for eco-tourism should be prepared through professional landscape architects and urban planners and in consultation with the local

community as well as other directly concerned. For e.g. The Carambolim lake in Tiswadi,

Selaulim dam in Sanguem, Butterfly Park in Birondem

2) To avoid intersectoral and cross-sectoral conflicts, integrated planning should be adopted for e.g. The Dudhsagar falls has its origin in Karnataka and is formed by the union of

river Katla and Palna. At the same time Netravali in Sanguem and Cotigoa in Canacona

share their borders with Karnataka and therefore integrated planning between the two

states must be achieved

3) The architectural programme for eco-tourism centres should include controlled access points and cabins, roads, self guided nature trails. Transportation options, interpretive

centers signs, observation towers, adequate but unpretentious lodging and dining

facilities, water docks, garbage disposal facility etc.; as per the requirement

4) Structures creating visual pollution, unaesthetic values and non-compatible architecture should be controlled

5) Exclude development in geologically unstable zones and define development and buffer zones after proper environmental impact assessment. For e.g. On beaches. (CRZ) coastal

Regulation Zone regulations must be followed. i.e. no construction or development shall

be permitted on sandy stretches within 200 meters, of high tide line.

6) Establish standards, building codes and other regulations 7) Specify environmental, physical and social carrying capacities to limit development

activities

8) Ensure continuous monitoring of adverse effect of tourism activities and initiate suitable corrective measures

9) Recognise and award quality labels to eco-tourism operators 10) Provide visitor information and interpretation services covering particularly i) what to

see ii) how to see iii) how to behave

11) Prepare and widely distribute codes of conduct to all visitors 12) Launch training programmes on eco-tourism to tourism administration planners operators and general public

B) Guidelines for Developers and operators:- 1) Respect and follow the planning restrictions, standards and codes provided by the

government and local authorities

2) implement sound environment principles through self regulation 3) Practice environmental impact assessment for all new projects and conduct regular

environmental audit for all ongoing activities leading to the development of

environmental improvement programmes

4) Be sensitive to conservation of environmentally protected or threatened areas, species and scenic aesthetics, achieving landscape enhancement wherever possible

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5) Ensure that all structures are unobstructive and do not interfere with the natural ecosystem to the maximum extent

6) Recognise the optimal environmental capacity and sociological use limits of the site in creating tourist facilities. They should also take into account safety and convenience of

tourists

7) Buildings should be designed strictly on functional and environmental considerations and avoid- construction

8) Local materials and design should be used in all constructions to the extent possible for e.g. bamboos, thatched roofs of coconut leaves etc.

9) Physical planning, architectural design and construction of tourist facilities should employ eco-techniques like solar energy, capture and re-utilization of rain, recycling of

garbage, natural cross ventilation instead of air conditioning, a high level self sufficiency

in generation of food through orchards, ecological farms, aquaculture etc.

10) Energy and water saving practices should be employed to the extent possible. Also practice fresh water management and control sewage disposal

11) Control and diminish air emissions, pollutants and noise levels 12) Control and reduce environmentally unfriendly products such as asbestos, CFCS

(Chloroflurocarbons), pesticides and toxic, corrosive, infectious, explosive or flammable

naturals

13) Respect and support religious objects and sites 14) Provide information and interpretive services to visitors especially on attractions and

facilities, safety and security, local customs and traditions prohibitive rules and

regulations, self conduct, behaviour etc.

15) Ensure adequate opportunities to visitors for communion with nature and native cultures; by interaction with local communities

16) In marketing eco-tourism products, customers should be given correct information, as the visitors who appreciate eco-tourism products are also environmentally aware target

groups

17) Training and research programmes of the company should include environmental issues like environment conservation

18) Prepare tourists to minimize possible negative impacts while visiting sensitive environments and cultures before departing to the site

19) Ensure safety and security to visitors and inform them about precautions to be taken 20) Exercise due regards for the interests of local population including their history, tradition

and culture and future development

21) Involve the local community to the extent possible in various activities and vocations C) Visitors:- 1) Contribute to the conservation of any habitat of flora and fauna of any site whether

natural or cultural, which may be affected by tourism

2) Make no open fires and discourage others from doing so. If water has to be heated with scarce firewood, use as little as possible. Where possible use kerosene or fuel-efficient

wood stoves

3) Remove litter, burn or bury paper and carry back all non degradable litter

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4) Keep local water clean and avoid using pollutants such as detergents in streams or springs. If no tailed facilities are available, try to comfort yourself atleast 30 meters away

from water sources and bury or cover the waste

5) Plants should be left to flourish in their natural environment and resist from taking away cuttings, seeds and roots

6) Leave the campsite clean after use. Remember that another party will be using the same campsite after your departure

7) Help the guides and porters to follow conservation measures. Do not allow the cooks or porters to throw garbage in streams or rivers

8) Respect the natural and cultural heritage of the areas and follow local customs 9) Respect local etiquette and wear loose, lightweight clothes in preferences to revealing

shorts, skimpy tops and tight fitting action wear. Hands holding or kissing in public are

disapproved by local people.

10) Respect privacy of individuals and ask permission and use restraint in taking photographs of others

11) Respect holy places and never touch or remove religious objects 12) Strictly follow the guidelines for personal safety and security. 13) Select responsible tour operators and guides who are aware of environmental effects and

contribute financially to conservation and preservation efforts

14) In viewing wildlife, never touch, chase or harass animals or marine life. 15) Take nothing with you and leave nothing but footprints 16) Seek out responsible, environmentally sensitive accommodations. 17) Follow all advisories, rules and regulations regarding protected areas, water sources and

wildlife habitats

18) Support local governments to fund conservation projects and training programs

D) The local population or caution for local bodies:- 1) Realize and respect the value of environment, flora, fauna, monuments and culture

heritage

2) Practice conservation of nature and culture as a way of life 3) Establish guidelines to protect valuable local resources and foster tourism development 4) Realize and react to the potential threat of investors who see opportunities for

development but lack sensitivity to local values.

5) Become effective nature guides and conservationists of natural areas by enhancing the practical and ancestral knowledge of the natural features of the area.

6) Be friendly with the visitors and help them to practice eco-tourism codes.

(Based on presentation made at the Consultative Meeting on Tourism Policy Organized by the

Centre for Responsible Tourism (CRT) 16th

(eve) - 17th

(eve) February, 2013, Caritas Holiday

Home, St Inez, Panjim and Sustainable ecotourism planning in Goa by Naik, S and Kamat, N,

2001)

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Select readings:-

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4. Lobo, U. 1988. "Environmental Aspects of Silica Sand Mining from Coastal Sand Dunes." Earth Resources for Goa's Development, pp. 521-523.

5. Mascarenhas, A. 1990. "Why Sand Dunes are Needed." The Herald 21 December, p. 4. 6. Mascarenhas, A. 1992. "Our Estuaries in Peril." The Herald. 20 April, p. 4. 7. Mascarenhas, A. 1996. "The Fate of Sand Dunes of Goa." Voices for the Oceans.

International Ocean Institute of India, p. 111.

8. The Navhind Times. 1997. "Sea Turtles on the Run as Humans Take over Beaches." February 20, p. 1.

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11. Burns, P; Bibbings, L (2009). The End of Tourism ?. Climate Change and Societal Challenges. Twenty-First Century Society. 4(1), pp 31 51.

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13. Chenoweth, J (2009). Is Tourism with a Low Impact on Climate Possible ?. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes. 1/3. pp 274-287.

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16. Noronha, F (1999).Ten years later, Goa still uneasy over the impact of tourism. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. 11,2/3. pp 100-106.

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20. Berkmuller, Klaus. 1992. Information Versus Education at Protected Areas. 21. Blangy, Sylvie, and Megan Epler Wood. 1992. Developing and Implementing

Ecotourism Guidelines for Wildlands and Neighbouring Communities.

22. Budowski, Gerardo. 1976. Tourism and Environmental Conservation: Conflict, Coexistence, or Symbiosis? In Environmental Conservation, 3 (1): 27-31.

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23. Budowski, Gerardo. 1992. Ecotourism in Tropical Countries: The Pro and the Contra. 24. Butler, James R. 1992. Ecotourism: Its Changing Face and Evolving Philosophy. 25. Butler, James R., and Elaine Butler. 1992. Fostering the Spiritual and Affective

(Emotional) Values of Protected Areas.

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27. Clark, J.R. (Ed.). 1991. Carrying Capacity: A Status Report on Marine and Coastal Parks and Reserves. University of Miami/US National Park Service, Washington, DC.

28. Denman, Richard. 1992. Fostering Ecotourism Enterprises in Local Communities. 29. Dixon, J.A. and P.B. Sherman. 1990. Economics of Protected Areas. Island Press,

Washington, DC.

30. Dodge, Kay. 1992. The Myths, Magic, and Money: Ecotourism - Models to Enhance the Use and Management of Protected Areas.

31. Duffus, D.A. and P. Dearden. 1990. Non-Consumptive Wildlife-Oriented Recreation: A Conceptual Framework. Biological Conservation 53: 213-231

32. Edington, J. and A. 1986. Ecology, Recreation and Tourism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

33. Filion, Fern L., James P. Foley, and Andr J. Jacquemot. 1992. The Economics of Global Ecotourism.

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Ecotourism Development in Protected Areas in Less Developed Countries.

36. Giannecchini, Joan. 1992. Parks and Tourists, an Evolving Partnership.