Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands

SUMAMAD

Fifth Project Workshop Aleppo (Syria) 12—17 November 2006

UNU-INWEH

Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands

SUMAMAD

Fifth Project Workshop Aleppo (Syria)

12 – 17 November 2006

The workshop was organized by:

With support from:

The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinionsexpressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO or any of the specialized agencies of the United Nations

system.The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UNESCO Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country,

territory, city or area or of its authorities, or the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO)

Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands

SUMAMAD

Proceedings of the Fifth Project Workshop Aleppo (Syria)

12 – 17 November 2006

UNESCO–MAB

Proceedings of the Fifth Project Workshop Aleppo (Syria) 12—17 November 2006

First Published 2007 byUNESCO

Division of Ecological and Earth Sciences1, rue Miollis

75352 Paris 07 SP, FranceFax: (33-1) 45 68 58 04

http://www.unesco.org/mab

© 2007 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris SC–2007/WS/33

Book design and layout by Sitthisack Viraphong

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmittedin any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise without the prior permission of

the publisher.Requests for permission should be addressed to UNESCO, Division of Ecological and Earth Sciences,

1, rue Miollis, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France

Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands (SUMAMAD)

Fifth Project WorkshopAleppo (Syria) 12—17 November 2006

Contents

Part I: Opening Session

Caroline King – UNU-INWEH 9William Erskine – ICARDA 10Thomas Schaaf – UNESCO 11

Part II: Presentation of SUMAMAD – a review

Assessing the sustainable management of dryland productivity, conservation and livelihoods: 2006 achievements of the Interagency project on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands (SUMAMAD) Caroline King, UNU-INWEH 15

Part III: Presentation of Project Sites

1. Biomass and Net Primary Productivity of Siberian Elm Sparse Forest Grassland in Hunshandake Sandand of Inner MongoliaJiang Gaoming, Li Gang, Li Yonggeng & Liu Meizhen 31

2. A Study on Moghra Oasis by Remote SensingBoshra B. Salem & Marwa Waseem 44

3. Report of SUMAMAD activities at the project site of Gareh Bygone Plain, I. R. Iran Prof. Sayyed Ahang Kowsar 64

4. The 2005 Annual report for SUMAMAD Project in Dana Biosphere ReserveMohammad Al-Qawaba’a 69

5. Use of Saline Water for Vegetable Production in Dryland of Lal Sohanra Biosphere Reserve, PakistanM. A. Kahlown, M. Akram & Z. A. Soomro 79

6. The Khanasser Valley Integrated Research Site – Progress Report 2006R. Thomas, F. Turkelboom, A, Bruggeman, H. Dessougi, E. Luijendijk & S. Wahiba 99

7. Watershed of Zeuss-Koutine (Médenine, Tunisia) Report 2006 & Outline of activities 2007Mohamed Ouessar, Houcine Taamallah, Azaiez Ouled Belgacem, Mongi Sghaier & Houcine Khatteli 107

8. GIS/RS Application for Primary Plant Productivity and Resource Management Mapping in the rangelands of Karnab Chul, Uzbekistan Muhtor Nasyrov 116

Part IV: Presentation of a dryland research project

Bioassay of the Sowbugs’ Burrowed Material Using Barley and WildryeGholamreza Rahbar, Sayyed Ahang Kowsar & Ladan Jowkar 127

Part V: Workshop report

Fifth Workshop Report 133

7

Part I

Opening Session

7

9

Opening remarks on behalf of UNU

Caroline King, UNU-INWEH

The Fifth International Project Workshop on ‘Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands’ is hosted in Aleppo by the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). On behalf of the United Nations University (UNU), it is my pleasure to thank Dr. William Erskine of ICARDA for welcoming us to this event.

The collaboration between ICARDA, UNU and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on the SUMAMAD project grows stronger every year in our shared efforts to promote the sustainable management and conservation of marginal drylands in Northern Africa and Asia. With support from the Flemish Government of Belgium, our shared objectives in the SUMAMAD project address:

Improved and alternative livelihoods of dryland dwellers;•Reduced vulnerability to land degradation in marginal lands through rehabilitation efforts of degraded lands;•Improved productivity through identification of wise practices using both traditional knowledge and scientific •

expertise.

At this international workshop, we are once again reunited with our partners and friends, including our partner agencies, and also the Team Leaders from the eight participating countries: China, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Pakistan, Tunisia and Uzbekistan as well as our hosts here in Syria. We are particularly happy to also welcome to this meeting many of the Team Members who have been working hard all year to produce the achievements that will be presented here. During 2006, the penultimate year of the project, and the International Year of Deserts and Desertification (IYDD), the efforts of the SUMAMAD study teams in the exploration of wise practices for improved conservation and management of natural resources have been notable. Considerable success has been achieved in the promotion of improved management practices with local communities to the benefit of local livelihoods. Furthermore, these successes have already been extended to the national level in a number of the participating countries, leading to positive shifts in policies and management. The Project Management Group is delighted to learn of these well-earned successes by the study teams, and we are looking forward with anticipation to the elaboration and discussion of these achievements over the next four days. We will also have the opportunity to visit the Khanasser Valley Integrated Research Site, where ICARDAs engagement has contributed much to the SUMAMAD project. As we reflect together during this workshop on the coming final year of the current phase of the SUMAMAD project, we have already so much to be proud of, and much to look forward to as we prepare to complete our achievements. We are now also looking forward to the continuation of this project into a new phase thanks to the support and encouragement of the Flemish Government of Belgium. As we begin here in Aleppo to discuss in earnest the plans for a new phase, we have many sources of inspiration. We are looking forward to sharing the ideas of all of our team members in order to shape the future of SUMAMAD. Once again, we wish to extend our warmest thanks to our hosts for bringing us together, and to our colleagues for sharing in what promises to be a productive and rewarding workshop on the sustainable management of marginal drylands.

9

10

Opening remarks on behalf of ICARDA

William Erskine, ICARDA

Ladies and gentlemen, On behalf of ICARDA’s Director General, Dr. Mahmoud Solh, I welcome you all to Aleppo and ICARDA. The SUMAMAD project represents the first collaborative research program between UNESCO and UNU, and the involvement of eight countries from the drylands of Africa and Asia is particularly encouraging. These cover Tunisia in the West all the way to Inner Mongolia in the Far East. The scourge of land degradation in drylands is a creeping phenomenon that can sometimes reach an ecological tipping point that creates major disruption not only to rural livelihoods but also to urban areas affected, for example, by dust storms and the influx of migrants from rural communities.Thus there is an urgent need to address land degradation through a focus on maintaining and protecting the ecosystem and the livelihoods of those that are dependent on the natural resource base. SUMAMAD is unique in its involvement of biosphere reserves and the study of how humans interact within such areas. The project has established a new and firm platform where institutions concerned with dryland research can come together to exchange ideas, practices, tools and methods, and learn from each other’s valuable experiences. We believe that great benefits will accrue not only from the research findings from the project but also from the network of different institutions that has been created. Indeed, during 2006, strides have been made to cement these relationships through activities such as the creation of the CWANA+ consortium and the further development of an MSc training course with UNU and other SUMAMAD participants. ICARDA is committed to strengthening these links as we extend the range of our interests into non-tropical drylands globally. The involvement of Latin America, which is being considered in the possible next phase of SUMAMAD, is fully in line with ICARDA’s new strategy of research for development.I wish the participants a successful workshop and look forward to receiving the workshop outputs and to further discussions on strengthening the network.

10

11

On behalf of UNESCO, I wish to welcome all invited participants to the Fifth SUMAMAD project workshop at the ICARDA Headquarters in Aleppo, Syria. I wish to begin by thanking ICARDA for the warm welcome and the excellent organisation of the workshop, which we have come to expect from our ICARDA colleagues. I recall that this is in fact our second UNESCO workshop related to drylands and SUMAMAD. The international UNESCO-MAB workshop on ‘Desertification: Rehabilitation of Degraded Drylands and Biosphere Reserves’ held in early May 2002 and hosted by ICRADA in many ways sowed the seeds of the SUMAMAD project which led to the first SUMAMAD workshop in Cairo in September 2002.Unfortunately Dr. Wang Tao from China and Dr. Muhammad Akram from Pakistan were unable to attend due to various reasons. However we are very fortunate and happy to welcome additional collaborators from the project sites who work actively on achieving the SUMAMAD objectives. Their invitation attests to our appreciation of their work and they should be considered very much part of this active network.One of the added values of this project is the rotational system of workshops, which allows us to visit the project sites and talk with, and learn from, the co-workers, scientists and local people. This has been an essential element of the project and I am given to understand that this is much appreciated by all project partners. I certainly look forward to seeing the formidable work being carried out by ICARDA during our field trip to the Khanasser project site.One of the major objectives of this workshop is to remind ourselves of our achievements and accomplishments as well as to discuss how best to continue into a future phase that makes best use of and consolidates the work carried out so far. The workshop will also be an occasion to build on our common and shared experiences as we look towards a possible future phase and the prolongation of our activities. I am pleased to inform you that Dr Rudy Herman, our partner from the Flemish Government of Belgium, is very pleased with the directions taken and the accomplishments achieved so far by the SUMAMAD Project. He regrets very much not to be able to attend this meeting due to a very important meeting of the European Union in Finland, whose dates coincide with the SUMAMAD workshop here in Aleppo. I also received oral inputs from our Belgian friends and experts, Prof. Donald Gabriels and Prof. Dirk Raes, who value highly the SUMAMAD Project. They would welcome an extension of the SUMAMAD project both in time as well as in geographical scope by also involving study sites in Latin America and possibly in Africa and other parts of Asia. We need to look into the possibility of extending SUMAMAD into a second phase; but a decision on this will also be influenced by an overall review of all Flemish funded science projects implemented by UNESCO. This review will take place in 2007. As you know, 2006 was an eventful year for SUMAMAD as it was the International Year of Deserts and Desertification (IYDD). I am happy to say that the SUMAMAD partners played a significant and participating role in two of the major events of the year i.e. the UNESCO organized ‘Future of Drylands’ conference, held in Tunis from 19 to 21 June 2006, which brought together some 400 participants from all world regions to take stock of some 50 years of drylands research and to identify future research priorities for sustainable dryland development. The second event will be the UNU organized International Conference on ‘Desertification and the International Policy Imperative’ to be held in Algiers from 17 to 19 December 2006, which will mark the final event in the IYDD calendar. One of the major outcomes of the Tunis conference was the Tunis Declaration which calls upon governments to use sound scientific knowledge to formulate and implement policies, laws, regulations and action programmes vis-à-vis environmental issues. The Tunis Declaration also calls upon scientists to present their dryland research results in a way that can be easily understood by decision-makers. This is essentially what we are trying, and what we are aiming at, and I believe succeeding, to achieve with the SUMAMAD project. I am pleased to inform you that the recently launched European DesertNet, at its meeting in Bonn (Germany) in October 2006, carefully considered the Tunis Declaration. The European DesertNet constitutes members of European interdisciplinary groups of scientists active in basic and applied research on land degradation/desertification. They seek to extend their network so as to coordinate activities in view of further international collaboration. The network has expressed interest in collaborating with the SUMAMAD partners, which we can only encourage. Thanks to generous financial support provided by the Flemish Government of Belgium through UNESCO, SUMAMAD project managers were able to play a key role in these events, which enabled them to bring their work to the fore and share their findings with the world’s leading dryland experts. In fact the benefits were twofold: it provided good exposure to the project on the whole and particularly the work carried out in the project sites; and, SUMAMAD

Opening remarks on behalf of UNESCO

Thomas Schaaf, UNESCO-MAB

11

12

project managers were able to network among the conference participants, which provided the possibility of forging new working relationships and potential collaborations. These events thus provided an excellent showcase for the project. This brings to mind one of the more important dimensions of the project – the training and capacity building component. The national seminars, which are conducted annually, bring together scientists and the local community to discuss the progress of the project whether in terms of the scientific findings or the development of income-generation activities. This is a constant reminder that it is the local people, living and working in the drylands, who we are ultimately serving.

12

13

Part II

Presentation of SUMAMAD – a review

13

15

Assessing the sustainable management of dryland productivity, conservation and livelihoods: 2006 achievements of the Interagency project on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands (SUMAMAD)

Caroline King, United Nations University-International Network on Water, Environment and Health, Hamilton, Canada

I. Introduction

The Interagency project on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands (SUMAMAD) is an international coordinated research initiative involving dryland communities and scientists. Through support from the Flemish Government of Belgium, research teams at eight study sites in marginal dryland areas of Northern Africa and Asia have been using participatory research approaches to identify and explore improvements in land and water management (UNESCO, 2004b). The project developed through a collaborative effort between the United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO), United Nations University (UNU) and International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). The project approach focuses on supporting local populations in their efforts to use their natural resources in a sustainable manner with a view to combating environmental degradation, increasing dryland agricultural productivity, enhancing resource conservation and contributing to local livelihoods (Adeel et al., 2002). Exploration and testing of sustainable management approaches is being undertaken by study teams and local communities at nine locations in Northern Africa and Asia (Fig.1) (King, 2006a). During 2006, testing activities produced preliminary findings concerning the effects of these management approaches on environmental conditions and local livelihoods. The testing methods applied are site-specific, and include a range of participatory and scientific techniques for evaluation. This paper presents a review of the management techniques selected, and the preliminary findings from evaluation, through the range of testing activities developed so far. This review is placed in the context of current approaches to the evaluation of sustainable land management at the international level.

Figure 1. (Dryland map source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Current State and Trends in Dryland Systems, Safriel et al 2005)

II. Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands: conceptual issues and approaches

International approaches to Sustainable Land Management (SLM) have evolved continuously over the past decade and a half, as the lessons of experience better inform on the application of this concept in drylands (Safriel et al., 2005, GEF, 2005, UNCCD, 2006). Early definitions of sustainable management focused on the need to find a balance between current populations’ needs to exploit the environment for productivity on the one hand; and the conflicting

15

16

priority for the conservation of natural resources to meet the needs of future populations, on the other (Smyth and Dumanski, 1993). However, a number of recent studies have concluded that increased productivity can be achieved in drylands, while also improving soil and water conservation, through the introduction of wise management techniques (Mazzucato and Niemeijer, 2000, Mortimore, 2005, Liniger and Critchley, 2007).As approaches for sustainable dryland management are developed, assessments are needed in order to verify the environmental and social effects of interventions, as well as their effects on productivity. An ever-increasing range of indicators have been introduced to such assessments (Bunning and Lane, 2003, LADA, 2003). A multiplicity of scales of interaction to be addressed by assessments have also been identified (Hurni, 2000, Warren, 2002). The recent Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) offers a global overview of assessments of sustainable dryland management, focusing on maintaining and increasing the net production of ecosystem services (including those associated with environmental conservation and contributions to human livelihoods) (Safriel et al., 2005). The opposite of sustainable management – a decrease in the overall production of ecosystem services in drylands – is recognized as desertification (Adeel et al., 2005). The introduction of the ecosystem services concept in the MA provided the basis for an integrated assessment that could be used to capture the full range of effects of any given management approach (Scholes et al., 2005). This innovation was introduced to the SUMAMAD project in 2003 (Adeel and King, 2004).Although the MA introduced some useful conceptual tools to sustainability of land and water management, a number of practical challenges remain. First of all, the majority of assessments of ecosystem services fall short of addressing the full range of services associated with ecosystems – including cultural services as well as supporting and regulating services to the survival of ecosystems (see Rodriguez et al., 2006). In addition, a high degree of subjectivity on the part of land managers and ‘experts’ is generally employed in the production of sustainability assessments at all scales, including those focusing on ecosystem services (Liniger et al., 2004, Liniger and Critchley, 2007). Ongoing needs for scientific research on the evaluation of ecosystem services and their tradeoffs have been highlighted in The Tunis Declaration (UNESCO, 2006). As scientists and mangers continue to focus on developing methodological standards for international land management assessments at the global level (see eg Dudley et al., 2005, Ferraro and Pattanayak, 2006, King, 2007), the importance of contributions to these discussions from participatory research initiatives, such as the SUMAMAD project, cannot be overemphasized. Conversely, the orientation of local-level scientific assessments to national and international priorities for sustainable land management for the provision of ecosystem services should facilitate recognition of the value of improved management approaches amongst policy-makers.

III. Identification and assessment of management practices in the SUMAMAD project

The SUMAMAD project teams focus on the identification of practices for sustainable soil and water conservation with the local communities through participatory research. These techniques include the use of traditional knowledge, as well as modern expertise, or a combination thereof. The selected management techniques are tested with a view to combating environmental degradation, increasing dryland agricultural productivity, and enhancing resource conservation. The assessment approaches used by the SUMAMAD project teams draw selectively on internationally available approaches for evaluation of management techniques, according to local needs and context. As a result, a range of different testing methods are used at the nine participating study sites. These are applied within a common framework assessment methodology for the project, which is designed to address the common overall objectives for sustainable management in marginal drylands described for the project as follows (Adeel et al., 2002):

Improved and alternative livelihoods of dryland dwellers;•Reduced vulnerability to land degradation in marginal lands through rehabilitation of degraded lands;•Improved productivity through identification of wise practices using both traditional knowledge and scientific •

expertise.

These objectives are differentiated from early characterizations of Sustainable Land Management (SLM) (eg Smyth and Dumanski, 1993) by the heightened focus on improvement of local livelihoods. This shift in emphasis is reflected in the site-specific and participatory nature of activities and methods for assessment adopted within the SUMAMAD project. During 2006, SUMAMAD project teams focused on a range of technologies – indigenous, adaptive and innovative – to investigate, test and promote. The identification of these techniques with local communities over previous years is described in more detail elsewhere (King, 2006a). A generic summary of the identified techniques is shown in Figure 2, below. Combinations of techniques are selectively configured by the project teams, according to the context and needs of their varying dryland locations, and the livelihoods to local communities at the study sites.

16

17

Water management techniques identified include the capture, storage and efficient use of water resources from rainfall and runoff, as well as more efficient use of available groundwater resources. Land management techniques address soil conservation and the conservation or restoration of plant cover, including production of some well-adapted dryland crops. While improvements in soil and water conservation can lead directly to increased productivity of dryland crops, complementary and alternative productive activities can also be developed to generate additional income in sustainably managed dryland areas. These include activities for processing food and other products from dryland plants and animals, as well as the production of handicrafts and attractions of aesthetic value for both tourists and local people. Income generation activities are therefore shown on Figure 2 to be interlinked with improved land and water management techniques (in the following sections of this paper and accompanying tables, these configurations are described on a site by site basis).

Figure 2: Compilation of sustainable management approaches and technologies – indigenous, adaptive and innovative from the SUMAMAD

project, 2006

IV. Summary of management approaches for soil and water conservation and alternative income generation explored by the SUMAMAD project in 2006

The following overviews of management techniques for soil and water conservation and alternative income generation activities undertaken within the SUMAMAD project during 2006 are presented on a site-by-site basis. Further information is presented by the individual Team Leaders in subsequent papers included in this volume.

17

18

Hunshandak Sandland (HS), China

The focus of activities at Hunshandak Sandland is the natural restoration of degraded rangeland through the creation of a nature reserve. Scientists working at this site have concluded that natural restoration techniques can restore degraded rangelands without the introduction of alien species. During 2006, the project team studied vegetation types and biomass production at their study site. This data is intended to be used for the calculation of the Rainfall Use Efficiency (RUE) of the sandland ecosystem. The researchers at this site compared the RUE of Hunshandak Sandland to that of other ecosystems such as savanna, desert and temperate forest, in order to demonstrate that the restored area makes highly efficient use of available rainfall. The restored grassland is being promoted as an attractive area for ecotourism. Other alternatives to livestock production explored for local income generation include milk and tofu product processing and raising chickens.

Omayed Biosphere Reserve (OBR), Egypt

Researchers at this site aim to develop a decision support model that will simulate the effects of alternative management regimes in the Omayed Biosphere Reserve through the use of information on the sensitivity of habitats and the development of land use scenarios. During 2006, research activities focused on the ecological sensitivity of Moghra Oasis, which is used by local people as an alternative rangeland during the dry season. A satellite image was analyzed to identify and map land cover types and classes. Field surveys were conducted to study vegetation and habitat types. The conservation value of each species was calculated, according to an index based on quantification of threat levels, ecological and economic value. Based on the species identified in each habitat in Moghra, these scores were used to rate the conservation value of the nine major habitats. Activities for the improvement of local livelihoods included sewing activities with local women, exploration of solar-powered fruit drying technologies with local men, and continued installation of solar-powered water desalination units for families.

Gareh Bygone Plain (GBP), Iran

The research team is developing a cooperative ‘Aquitopia’ for local people and scientists to share in the management of Artificial Groundwater Recharge (ARG) activities. The artificial recharge of groundwater systems is to be undertaken at this site in conjunction with floodwater spreading activities, which will enable the irrigation of wheat and pasture, as well as trees for fruit, fodder and fuelwood. Other sources of alternative income will be provided through beekeeping activities in the agroforestry development, and by fish farming in ponds associated with the floodwater recharge structures. The project team estimates that the ARG system harvested 7100m3 of floodwater during 2006. 80% of the harvested water is estimated to reach the aquifer to attenuate the current deficit caused by over-extraction. Water quality and bioremediation of NO3 in the recharge area was reported in 2006, monitoring studies on the survival and performance of exotic and indigenous species began.

Dana Biosphere Reserve (DBR), Jordan

At Dana Biosphere Reserve, the management approach is intended to integrate conservation of nature with socio-economic programs including income generation through ecotourism and other activities. Water for human and plant communities in the reserve come from springs. A basic water quality monitoring program was already in existence at the reserve but during 2006 the project team was able to upgrade the program through the introduction of a new testing kit. Water from three springs in Dana village is used to irrigate 40 hectares of fruit farms in the traditional gardens surrounding the village. Improvements to water and land management were made in the gardens through participatory work with local farmers to renovate the irrigation channels and use stone terraces – 250m of channels were constructed and maintained, benefiting 19 farmers. An additional alternative source of income under exploration at this site concerns the production of soap made from olive oil. During 2006, various perfumes were introduced to the soap prototype and new marketing and packaging methods were explored.

Dingarh and Lal Suhanra Biosphere Reserve (D/LSBR), Pakistan

The focus of activities at this site is on the sustainable use of saline groundwater to generate increased income for local people. During 2006, activities at this site focused on vegetable growing experiments to study soil and water conservation and vegetable production. A series of experiments were conducted to determine the effects of saline irrigation on different vegetable crops. Applications of organic versus inorganic fertilizers were tested to determine their effects on vegetables grown with saline irrigation. Results reported from these studies assessed the success rate of

18

19

vegetable production. Vegetables were distributed free of cost amongst 100 local families to encourage them to grow vegetables and use them in their diet as a supplement to their income and expenditures for food. Khanasser Valley Integrated Research Site (KVIRS), Syria

The focus on participatory research approaches that is maintained at this site ensures the suitability of the management approaches for the improvement of the livelihoods of local people. An investigation of the effects of animal manure on tomato production was begun during 2005 by an MSc student. In 2006, results from this study were reported, demonstrating the effects of manure on tomato growing. On-farm soil fertility management experiments were also continued with local farmers to evaluate techniques including rotations and improved barley and lentil varieties. In addition, a Participatory Learning Action Research (PLAR) questionnaire on nutrient flow was modified and distributed to 140 farmers from 10 villages.

Zeuss-Koutine Watershed (ZKW), Tunisia

The approach taken at this site focuses on fostering local collaborations and interdisciplinary survey-based studies. Monitoring and assessment of the efficacy of techniques for restoration of degraded rangelands was continued from previous years. Comparative analyses of vegetation cover and species frequency were reported from a series of quadrats taken from overgrazed areas, fallows, protected areas, and replanted areas. Studies on the use of olive oil ‘margine’ waste products were also continued from previous years, with the construction of plots for experimental studies on soil and plant parameters. In 2006, a survey of water-harvesting structures was also carried out to assess the structural efficacy of existing tabias, jessour and gabion check dams. Questionnaires and interviews were used to collect data from farmers and riverside inhabitants on flood risks, water harvesting techniques, the condition of existing structures and socioeconomic factors, such as the creation of employment. Further sources of alternative income generation under exploration at this site include ecotourism opportunities and, in 2006, the production of artwork from erg sand for sale to tourists was explored.

Karnab Chul (KC), Uzbekistan

The project team at this site is focusing on the introduction of improved management of grazing and other activities in the area through the creation of a GIS tool for rangeland management. During 2006, field surveys focused on populations, livestock and grazing patterns. It was observed that most owners graze their animals close to villages and water points due to lack of funds for transportation to more remote grazing areas. As a result, nearby areas are overgrazed and far-off areas are undergrazed. Restoration of degraded areas through replanting with native plants was undertaken during the optimal hydrothermal soil regime. Training for farmers on examination of seed germination, seedling establishment, and affecting factors was conducted. Several on-farm trials were established to determine optimal planting depth, seeding rates and dates, and other agricultural practices for native forbs. Complementary alternative income generating activities were explored, including cultivation of vegetables in plastic houses. Improved processing of livestock products, such as cosmetics from goat milk (soap, lotion, etc), and a number of wool products has been under development at this site. During 2006, a small-scale carpet workshop for local farmers was held and a local consultant designed and distributed small-scale carpeting frames to local horsewomen. Laboratory work was also conducted on wool washing processes and refined wool was distributed to farmers for carpet-making. During the wool washing process, lanoline is extracted, which can be used for soap production. Four team members were trained in this process during 2005. During 2006, they have produced a soap product for demonstration.

V. Evaluation of techniques for soil and water conservation: effects on productivity

A range of methods is used by the study teams to investigate and test soil and water conservation techniques. Table 1 provides a summary of testing methods used at the study sites during 2006. All of the assessment methods employed enable some form of conclusion to be drawn concerning the effects of the selected management approaches and techniques on the productivity of the land in terms of plant or biomass production. In some cases, biomass production, in and of itself, is measured and argued to have a value in terms of carbon sequestration and soil conservation; for example in the case of Hunshandak Sandland, China. In other cases, assessments focus on the identification of levels of biodiversity that could be recorded in the vegetation produced. Aesthetic appeal is a valuable aspect of biomass and biodiversity production at Dana Biosphere Reserve, Jordan, as well as at Hunshandak Sandland, China, where ecotourism is a relevant productive activity. In cases such as that of the Zeuss Koutine Watershed, Tunisia, or the

19

20

Gareh Bygone Plain, Iran, the measurement of biodiversity is used to provide an indication of the restored ecological health of previously degraded areas. In many of the other study sites, assessments focus on the value of particular species i.e. for their rarity, or medicinal value; or on crop, vegetable and fodder production.The relationship between increased productivity and conservation of natural resources is examined in a number of assessments at the project sites. Resource-use efficiency is examined in several cases, offering an indication that productivity is being increased in a sustainable manner. Examples include consideration of water use efficiency in terms of biomass production, measured at Hunshandak Sandland, China, as RUE, described above. On the other hand, a calculated value for crop production per unit of floodwater harvesting is included in the estimation of the productive value of harvested water at the Gareh Bygone Plain, Iran. Opportunities for the project to further address issues of resource-use efficiency, including productive use of water (see Rockstrom et al., 2004) were discussed by participants during an international workshop, held in 2006 (King, 2006b), and are reflected in the ongoing workplans for the project. Analysis of nutrient flows is another method that is used to consider the relationship between productivity and natural resource conservation at the Khasser Valley Integrated Research Site, Syria. In addition to considering the balance between resource use to improve productivity, and resource conservation, in a number of cases, SUMAMAD assessments also take into consideration additional benefits that can be achieved through wise management techniques. For example, at the Gareh Bygone Plain, Iran, artificial recharge activities do not only increase recharge of groundwater for productive use, the design of the recharge system has effects on a wide range of environmental processes affecting soil characteristics, biodiversity, and the fate of pollutants in the recharged water. Successive studies at this site have developed a broader understanding of the effects of the management approach on the associated ecosystem services.

20

21

Site * Technique Focus for 2006

AssessmentMeasurement of contribution to productivity

HSChina

Natural restoration- Calculate Rainfall Use Efficiency of restored areas- Study reduction in grazing

- Field surveys

- Socioeconomic survey

OBREgypt

Ecological rangeland management scenarios

Map habitat conservation value and land sensitivity to degradation

Field surveys / remote sensing

GBPIran

Artificial Recharge of Groundwater (ARG)

- Model water quality and quantity- Value crop production- Monitor biodiversity

Field surveys, modeling

DBRJordan

- Nature reserve- Conservation and use of spring-water

- Monitoring biodiversity- Monitoring water quality

Field testing and surveys

D/LSBRPakistan

Use of saline waterProductivity for vegetable growing

Vegetable growing experiments

KVIRSSyria

Nutrient management on farms and in home gardens Analysis of nutrient flow

- Participatory on-farm experiments and pot experiments- Socioeconomic surveys and questionnaires

ZKWTunisia

- Soil and vegetation conservation techniques

- Water harvesting and spreading structures

- Monitor vegetation cover and species frequency at selected plots- Number and condition of water harvesting structures

- Field surveys on vegetation

- Socioeconomic survey on water harvesting structures

KCUzbekisan

- Optimal grazing strategy - Rehabilitation of degraded rangeland through replanting native species

Map grazing patterns, biomass production and degraded areas

- Field survey

- Socioeconomic survey

Table 1: Assessment of soil and water conservation techniques and contributions to productivity

* see full names of study sites and abbreviations in Figure 1

21

22

VI. Evaluation of improved management approaches: effects on dryland livelihoods

As described in section IV of this paper, a range of different livelihood configurations are under use at each of the SUMAMAD study sites. Table 2, below, shows a summary of the productive uses of land currently taking place, and the techniques for soil and water conservation that are being explored to enhance them following on from section V of this paper. Also summarized in this table are the complementary additions of alternative income generating activities that have been devised by the project teams. These activities connect to existing management regimes, land cover and land uses. They focus on introducing activities to supplement, process and market dryland products in order to increase opportunities for income generation for sustainable local livelihoods.

Site* Land cover contribution to productivity and livelihoods

Soil and Water Conservation Focus for 2006

Complementary income generating activities introduced

HSChina

Ecotourism

GrazingNatural restoration

Tofu processing

Chicken raising

OBREgypt

Grazing

Cereal crops

Ecological rangeland management scenarios

Dress-making

Solar powered fruit-drying and desalination of drinking water

GBPIran

Cereal crops

Tree crops

Artificial Recharge of Groundwater (ARG)

Apiculture

Fish farming

DBRJordan

Fruits and vegetables

Ecotourism

Conservation and use of spring-water

Olive oil soap production

D/LSBRPakistan

Various irrigated crops

GrazingUse of saline water

Fish farming

Vegetable production

KVIRSSyria

Cereal and olive crops

Grazing

Nutrient management on farms and in home gardens

Vegetable production

ZKWTunisia

Olive and other crops

Grazing

Soil and vegetation conservation techniques

Water harvesting and spreading structures

Sand art

Ecotourism

KCUzbekisan

Grazing

Medicinal plants

Optimal grazing strategy

Rehabilitation of degraded rangeland through replanting native species

Handicrafts

Ecotourism

Hothouse plant production

Table 2: Management approaches to increase productivity and contribute to local livelihoods through alternative income generation

*see full names of study sites and abbreviations in Figure 1

22

23

The evaluation of these new enhanced livelihood opportunities is undertaken by the research teams through the use of both quantitative (valuation) and qualitative methods to describe the improvements to livelihoods. Baseline studies of livelihood strategies and levels of dependence on natural resources were developed by the study teams early in the project (UNESCO, 2004a). A number of these studies take a long-term view of the evolution of local livelihoods at the study sites over recent decades, often involving a transition from nomadic lifestyles to sedentarization, and dependence on a cash economy. These studies have been continuously refined over subsequent years through participatory research activities with local communities (see country report papers in this volume). A series of examples from the evaluation of contributions to local livelihoods by the introduction of new management approaches during 2006 are described below. Evaluation methods include: formal surveys of local adoption of alternative income generating activities and effects on livelihoods; informal interviews to identify benefits of new activities and management approaches; and environmental valuation studies.

BOX 1: Hunshandak Sandland, China

A survey of local adaptation of alternative income generating activities was undertaken to investigate the effects of the introduction of chicken farming and farm product processing activities to provide alternatives to over-reliance on cattle-raising (see Gaoming et al, in this volume). These surveys identified the income generation potential of the new activities at the household level over one year.

Annual income generation from alternative activities per household (Yuan):Raising chickens: 60,000 Forage: 12,000 Milk tofu: 5,500 Ecotourism: 7,920

Annual income generation from previous activities per household (Yuan):Raising cattle: 15,000 Buying forage: -10,000 (expenditure)

Box 1, above describes a formal survey of local adoption of alternative income generating activities and effects on livelihoods carried out in Hunshandak, Sandland, China during 2006. Further formal socio-economic survey work on livelihood strategies and population income sources at the SUMAMAD project sites has been undertaken at many of the participating sites in previous years, including Dana Biosphere Reserve, Jordan (2005), and Lal Suhanra Biosphere Reserve, Pakistan (2004), and at Karnab Chul, Uzbekistan, to be concluded in 2007.Informal methods of socio-economic data collection have been found to be more feasible at some of the study sites, particularly those where communities may not wish to disclose detailed information about their income in a formal survey. Team Leaders have selected the most appropriate methods for exploring socio-economic data, while respecting local sensitivities. In this way, relationships of trust and understanding have been developed and maintained with local communities, some reflecting either personal and family ties or considerable periods of local engagement by the research Team Leaders and facilitators. Box 2 shows the results from an informal interview to identify benefits of new activities and management approaches at Dingarh, Pakistan.

23

24

BOX 2: Dingarth, Pakistan

The Pakistan Council for Research on Water Resources (PCRWR) organized an informal local consultation to assess the impacts of locally grown vegetables and fish distributed to local people during 2006 (see Kahlown et al, in this volume). The opinion of the people was that when vegetables were included in their diet: (1) hunger decreased;(2) interval period between Ist and 2nd meal increased;(3) capacity for working increased.

These impacts were in addition to the economic benefits of the vegetables, which were valued at a total of around 20,000 Pakistan Rupees, shared amongst the local population.

An earlier evaluation of the income and expenditures of local people conducted at this site indicated that a major portion of household income is currently spent on food, with little remaining for the purchase of other essentials, such as clothing, utensils or medicines. Therefore, growing vegetables, whether for sale or for direct consumption, can make a contribution to local household budgets, in addition to securing a range of health benefits.

Various different approaches have been adopted for the valuation of natural resource products at the study sites as a contribution to local livelihoods. In some cases, including the cases described in Box 1 and 2, above, local market prices have been considered. In other cases, such as that of fish farmed at Dingarh during 2005 (Kahlown et al., 2006), prices were introduced at a nominal rate by the research teams. A further example of studies including valuation of direct contributions to local livelihoods from improved crop production is included in Box 3, below.

BOX 3: Gareh Bygone Plain, Iran

Crop productivity modeling techniques have been used to assess the contribution of improved management of water resources to the production of wheat crops. In 2006, researchers from this site estimated that 56 tons of wheat were produced from the irrigation water harvested by the project.

In addition, honey and forage crops also produced within the forested area of the constructed artificial recharge system were valued by researchers using local market and retail prices. These represent further supplementary contributions to local livelihoods. In previous studies, the value of eucalyptus trees grown in the artificial recharge area has also been estimated using local market prices, discounted over the tree growth period (Kowsar and Pakparvar, 2003)

These valuations have been used to demonstrate the cost-benefit ratio of the management techniques under exploration. The value of wheat produced in one year already well exceeded the cost of the construction of the Artificial Recharge System. As a result of the success of these compelling figures and demonstration presented by the study team, the Iranian Government has decided to replicate the aquifer management activities on 1.5 million hectares of marginal drylands 2006–11 (see Kowsar et al, in this volume).

Other policy-level impacts reported by the SUMAMAD Team Leaders during 2006 included:

SUMAMAD China• : Adoption of ‘Using land to nurse itself’ approach by Chinese State Council, June 2006 – investment of 27.4 billion Yuan in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Ningxia, Qinghai, Tibet Province, following demonstration of the potential of natural restoration to restore grasslands and contribute to local livelihoods;

SUMAMAD Egypt• : Uptake of manufacture of solar desalination units by Egyptian government through the Sakr Industrial Company for introduction to governorates in the Western and Eastern deserts. Team Leader, Dr. B. Salem invited to contribute to National Desalination Strategy for 2025, following demonstration of solar-powered desalination units at the SUMAMAD study site;

SUMAMAD Pakistan• : Punjab Province Fishery Department offered subsidies and technical guidance to increase uptake of dryland fish farming following demonstration of techniques at SUMAMAD study site;

24

25

SUMAMAD Tunisia• : IRA SUMAMAD team contribution to Local Action Plan for combating desertification and development in the region of Beni Khedache, and extension of approach to other regions (Sabria oasis and Chareb watershed);

SUMAMAD Syria• : Decision to replicate KVIRS model by Syrian Government Ministries in 3–4 other marginal dryland regions with different socio-economic conditions and discussion of State Development Planning Scenarios by the project team with Head of State Planning Commission, Syria.

Further policy impacts are to be expected from the project over the coming year as a number of the Team Leaders are working on the formulation of management plans for Nature Reserves and Ecotourism sites. In order to continue to promote these sustainable management approaches, assessments that demonstrate the impacts of the techniques on resource conservation, improved productivity, and local livelihoods will be needed.

VII. Conclusions

As has been demonstrated in this review, the site-specific and participatory nature of activities and methods for assessment adopted within the SUMAMAD project has been found to be effective at the local level at each of the study sites. However, because evaluation methods used and results obtained vary widely amongst the study sites, direct comparisons between achievements at one site and another are somewhat problematic (King, 2004). Such comparisons are important because the SUMAMAD project is designed to support South-South exchanges and collaborations for the transfer of environmentally-sound technology and expertise. The generic concept of ecosystem services, as used in the MA – including provisioning services, supporting and regulating services for the ecosystem, as well as cultural services – is a conceptually useful device for bringing together such diverse assessments across the participating study sites. Also, because ecosystem services represent productivity, conservation, and contributions to livelihoods in an integrated framework for assessment, this approach is particularly well-suited for use to describe the achievements of the SUMAMAD project in relation to its overall objectives. Assessments of contributions of ecosystem services to local livelihoods presented so far within the project include a valuation of provisioning services, such as wheat crops, honey, vegetables and timber. Other forms of assessment are used to describe effects on supporting, regulating and cultural ecosystem services, as described in Section V of this paper. However, work within the project is continuing to develop assessments also including valuation of ecosystem services in Moghra Oasis, Egypt, to be studied during 2007. The results from such studies are likely to produce further compelling arguments for management practices to be adopted and supported from the policy level. Quantification and valuation of ecosystem services is considered helpful for sustainable land management assessments, such as the MA (Scholes et al., 2005, Rodriguez et al., 2006), because this approach enables dryland managers to evaluate one management approach, and to compare it numerically to another. Two possible scenarios may have different outputs in terms of productivity (eg farming or grazing versus natural restoration), but if they can both be valued, effective comparisons can be made between them to support decision-making. As the SUMAMAD research teams continue to develop their focus on the evaluation of scenarios for land-use planning (see workshop report in this volume), this approach to assessment will be particularly relevant.

References

Adeel, Z. and King, C. 2004. Development of an Assessment Methodology for Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands. In: Proceeedings of the Third Project Workshop on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands, Djerba, Tunisia, 11–15 December, 2004, pp. 13–22. UNESCO, Paris.

Adeel, Z., Safriel, U., Niemeijer, D., White, R., Kalbermatten, G. D., Glantz, M., Salem, B., Scholes, B., Niamir-Fuller, M., Ehui, S. and Yapi-Gnaore, V. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Desertification Synthesis, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, World Resources Institute, Washington DC

Adeel, Z., Schaaf, T., Oweis, T., Thomas, R. and Salih, A. (Eds.) 2002. Sustainable Management in Marginal Drylands - A programmatic overview. Sustainable Managment of Marginal Drylands: application of indigenous knowledge for coastal drylands, 21–25 September, 2002, Alexandria, Egypt. UNU Press, Tokyo.

Bunning, S. and Lane, A. 2003. Proposed framework for indicators of biodiversity, land and socio-economic condition. LADA FAO, Rome.

Dudley, N., Baldock, D., Nasi, R. and Stolton, S. 2005. Measuring biodiversity and sustainable management in forests and agricultural landscapes, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, Vol. 360. pp. 457–470.

Ferraro, P. and Pattanayak, S. 2006. Money for nothing? A call for empirical evaluation of biodiversity conservation investments, PLoS Biology 4(4): e105.

25

26

GEF. 2005. Scope and Coherence of the Land Degradation Activities in the GEF, GEF/C.24/6/Rev.2 GEF Secretariat, New York

Hurni, H. 2000. Assessing sustainable land management (SLM), Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment 81(2). pp. 83–92.

Kahlown, M. A., Akram, M. and Soomro, Z. A. 2006. Saline Fish Farming: An Alternative Livlihood for the People of Dryland Lal Suhanra Bio-sphere Reserve, Pakistan. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Project Workshop on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands, Islamabad, Pakistan, 27– 31 Jan. 2006, pp. 109–120. . PCRWR, Islamabad.

King, C. UNESCO (Ed.). 2004. A Coordinated Approach to Dryland Assessment: Review of Reports on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands (SUMAMAD), 2003. In: Proceedings of the Third Project Workshop on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands, Djerba, Tunisia, 11– 15 Dec. 2004, pp. 23–38. UNESCO, Paris.

King, C. 2006a. Indigenous, Adaptive and Innovative Dryland Management Approaches: The UNU-UNESCO-ICARDA joint project on The Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands (SUMAMAD) 2005. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Project Workshop on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands Islamabad, Pakistan, 27– 31 Jan. 2006, pp. 23– 37. PCRWR, Islamabad.

King, C. 2006b. Workshop Report.In: Proceedings of the Fourth Project Workshop on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands, Islamabad, Pakistan, 27– 31 Jan. 2006, pp. 147–160, PCRWR, Islamabad.

King, C. 2007. Report of the Expert Workshop on GEF Land Degradation Focal Area Indicators, Rome, 8–9 January, 2007 [Online] Available from: http://www.gefweb.org/projects/Focal_Areas/land/LDFocalAreaIndicators.html [Accessed 08/02/07]

Kowsar, S. A. and Pakparvar, M. 2003. Assessment methodology for establishing an Aquitopia, Islamic Republic of Iran. In: Proceedings of the Second International Workshop. 29 Nov– 2 Dec 2003, Shiraz, I.R.Iran, pp. 40–55. UNESCO-MAB Drylands Series No. 3. UNESCO, Paris.

LADA, 2003. Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) Guidelines for a Methodological Approach (Draft version), FAO Rome [Online] Available from: http://lada.virtualcentre.org [Accessed 8/02/07]

Liniger, H. and Critchley, W. (Eds.), 2007. Where the Land is Greener, Wageningen, Netherlands: CTA, FAO, UNEP and CDE.

Liniger, H., Douglas, M. and Schwilch, G. 2004. Towards Sustainable Land Management - ‘Common Sense’ and some other key missing elements (the WOCAT experience). Conserving Soil and Water for Society: Sharing Solutions. Brisbane, July 2004, ISCO 2004 - 13th International Soil Conservation Organization Conference.

Mazzucato, V. and Niemeijer, D. 2000. The cultural economy of soil and water conservation: Market principles and social networks in eastern Burkina Faso, Development and Change 31(4), pp. 831–855.

Mortimore, M. 2005. Dryland development: Success stories from West Africa, Environment 47(1), pp. 8–21.Rockstrom, J., Folke, C., Gordon, L., Hatibu, N., Jewitt, G., de Vries, F. P., Rwehumbiza, F., Sally, H., Savenije, H.

and Schulze, R. 2004. A watershed approach to upgrade rainfed agriculture in water scarce regions through Water System Innovations: an integrated research initiative on water for food and rural livelihoods in balance with ecosystem functions, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (15–18), pp. 1109–1118.

Rodriguez, J. P., Beard, T. D., Bennett, E. M., Cumming, G. S., Cork, S. J., Agard, J., Dobson, A. P. and Peterson, G. D. 2006. Trade-offs across space, time, and ecosystem services, Ecology and Society 11(1). Available online: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art28/ [Accessed 5/03/07]

Safriel, U., Adeel, Z., Niemeijer, D., Puigdefabregas, J., White, R., Lal, R., Winslow, M., Ziedler, J., Prince, S., Archer, E., King, C., Shapiro, B., Wessels, K., Nielsen, T., Portnov, B., Reshef, I., Thonell, J., Lachman, E. and McNab, D. 2005. Dryland Systems, In: Current State and Trends, Vol. 1. Island Press: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, pp. 623–662.

Scholes, R., Hassan, R. and Ash, N. 2005. Ecosystems and Their Services around the Year 2000. In: Hassan, R., Scholes, R. and Ash, N. (Eds.) Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends, Volume 1. pp. 1–23. Island Press, Washington.

Smyth, A. J. and Dumanski, J. 1993. FESLM: An International Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Land Management, World Soil Resources Report. FAO, Rome.

UNCCD, 2006. Consideration of ways and means of promoting know-how and technology transfer for combating desertification and/or mitigating the effects of drought, as well as of promoting experience sharing and information exchange among parties and interested institutions and organizations, ICCD/CRIC(5)/8 Buenos Aires.

UNESCO (Ed.), 2004a. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands, Shiraz, I.R.Iran, 29 Nov. –2 Dec., 2003. UNESCO, Paris.

UNESCO (Ed.), 2004b. Proceedings of the Third Project Workshop, Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands, Djerba, Tunisia, 11–15 Dec., 2004. UNESCO, Paris.

UNESCO, 2006. The Tunis Declaration. International Scientific Conference on ‘The Future of Drylands’, Tunis, Tunisia

26

27

19–21 June, 2006 [Online] Available from: http://www.unesco.org/mab/ecosyst/futureDrylands.shtml Warren, A. 2002. Land degradation is contextual, Land Degradation & Development, Vol.13. No. 6, pp. 449–459.

27

31

Biomass and Net Primary Productivity of Siberian Elm Sparse Forest Grassland in Hunshandake Sandy Land of Inner Mongolia

1,2Jiang Gaoming, Li Gang, 1 Li Yonggeng, 1 Liu Meizhen1Laboratory of Quantitative Vegetation Ecology, Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; 2Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Abstract

Biomass and net primary productivity (NPP) are the most fundamental features of terrestrial ecosystems. In order to fully understand the Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila L.) sparse grassland ecosystem, the biomass and NPP of Hunshandake Sandland, Inner Mongolia, China, was measured. The research site was divided into five main habitats: fixed dunes, semi-fixed dunes, shifting dunes, lowland, and wetland. Allometric relationships were applied to calculate the biomass and NPP of Siberian elm at stand level. The average biomass was 20.42 Mg ha-1, 82% more than the mean for grassland ecosystem while NPP was 10.65 Mg ha-1 yr-1, 54% more than the mean. Subjected to the same climate, sparse forest grassland experienced rain use efficiency at almost twice that of the surrounding grassland. From a habitat perspective, the lowlands accounted for 77% of the average biomass and NPP in the sparse forest grassland. From a life form perspective, trees contributed only 10.6% and 1.2% of average biomass and NPP respectively due to its sparse distribution and slow growth rate. The ratio of below- to above ground biomass was 3.5 for the whole ecosystem. These results indicate that the ecosystem made up of elm sparse forest grassland in Hunshandake Sandland possess characteristics that differ from typical temperate grasslands in terms of biomass and NPP, and vegetation restoration is recommend for its potential storage in carbon.

Key Words: biomass, net primary productivity, Hunshandake Sandland, Ulmus pumila, rain use efficiency

I. Introduction

Global change caused by the continual rise in concentration of atmospheric CO2 has encouraged global studies in terrestrial ecosystem structure and function (Vitousek, 1994; Grace, 2004). Terrestrial vegetation, which actively exchanges carbon with the atmosphere, is expected to function as a carbon sink thereby mitigating anthropogenic CO2

(IGBP, 1998; Schimel et al., 2001). As an important feature of the ecosystem structure, biomass is usually regarded as a valuable indicator of the fluctuating carbon pools (Dixon et al., 1994; Fang et al., 2001; Houghton, 2005). As concerns net primary productivity (NPP) it represents ecosystem function in terms of solar energy transformation and provides resources for a diversity of consumers (Field et al., 1998; Roy and Saugier, 2001). Accurate field measurements of both biomass and NPP therefore play a key role in fully understanding the functioning ecosystem (Brown, 2002; Clark et al., 2001). Initially, biomass and NPP research mainly focused on typical zonal vegetation such as forest ecosystems (e.g. Phillips et al., 1998; Gower et al., 2001; Houghton et al., 2001) and grassland ecosystems (e.g. Sala et al., 1988; Scurlock et al., 2002; Ni 2004). The availability of data on biomass and NPP in intrazonal ecosystems was relatively low because of inadequate work carried out on these vegetation types. Such data are, however, of high significance for regional ecosystem carbon cycle estimation. Sandy lands is one such ecosystem type, as mentioned above. Although there have been some prior species-specific biomass or NPP measurements in sandy land regions (e.g. Li et al. 2002; He and Zhang 2003; Wang 2005), little information at ecosystem level is available. Here sandland refers to sand-covered land within the semi-arid grassland zone but with many characteristics that are distinct from grassland or desert (Zhu et al. 1980; Yang et al. 2005). Generally, a kind of sparse forest grassland vegetation develops in these regions under the influences of both zonal temperate grassland climate and intrazonal sandy soil conditions. In China, there are four large sandlands in Inner Mongolia: Hunshandake, Hulun Buir, Horqin, and Mu Us (Fig. 1) covering a total area of about 165,300 km2 (Wang et al. 2003; Liu and Wang 2004). Because of their fragility and vulnerability to human disturbance due to rapid socio-economic growth in recent decades, all four sandlands have been degraded to varying degrees (Zha and Gao 1997; Yang et al. 2005). Hunshandake Sandland, about 180 km north of Beijing, is

31

32

becoming both a scientific and public concern because of its frequent dust storms during spring (Jiang 2003; Zheng et al. 2006). Due to land degradation, the proportion of shifting dunes in Hunshandake increased from 2% in the 1950s (Chen and Guo 1960); 9.7% in the mid-1970s to 15.9% early this century (IMMA, 2004). Furthermore, we have limited knowledge of the structure and function of the sparse forest grassland ecosystem in Hunshandake Sandland. This increases the urgency to estimate its potential vegetation biomass and NPP before this area becomes severely degraded. Moreover, a better understanding of this unique ecosystem would help in its restoration and conservation. In the current study, we investigated both the biomass and NPP of the sparse forest grassland along a habitat gradient in the conservation area of Hunshandake Sandland. Biomass and NPP distribution in terms of different habitats, life forms and organic components were also determined. The levels of biomass and NPP as well as rain use efficiency (RUE) were evaluated in comparison with the other ecosystems in the world. This integrated study would provide a comprehensive understanding of the structure and function of the sparse forest grassland ecosystem in sandlands.

Figure 1. Map of China showing the locations of the four main sandy lands in northern China:

1, Mu Us, 2, Hunshandake, 3, Horqin, 4, Hulun Buir.

II. Materials and methods

Site Description

Hunshandake Sandland (41°56–44°22′ N, 112°22–17°57′ E, altitude 1100–1300 m a.s.l.) is located east of the Inner Mongolia plateau with a total area covering 4.08×104 km2 (Liu and Wang, 2004). It is subjected to a temperate semi-arid climate with a mean annual temperature of 0.5–3.5°C, a mean annual precipitation of 250–400 mm and a mean annual potential evaporation of 2000–2700 mm. More than 50% of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August when the peak monthly mean temperature is about 17°C (Fig. 2). The mean annual wind speed of the prevailing westward wind is about 3.5–5.5 m s-1. The main soil type is described as chestnut aeolian sandy soil. The entire sandland consists of five main habitats: fixed dunes, semi-fixed dunes, shifting dunes, lowland, and wetland. Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila L.) is the most important dominant tree species growing sparsely and unevenly in the sandland, which together with the herbaceous layer and some shrubs, form the sparse forest grassland landscape. Our study was conducted in a 2,668 ha conservation area (42°53–42°58′ N and 116°01–16°08′ E) in the central area of Hunshandake Sandland.

32

33

Month

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Precipitation (mm)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Temperature(

0C)

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

Figure 2. Climate diagram of the study site in Hunshandake Sandy Land, with columns for monthly mean precipitation (mm) and line for

monthly mean temperature (°C). Data (1960-1999) were collected from Zhenglan Banner Observatory (42°15_ N and 115°59_ E).

Transect Survey

The extent and size of the area of the 5 habitats is first determined in order to identify the contribution of each of the habitats in terms of biomass and NPP. For each of the five habitats in the elm sparse forest grassland, we surveyed two 5 km long and 100 m wide transects in the research area during the growing season in 2004. The transects were placed in a south to north direction approximately 90° to the main sand ridges. Habitat type and vegetation were noted at every 100 m interval. Siberian elm was almost the only tree species, although other tree species such as Malus baccata (L.) Barkh., Betula fruticosa Pall., and Padus racemosa (Lam.) Gilib. were occasionally encountered. As the other tree species numbered less than 5% of the total number of trees, we treated them as elms when calculating biomass and NPP. The diameter at breast height (DBH, 1.3 m above ground), height (H) and crown diameter (CD) for every tree (DBH ≥ 5 cm) encountered were measured and documented.

Siberian Elm Biomass Estimation

Standard sample trees consisting of 10 well developed Siberian elm trees spanning various DBH classes, according to transect survey, were selected in the fixed dunes. Their DBH, H and CD were measured before felling. The stem, branches and leaves were separated and weighed for fresh mass. The live coarse roots (d ≥ 5 mm) and small roots (2 < d < 5 mm) were excavated, collected and weighed for fresh mass. Subsamples were taken from all the parts of each harvested tree and dried at 85°C until a constant weight was obtained. This was carried out so that all the fresh biomass of different parts can be converted into dry matter according to the water content. The values of the sample trees were adapted to fit allometric equations where M is biomass of various components in kg.

DBHlnlnln baM += (1)

Stem, branch, leaf, coarse root and small root biomass of Siberian elms in every habitat was calculated by determining the allometric relationships with the dendrological information of every tree. Fixed-dune specific biomass estimation equations were applied to trees in other habitats. This was cost-effective as only a very small proportion of trees occurred in other habitats. Four soil cores (inner diameter of 8 cm) at different distances (1/4, 1/2, 3/4, and 1 times of crown diameter) from each of the ten harvested trees were drilled to a depth of 1 m before harvest. All the fine roots (d ≤ 2 mm) and small roots were rinsed out of the sand and separated manually. Live and dead roots were evaluated based on the criterion that live roots are resilient, flexible and light coloured while dead roots tend to be fragile and dark coloured, and they crumble easily (Böhm 1979). Root samples were dried to a constant weight at 85°C. The live biomass of fine roots at the stand level was calculated from the ratio of live small root biomass to live fine root biomass obtained from soil core samplings.

33

34

Herbaceous Layer Biomass Measurement

Five 4m2 clipping plots for fixed, semi-fixed and shifting dunes as well as five 1 m2 plots for lowland and wetland were investigated in late August 2004 when maximum biomass was observed. The above ground biomass was clipped and collected manually. Below-ground biomass was explored in each plot using three soil cores (inner diameter of 8 cm) to a depth of 50 cm at 10 cm intervals. Wetland soil cores were not investigated by layers. Below-ground live roots were rinsed out. All the parts were oven-dried to a constant weight at 85 °C and weighed.

Siberian Elm NPP Estimation

The NPP of stems, branches and coarse roots (NPPS, B, or CR) was calculated by their mean biomass increments (′MS, B,

or CR) over the five year period (1999–2004)i.e.

5/)(NPP 19992004,,,, MMM orCRBSorCRBS −=∆= (2)

where M2004 and M1999 is the biomass of 2004 and 1999 of the three parts, respectively. The past dry matter was estimated by putting the DBHs (Diameter of Breast Height) of 1999 into the allometric relationship mentioned above. In order to obtain the DBH dating from five years ago, we drilled the tree stems at breast height in four directions for each of the fifteen normally growing trees covering all DBH classes. The regression function between DBH (cm) of 2004 and DBH increment (DBHI, mm) during the previous five years was:

9948.0)DBHln(0267.4DBH 2004I −= (R2adj = 0.3721; P < 0.01; n = 15) (3)

Then DBH2004 minus DBHI was the DBH of 1999 for each tree in research site.

The NPP of leaves was considered to be the same amount as its biomass. The NPP of small roots and fine roots were estimated by multiplying their standing biomass with turnover rates (Aber et al. 1985). The in-growth core method (Janssens et al. 2002) was used to determine small and fine root turnover rates. Four soil cores were drilled to a depth of 1 m at various distances (1/4, 1/2, 3/4, and 1x the crown diameter) to each of the ten selected elm trees. All the sampled trees had similar DBHs. The holes with nylon net bags lined inside were refilled with root-free sandy soil and were kept intact until harvested the following August. Soil cores taken over the two-year period (2004–5) were treated as described in the method mentioned above. Turnover was calculated as the ratio of the total amount of root production in one year over the maximum below-ground biomass (Gill and Jackson, 2000).Litter fall from trees was collected every month from April to August using fifteen 1m × 1m litter fall traps randomly placed in a 50m × 50m fixed dune plot. Leaves, twigs and miscellaneous fragments were separated, dried at 85°C and weighed. Litter fall of the other four habitats was calculated in proportion to their tree densities relative to that of fixed dune. Herbivory was negligible since no insect outbreak was observed during the research period.

Herbaceous Layer NPP Measurement

The above-ground NPP (ANPP) and below-ground NPP (BNPP) of fixed, semi-fixed, and shifting dunes were assumed to be equal to the corresponding maximum above- and below-ground biomass (Sala and Austin 2000). As the grass growing in lowland and wetland included perennial rhizome, the lowland and wetland ANPP adopted their peak above-ground biomass while the BNPP was estimated as the difference between maximum and minimum below-ground biomass (Scurlock et al. 2002). The minimum below-ground biomass was taken from 3 soil cores (diameter of 8 cm) sampled before the growing season of 2004 at the depth of 50 cm in each of the five 1 m2 plots for the two habitats. Live roots were rinsed out of the sand and dried at 85°C to constant weight.

Data Analysis

Logarithmic transformation was used to correct for heteroschedasticity of the dependent variables, and correction factors (CF) were calculated as described by Sprugel (1983) and were multiplied by predicted values to correct for systematic bias introduced by logarithmic transformation when converting predicted values back to an arithmetic unit. Linear regression procedure was used to determine the allometric relationships of biomass of stem, leaves, branches, coarse roots and small roots with DBH. Curve estimation procedure was used to fit the DBH increment equation. F-test was used in the significance test of functions. Significant differences between means were detected by t-test. All data analysis was conducted on SPSS V. 12.0 (SPSS Inc., 2003).

34

35

III. Results

Vegetation

The transect survey showed that lowland, fixed and semi-fixed dunes were the main habitat components in Hunshandake Sandland with lowland distributing between dune ranges (Table 1). Shifting dunes occupied only a small fraction. In total there were 836 trees encountered in transects, of which 84% were growing on fixed dunes where tree density was also the highest, while in other habitats, trees were scarce. On average, there were 8 trees per hectare in this sparse forest grassland ecosystem. Trees with DBH ranging from 10 to 25 cm amounted to 61%.

Habitats Typical vegetationCoverage(%)

Area (%)

Number of elm

Elm density (No. ha-1)

FixedUlums pumila + Caragana microphylla

> 40 30 706 24

Semi-fixed Artemisia intramongolica 15-40 14 58 4

Shifting

Agriophyllum squarrosum + Pugionium cornutum + Corispermum spp. + Psammochloa villosa

< 15 4 10 3

LowlandLeymus chinensis + L. secalinus

> 60 51 62 1

Wetland Phragmites communis > 85 1 0 0

Table 1. Area percentage of the five habitats in total 10 km long and 100 m wide transect of Hunshandake Sandland. Vegetation, elm

distribution and density are also shown.

Allometric Relationships

Based on the crown dimensions and biomass of the ten sample trees shown in Table 2, we established the logarithmic allometric relationships between the DBH and biomass of the different components (Table 3). All the allometric relationships fitted for biomass estimation were highly significant (P < 0.001).

DBH(cm)

H(m)

CD(m × m)

Stem (kg)

Branch (kg)

Leaf (kg)

Coarse root (kg)

Small root (kg)

1 9.2 2.7 2×2 4.12 6.61 1.64 7.79 0.51

2 14.1 3.0 2×3 14.83 13.55 2.86 28.95 0.90

3 17.0 3.2 1.5×2 23.59 21.86 3.06 51.14 0.93

4 17.5 4.5 2.5×3 30.72 19.64 4.86 60.12 0.72

5 21.4 5.4 3×3 38.71 40.65 6.12 110.95 2.84

6 24.0 6.7 4×4 44.07 49.96 10.00 203.32 5.23

7 28.7 7.0 4×4 97.34 70.82 10.86 220.44 6.41

8 32.5 7.2 3×5 121.81 89.67 14.12 289.70 7.16

9 36.3 7.0 7×7 119.12 151.15 17.83 515.12 12.45

10 42.7 7.8 9.5×10 299.03 215.74 18.96 569.19 21.46

Table 2. Tree characteristics and biomass of different parts of ten Siberian elm sample trees. DBH, stem diameter at breast height; H, tree

height; CD, crown diameter.

35

36

b ± S.E. lna ± S.E. R2adj SEE CF

Stem 2.588 ± 0.129 -4.221±0.405 0.978*** 0.183 1.017

Branch 2.320 ± 0.096 -3.456±0.299 0.985*** 0.135 1.009

Leaf 1.760 ± 0.119 -3.532±0.374 0.960*** 0.169 1.014

Coarse root 2.861 ± 0.131 -4.152±0.410 0.981*** 0.185 1.017

Small root 2.662 ± 0.294 -7.154±0.921 0.900*** 0.416 1.090

Table 3. Regression coefficients in different biomass categories. Equations are of the form DBHlnlnln baM += , M, biomass of different

components (kg); DBH, stem diameter at breast height (cm). S.E., standard error; R2adj, adjusted multiple coefficient of determination; SEE,

standard error of estimate; CF, correction factor. Significance level: *** = P < 0.001.

Biomass

Combining the biomass of every habitat with the corresponding area proportion (Table 1), we computed the average biomass of elm sparse forest grassland ecosystem to be 20.42 Mg ha-1, of which tree biomass accounted for 10.6%. The ratio of below-ground to above-ground biomass was 3.5 (Table 4). Among the five habitats the biomass was the highest in the wetland and lowest in the shifting dunes. However, the biomass in the lowland accounted for up to 77% of the average biomass of sparse forest grassland. The contribution of below-ground biomass was about 4.5-fold of the above-ground part in wetland and lowland where rhizomatic gramineous herbs were dominant species (Table 4, Fig. 3a). The contribution from trees exceeded 50% in shifting and fixed dune but in lowland and wetland most of the biomass came from the herbaceous layer. Tree biomass was the highest in fixed dunes and the lowest in wetland, displaying the same trend as tree density. The root/shoot ratio of tree biomass was about 1.4 in all habitats (Table 4). The biomass ratio of live small roots to live fine roots was 1.49 ± 0.2 (n = 10), according to which the fine root biomass was calculated for every habitat. The difference between live and dead small root biomass density was more significant than that of fine root (P < 0.01, Fig. 4). Siberian elm’s small and fine root vertical distribution revealed that root density peaked at a depth of about 55 cm regardless of whether the root was live or small, but live fine root density was higher than that of live small root in the layer above 45 cm (Fig. 5). The average herbaceous layer biomass of the sparse forest grassland in Hunshandake was 18.26 Mg ha-1. The biomass of the herbaceous layers was the highest in wetland, about 190 times the lowest value in shifting dunes. In terms of herbage only, about 85% of the root biomass was attributed to the upper 30 cm for the four habitats investigated (Fig. 6).

Net Primary Production (NPP)

Based on the area of every habitat (Table 1), the average NPP of sparse forest grassland was estimated at 10.65 Mg ha-1 yr-1, of which 1.2% is from trees, 76.8% from lowland, and 65% from below-ground (Table 4). Among the five habitats, the NPP decreased from wetland at 33.5 Mg ha-1 yr-1 to shifting dunes at 0.4 Mg ha-1 yr-1. The BNPP was higher than the ANPP in wetland, lowland, and fixed dunes (Fig. 3b). The fraction of tree NPP in total NPP (trees, shrubs and grasses) of every habitat varied from 10.1% in shifting dunes to almost zero in lowland and wetland. Additionally, tree NPP was the highest in fixed dunes and the lowest in wetland (Table 4). The above-ground component contributed 69% to the total tree NPP. The herbaceous layer NPP was the highest in wetland, followed by lowland. Their minimum below-ground biomass was 33.3 ± 1.5 (n = 15) and 14.5 ± 0.6 (n = 15) Mg ha-1, respectively. In the other three habitats, the herbaceous layer NPP dropped from fixed to shifting dunes (Table 4). The lowland contribution was the highest for the average herbaceous layer NPP. Le Houérou (1984) presented the concept of RUE (rain use efficiency) defined as the quotient of ANPP (kg ha-1 yr-1) by mean annual rainfall (mm). The 40-year (1960–1999) mean annual precipitation in this area was 370.23 mm according to climate records from Zhenglan Banner Observatory. So the RUE of sparse forest grassland ecosystem in Hunshandake is 10.1.

36

37

Biomass (Mg ha

-1)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

AbovegroundBelowground

Habitat

wetland lowland fixed semi-fixed shifting average

NPP (Mg ha

-1 yr-1)

0

5

10

15

20

AbovegroundBelowground

a

b

Figure 3 a, b. Comparison of above- and belowground biomass (a) and NPP (b) of the five habitats and their averages of the sparse forest

grassland in Hunshandkake.

IV. Discussion

Vegetation

As an intrazonal ecosystem, Siberian elm sparse forest grassland in Hunshandake Sandland has a special structure and function. However, in terms of ecological research it has been poorly understood and often treated simply as grassland or desert. Furthermore, studies on biomes usually ignored these intrazonal ecosystems (Walter 1979; Archibold, 1995). Hunshandake Sandland with its five major habitats is a region with high heterogeneity. Different habitats can be distinctively identified according to its vegetation construction, coverage and topographical traits. The total area of fixed dunes, semi-fixed dunes and lowland amounted to 95% indicating that the vegetation was in a relative good condition in the conservation area (Peng et al., 2005). Siberian elm trees grew unevenly and sparsely in all the habitats except wetland forming a typical Siberian elm sparse forest grassland landscape. However, trees were in higher density only on fixed dunes where vegetation coverage was appropriate for elm seed germination (Li et al. 2003) and protected the elm seedlings from complete sand burial (Shi et al. 2004). Siberian elm may have opportunities to colonize shifting dunes if disturbances such as overgrazing were eliminated, and pioneer plants already existed nearby (Li et al. 2003; Guo and Liu 2004). Furthermore, the sparse forest plays a special role in attracting water creating fertile islands in the sandy grassland that encourages herbaceous plants growth (Liu et al., 2003a). Moreover, trees have an indispensable function that prevents dunes from activation despite the small numbers of trees in the sand dunes throughout the entire sparse forest grassland ecosystem. Vegetation characteristics show that Hunshandake Sandland is an ecosystem that is distinct from grassland or desert.

Biomass

The average biomass of sparse forest grassland ecosystem presented here was higher than that of temperate grassland compared with other main biomes in the world (Fig. 7). Moreover, it was 82% higher than the mean biomass of the

37

38

grassland ecosystem in the world calculated from six different estimates (P < 0.01, Table 5). This can be explained to a large extent by the soil substrate environment of this region, which is markedly different to typical temperate grassland. Under the same temperate grassland climate, the sandy soil substrate provides the vegetation with relatively better water and heat conditions than the surrounding grassland’s chestnut soil. The sandy soil can maintain a relatively higher moisture supply than the surrounding grassland due to the pores between the sand particles that interrupt the capillary water movement and keep evaporation low (Inner Mongolia and Ningxia Research Team of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1985). However, in the case of chestnut soil in typical grassland, the water-retaining capacity was often weakened by poor infiltration due to the vast existence of a calcic horizon at a depth of about 30 cm (Walter, 1979; Chen and Wang, 2000). Furthermore, plants in sparse forest grassland can take full advantage of the co-occurrence of maximum rainfall (over 50% concentrated in July and August) and optimum growth temperature (Fig. 2) favorable to primary production. Therefore, based on the present investigation, the sparse forest grassland ecosystem in Hunshandake is different from grasslands or deserts in terms of biomass.If we compare the biomass of different habitats separately with other ecosystems worldwide we note that the dune biomass is situated at the desert and semi-desert scrub level while lowland biomass lies between the temperate grassland and savanna levels (Whittaker and Likens 1975; Ajtay et al. 1979; Saugier et al. 2001), and wetland biomass in temperate swamp level (Ajtay et al. 1979). Although wetland biomass is high its contribution was minor due to the small proportion of its area. The biomass of lowland was however important in compensating the low biomass of dunes. The high ratios of below- to above-ground biomass in wetland and lowland were consistent with grassland root system traits (Jackson et al. 1996; Piao et al. 2004). This indicates that most of the assimilate carbon could be stored in below-ground pools. Although tree biomass was important in shifting dunes and fixed dunes its proportion in the sparse forest grassland as a whole was not as great as expected due to its low tree density in the vast lowland region. However, it is undeniable that the sparsely scattered elm trees have a critical role in fixing the dunes and stopping the activation of top-soils because of their wide spreading root systems (Inner Mongolia Forest Editorial Board, 1989). Without protection from elm trees the fixed dunes tended to severely degrade under the action of the strong winds in the late winter and early spring. This study also revealed that, contrary to most forests in humid climates whose biomass is mainly situated above-ground (Cairns et al. 1997), the biomass is concentrated in the root systems, which are widely distributed in the shallow horizon. The

38

Fixed dunes Semi-fixed dunes Shifting dunes Lowland Wetland Weighted average

Biomass NPP Biomass NPP Biomass NPP Biomass NPP Biomass NPP Biomass NPP

Aboveground

Tree

Stems 1.203 0.027 0.209 0.005 0.130 0.003 0.071 0.001

Branches 1.120 0.023 0.198 0.004 0.121 0.003 0.065 0.001

Leaves 0.158 0.158 0.029 0.029 0.017 0.017 0.009 0.009

Litterfall 0.039 0.006 0.005 0.002

Herbaceous layer 2.275 2.275 1.171 1.171 0.262 0.262 5.218 5.218 13.120 13.120

Aboveground total 4.756 2.522 1.607 1.215 0.530 0.290 5.363 5.231 13.120 13.120 4.539 3.737

Belowground

Tree

Coarse roots 3.429 0.082 0.585 0.015 0.368 0.009 0.207 0.005

Small roots 0.082 0.012 0.014 0.002 0.009 0.001 0.005 0.001

Fine roots 0.055 0.013 0.009 0.002 0.006 0.001 0.003 0.001

Herbaceous layer 3.463 3.463 0.886 0.886 0.087 0.087 25.299 10.799 53.683 20.383

Belowground total 7.029 3.570 1.494 0.905 0.470 0.098 25.514 10.806 53.683 20.383 15.886 6.917

Tree total 6.047(51) 0.354(6) 1.044(34) 0.063(3) 0.651(65) 0.039(10) 0.360(1.2) 0.020(0.1) 2.170(10.6) 0.127(1.2)

Grass total 5.738 5.738 2.057 2.057 0.349 0.349 30.517 16.017 66.803 33.503 18.255 10.527

Total 11.785 6.092 3.101 2.120 1.000 0.388 30.877 16.037 66.803 33.503 20.425 10.654

Table 4. Biomass (Mg ha-1) and NPP (Mg ha-1 yr-1) by compartments for every habitat of Hunshandake Sandland. Numbers in parentheses

show the contribution of trees to each habitat total biomass. See text for methods and details.

39

groundwater table was typically located at a depth of more than 2 m in the dunes and was therefore not always accessible for trees. However, the shallow and extensive tree root distribution increased the utility of surface water when groundwater is unavailable (Li et al., 2002). This strategy towards below-ground biomass is common and vital for the survival of plants in the semi-arid environments in order to collect water through the use of their vast root systems (Schenk and Jackson, 2002). Moreover, the biomass pattern also reinforces Siberian elm as an important sand binding species in the sandy area.

Net Primary Production (NPP)

The average NPP of the elm sparse forest grassland was a little higher than the Savanna mean level and features of the ecosystem structure were also similar i.e. with sparse trees distributed in the grassland background. If compared with grasslands only, the NPP of spare forest grassland in Hunshandake was 54% higher than the mean of six estimates (P < 0.01, Table 5). Water availability is an important environmental constraint on the primary production of terrestrial ecosystems. Some meta-analyses that plot the correlation between mean annual precipitation and NPP of various biomes have been conducted in different studies (Whittaker and Likens, 1973; Knapp and Smith, 2001; Loustau et al., 2001; Gower, 2002). The observed NPP (10.65 Mg ha-1 yr-1) of the Hunshandake sparse forest grassland was much higher than the predicted result (6.54 Mg ha-1 yr-1, Fig. 8). This implied that the same precipitation supported more dry matter production in sandy lands. As an indicator of above-ground carbon assimilation capacity for a given amount of precipitation, a RUE of 10.1 also illustrated a similar trait in Hunshandake. The typical temperate grassland surrounding Hunshandake had a RUE of 5.1 (Chen and Wang, 2000). Compared with arid areas in the world, the RUE in the sparse forest ecosystem was 1.5 times higher than the mean RUE of 77 arid sites compiled by Le Houérou et al. (1988). The reason for high water use efficiency may be explained by both plant physiological traits (Liu et al., 2003b) and Hunshandake sandy soil traits, as discussed above.The NPP allocation pattern in the entire sandy sparse forest revealed 65% of the total photosynthetic products as allocated below-ground, which is relatively stable due to nutrient shortage and soil microbes in the sandy soil (Raich and Schlesinger, 1992). Siberian elm tree NPP was low in every habitat of Hunshandake not only because of its slow growth rate, which can be observed from the dense annual rings, but also to its sparse distribution. The turnover rate of elm trees was not at a low level compared with global situations (Jackson et al., 1997).

39

Fixed dunes Semi-fixed dunes Shifting dunes Lowland Wetland Weighted average

Biomass NPP Biomass NPP Biomass NPP Biomass NPP Biomass NPP Biomass NPP

Aboveground

Tree

Stems 1.203 0.027 0.209 0.005 0.130 0.003 0.071 0.001

Branches 1.120 0.023 0.198 0.004 0.121 0.003 0.065 0.001

Leaves 0.158 0.158 0.029 0.029 0.017 0.017 0.009 0.009

Litterfall 0.039 0.006 0.005 0.002

Herbaceous layer 2.275 2.275 1.171 1.171 0.262 0.262 5.218 5.218 13.120 13.120

Aboveground total 4.756 2.522 1.607 1.215 0.530 0.290 5.363 5.231 13.120 13.120 4.539 3.737

Belowground

Tree

Coarse roots 3.429 0.082 0.585 0.015 0.368 0.009 0.207 0.005

Small roots 0.082 0.012 0.014 0.002 0.009 0.001 0.005 0.001

Fine roots 0.055 0.013 0.009 0.002 0.006 0.001 0.003 0.001

Herbaceous layer 3.463 3.463 0.886 0.886 0.087 0.087 25.299 10.799 53.683 20.383

Belowground total 7.029 3.570 1.494 0.905 0.470 0.098 25.514 10.806 53.683 20.383 15.886 6.917

Tree total 6.047(51) 0.354(6) 1.044(34) 0.063(3) 0.651(65) 0.039(10) 0.360(1.2) 0.020(0.1) 2.170(10.6) 0.127(1.2)

Grass total 5.738 5.738 2.057 2.057 0.349 0.349 30.517 16.017 66.803 33.503 18.255 10.527

Total 11.785 6.092 3.101 2.120 1.000 0.388 30.877 16.037 66.803 33.503 20.425 10.654

Table 4. Biomass (Mg ha-1) and NPP (Mg ha-1 yr-1) by compartments for every habitat of Hunshandake Sandland. Numbers in parentheses

show the contribution of trees to each habitat total biomass. See text for methods and details.

40

Small and fine tree root mass density (mg cm -3)

-.2 0.0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0

Depth (cm)

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Live small rootLive fine rootDead small rootDead fine root

Root mass density (mg cm -3)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Depth (cm)

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

LowlandFixed sand duneSemi-fixed sand duneShifting sand dune

Biomass (Mg ha

-1)

0

100

200

300

400

500

Ecosystem types

SFG DSS TA TG SVN WS BF TDF TEF TSF TRF

NPP (Mg ha

-1 yr-1)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Precipitation (mm)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000

NPP (g m

-2 yr-1)

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Y =3000(1-e -0.000664X)

Figure 6. The herbaceous layer root vertical distributions of

lowland, fixed dunes, semi-fixed dunes, and shifting dunes. Values

represent means and error bars represent ± S.E. (n = 15).

Figure 5. The vertical distributions of Siberian elm small (2 mm < d<

5 mm) and fine root densities (d ≤ 2 mm) inside the tree crown range.

Values represent means and error bars represent ± S.E. (n = 10).

40

Figure 7. Relative position of biomass (black) and NPP (white) of

Siberian elm sparse forest grassland (stars) in comparison with means

of global main ecosystem types (dots). SFG, sparse forest grassland;

DSS, desert and semidesert scrub; TA, tundra and alpine; TG,

temperate grassland; SVN, savanna; WS, woodland and shrubland;

BF, boreal forest; TDF, temperate deciduous forest; TEF, temperate

evergreen forest; TSF, tropical seasonal forest; TRF, tropical rain

forest. Data adapted from Whittaker and Likens (1975).

Figure 8. NPP value (circle) predicted from research site’s mean

annual precipitation (370.23 mm) by using Whittaker and Likens’

model (1973), where Y is NPP in g m-2 yr-1, X is annual precipitation

in mm, and observed value (star) above the curve.

4141

Biomass Mg ha-1

SourceNPPMg ha-1

Source

20.42 This study 10.65 This study

5.26* Fang et al. 1996 7.66* Tao et al. 2003

6.94* Piao et al. 2004 6.05* He et al. 2005

16.00 Whittaker and Likens 1975 6 Whittaker and Likens 1975

16.2 Ajtay 1979 7.8 Ajtay 1979

15.4 WBGU 1998 6.6 WBGU 1998

7.5 Saugier et al. 2001 7.5 Saugier et al. 2001

Table 5. Biomass and NPP of sparse forest grassland ecosystem in comparison with those of China and global grassland ecosystems

estimated by different authors. Conversion factor from carbon to dry matter is 2.2.

V. Conclusion

The current study revealed that Siberian elm sparse forest grassland in Hunshandake Sandland was different from grassland or desert in terms of vegetation construction, biomass, and NPP. This result from the conservation area also revealed that the sandy land possessed carbon storage potential if policies were favoured in extending the restoration of degraded sandy lands, which would, to some extent, help achieve the Kyoto Protocol target.

VI. Acknowledgements

This report documents some of the achievements of the International Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands (SUMAMAD) project; an international coordinated research initiative supported by the Flemish Government, UNESCO, UNU-INWEH and ICARDA. Financial support for this research also came from the Chinese Natural Science Foundation (Key Project: 30330150). The authors would like to thank Mr. Leiming Gao and Dr. Yinghao Li of the Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, for help in the fieldwork as well as Dr. Shuli Niu and Dr. Yu Peng of the same institute for their advice on the design of the experiments.

NoteCorrespondence: Gaoming Jiang, Laboratory of Quantitative Vegetation Ecology, Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20 Nanxincun, Xiangshan, 100093 Beijing, China. Tel: +86 10 62836286, Fax: +86 10 62590815, E-mail: jianggm@126.com

References

Aber, J. D., J. M. Melillo, K. J. Nadelhoffer, C. A. McClaugherty, and J. Pastor. 1985. Fine root turnover in forest ecosystems in relation to quantity and form of nitrogen availability: a comparison of two methods. Oecologia. Vol. 66. pp. 317–321.

Ajtay, G. L., P. Ketner, and P. Duvigneaud. 1979. Terrestrial primary production and phytomass. In: B. Bolin, E.T. Degens, S. Kempe, and P. Ketner (Eds.) The Global Carbon Cycle. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester. pp. 129–181.

Archibold, O. W. 1995. Ecology of World Vegetation. London: Chapman & Hall. 510 pp. Böhm, W. 1979. Methods of Studying Root Systems. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg. 188 pp.Brown, S. 2002. Measuring carbon in forest: current status and future challenges. Environmental Pollution. Vol. 116.

pp. 363–372.Cairns, M. A., S. Brown, E. H. Helmer, and G. A. Baumgardner. 1997. Root biomass allocation in the world’s upland

forests. Oecologia. Vol. 111. pp. 1–11.Chen, J. and X. Guo. 1960. The natural landscapes of Hunshandake Sandy Land in Inner Mongolia Autonomous

Region. Acta Geographica Sinica. Vol. 26. No. 1. pp. 23–34Chen, Z. and S. Wang. 2000. Typical steppe ecosystem of China. Science Press, Beijing. 412 pp.Clark, D. A., S. Brown, D. W. Kicklighter, J. Q. Chambers, J. R. Thomlinson, and J. Ni. 2001. Measuring net primary

production in forests: concepts and field methods. Ecological Applications. Vol. 11. pp. 356–370.Dixon, R. K., S. Brown, R. A. Houghton, A. M. Solomon, M. C. Trexler, and J. Wisniewski. 1994. Carbon pools and

flux of global forest ecosystems. Science. Vol. 263. pp. 185–190.Fang, J., A. Chen, C. Peng, S. Zhao, and L. Ci. 2001. Changes in forest biomass carbon storage in China between

42

1949 and 1998. Science. Vol. 292. pp. 2320–2322.Fang, J., G. Liu, and S. Xu. 1996. Carbon pools in terrestrial ecosystems in China. In: R. Wang, J. Fang, L. Gao, and

Z. Feng (Eds.). Hot Spots in Modern Ecology. China Science and Technology Press, Beijing. pp. 251–277.Field, C. B., M. J. Behrenfeld, J. T. Randerson, and P. Falkowski. 1998. Primary production of the biosphere:

integrating terrestrial and oceanic components. Science. Vol. 28. pp. 237–240.Gill, R. A., and R. B. Jackson. 2000. Global patterns of root turnover for terrestrial ecosystems. New Phytologist. Vol.

147. pp. 13–31.Gower, S. T. 2002. Productivity of terrestrial ecosystems. In: H. A. Mooney and J. G. Canadell (Eds.). Encyclopedia

of Global Environmental Change, Vol. 2. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester. pp. 516–521.Gower, S. T., O. Krankina, R. J. Olson, M. Apps, S. Linder, and C. Wang. 2001. Net primary production and carbon

allocation patterns of boreal forest ecosystems. Ecological Applications. Vol. 11. pp. 1395–1411.Grace, J. 2004. Understanding and managing the global carbon cycle. Journal of Ecology. Vol. 92. pp. 189–202.Guo, K. and H. Liu. 2004. A comparative research on the development of elm seedlings in four habitats in the

Hunshandak Sandland, Inner Mongolia, China. Acta Ecologica Sinica. Vol. 24. pp. 2024–2028.He, W. -M. and X. -S. Zhang. 2003. Responses of an evergreen shrub Sabina vulgaris to soil water and nutrient

shortages in the semi-arid Mu Us Sandland in China. Journal of Arid Environments. Vol. 53. pp. 307–316.He, Y., L. Dan, W. Dong, J. Ji, and D. Qin. 2005. The terrestrial NPP simulations in China since Last Glacial

Maximum. Chinese Science Bulletin. Vol. 50. pp. 2074–2079.Houghton, R. A. 2005. Above-ground forest biomass and the global carbon balance. Global Change Biology. Vol. 11.

pp. 945–958.Houghton, R. A., K. T. Lawrence, J. L. Hackler, and S. Brown. 2001. The spatial distribution of forest biomass in the

Brazilian Amazon: a comparison of estimates. Global Change Biology. Chichester. Vol. 7. pp. 731–746.IGBP. 1998. The terrestrial carbon cycle: implications for the Kyoto Protocol. Science. Vol. 280. pp. 1393–1394.IMMA (Inner Mongolia Meteorological Administration). 2004. Special Report on Climatic and Ecological Environment

Monitoring of Hunshandake Sandland. Unpublished material.Inner Mongolia Forest Editorial Board. 1989. Inner Mongolia Forest. China Forestry Press, Beijing. 432 pp.Inner Mongolia and Ningxia Research Team of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. 1985. Vegetation of Inner

Mongolia. Science Press. Beijing. 884 pp.Jackson, R. B., J. Canadell, J. R. Ehleringer, H. A. Mooney, O. E. Sala, and E. D. Schulze. 1996. A global analysis of

root distribution for terrestrial biomes. Oecologia. Vol. 108. pp. 389–411.Jackson, R. B., H. A. Mooney, and E. -D. Schulze. 1997. A global budget for fine root biomass, surface area, and

nutrient contents. PNAS. Vol. 94. pp. 7362–7366.Janssens, I. A., D. A. Sampson, J. Curiel-Yuste, A. Carrara, and R. Ceulemans. 2002. The carbon cost of fine root

turnover in a Scots pine forest. Forest Ecology and Management. Vol. 168. pp. 231–240.Jiang, G. 2003. The control of sandstorms in Inner Mongolia. Bulletin of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Vol. 17.

No. 2. pp.107–115.Knapp, A. K. and M. D. Smith. 2001. Variation among biomes in temporal dynamics of above-ground primary

production. Science. Vol. 219. pp. 481–484.Le Houérou, H. N. 1984. Rain use efficiency: a unifying concept in arid-land ecology. Journal of Arid Environments.

Vol. 7. pp. 213–247.Le Houérou, H. N., R. L. Bingham, and W. Skerbek. 1988. Relationship between the variability of primary production

and the variability of annual precipitation in world arid lands. Journal of Arid Environments.Vol.15. pp. 1–18.Li, H. -L., Z. Dong, L. -H. Wang, and Y. -L. Hao. 2002. Study on the root distribution characteristic and biomass

of Ulmus pumila in Hunshandake Sands. Journal of Arid Land Resources and Environment. Vol. 6. No. 4. pp. 99–105.

Li, Y., G. Jiang, L. Gao, S. Niu, M. Liu, S. Yu, and Y. Peng. 2003. Impacts of human distrubance on elms-motte-veldt in Hunshandak Sandland. Acta Phyotoecologica Sinica. Vol. 27. pp. 829–834.

Liu, J., X. Zhu, F. Yu, M. Dong, S. Zhang, and R. Wang. 2003a. Spatial heterogeneity of Ulmus pumila open forest ecosystem in Otindag Sandy Land. Environmental Science. Vol. 24. No. 4. pp. 29–34.

Liu, M., G. Jiang, Y. Li, S. Niu, L. Gao, L. Ding, and Y. Peng. 2003b. Leaf osmotic potentials of 104 plant species in relation to habitats and plant functional types in Hunshandak Sandland, Inner Mongolia, China. Trees. Vol.17. pp. 554–560.

Liu, S. and T. Wang. 2004. Primary study on sandy desertification in Otindag Sandy Land and its surrounding regions. Journal of Water and Soil Conservation. Vol. 18. No. 5. pp. 99–103.

Loustau, D., H. Bruce, and B. G. Drake. 2001. Water, nitrogen, rising atmospheric CO2, and terrestrial productivity. In: J. Roy, B. Saugier, and H. A. Mooney (Eds.) Terrestrial Global Productivity. Academic Press, San Diego. pp. 123–167.

42

4343

Ni, J. 2004. Estimating net primary productivity of grasslands from field biomass measurements in temperate northern China. Plant Ecology. Vol. 174. pp. 217–234.

Peng, Y., G. Jiang, M. Liu, S. Niu, S. Yu, D. K. Biswas, Q. Zhang, X. Shi, and Q. Yang. 2005. Potentials for combating desertification in Hunshandak Sandland through nature reserve. Environmental Management. Vol. 35. pp. 453–460.

Phillips, O. L., Y. Malhi, N. Higuchi, W. F. Laurance, P. V. Nú′ez, R. M. Vásquez, S. G. Laurance, L. V. Ferreira, M. Stern, S. Brown, and J. Grace. 1998. Changes in the carbon balance of tropical forests: evidence from long-term plots. Science. Vol. 282. pp. 439–442.

Piao, S., J. Fang, J. He, and Y. Xiao. 2004. Spatial distribution of grassland biomass in China. Acta Phytoecologica Sinica. Vol. 28. pp. 491–498.

Raich, J. W. and W. H. Schlesinger. 1992. The global carbon dioxide flux in soil respiration and its relationship to vegetation and climate. Tellus 44B. pp. 81–99.

Roy, J. and B. Saugier. 2001. Terrestrial primary productivity: definitions and milestones. In: J. Roy, B. Saugier, and H. A. Mooney (Eds.) Terrestrial Global Productivity. Academic Press, San Diego. pp. 1–6.

Sala, O. E. and A. T. Austin. 2000. Methods of estimating above-ground net primary productivity. In: O. E. Sala, R. B. Jackson, H. A. Mooney, and R. W. Howarth (Eds.) Methods in Ecosystem Science. Springer-Verlag, New York. pp. 31–43.

Sala, O. E., W. J. Parton, L. A. Joyce, and W. K. Lauenroth. 1988. Primary production of the central grassland region of the United States. Ecology. Vol. 69. pp. 40–45.

Saugier, B., J. Roy, and H. A. Mooney. 2001. Estimations of global terrestrial productivity: converging toward a single number? In: J. Roy, B. Saugier, and H. A. Mooney (Eds.) Terrestrial Global Productivity. Academic Press, San Diego. pp. 543–557.

Schenk, H. J. and R. B. Jackson. 2002. Rooting depths, lateral root spreads and below-ground/above-ground allometries of plants in water-limited ecosystems. Journal of Ecology. Vol. 90. pp. 480–494.

Schimel, D. S., J. I. House, and K. A. Hibbard et al. 2001. Recent patterns and mechanisms of carbon exchange by terrestrial ecosystems. Nature, Vol. 414. pp. 169–172.

Scurlock, J. M. O., K. Johnson, and R. J. Olson. 2002. Estimating net primary productivity from grassland biomass dynamics measurements. Global Change Biology, Vol. 8, pp. 736–753.

Shi, L., Z. J. Zhang, C. Y. Zhang, and J. Z. Zhang. 2004. Effects of sand burial on survival, growth, gas exchange and biomass allocation of Ulmus pumila seedlings in the Hunshandak Sandland, China. Annals of Botany Vol. 94. pp. 553–560.

SPSS. Inc. 2003. Analytical Software. SPSS Inc. Headquarters, 233 S. Wacker Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60606.Sprugel, D. G. 1983. Correcting for bias in log-transformed allometric equations. Ecology Vol. 64. pp. 209–210.Tao, B., K. Li, X. Shao, and M. Cao. 2003. Temporal and spatial pattern of net primary production of terrestrial

ecosystems of China. Acta Geographica Sinica Vol. 58. pp. 372–380.Vitousek, P. M. 1994. Beyond global warming: ecology and global change. Ecology Vol. 75. pp. 1861–1876.Walter, H. 1979. Vegetation of the Earth and Ecological Systems of the Geo-biosphere, Second edition. Springer-

Verlag, New York. 274 pp.Wang, R. 2005. Demographic variation and biomass allocation of Agropyron cristatum grown on steppe and dune

sites in the Hunshandake Desert, North China. Grass and Forage Science Vol. 60. pp. 99–102Wang, T., W. Wu, X. Xue, W. Zhang, Z. Han, and Q. Sun. 2003. Time-space evaluation of desertification land in

northern China. Journal of Desert Research Vol. 23. pp. 230–235.WBGU (Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung Globale Umweltveränerungen). 1998. Die Anrechnung

biolischer Quellen und Senken in Kyoto-Protokoll: Fortschritt oder Rückschlang für den globalen Umweltschutz, Sondergutachten 1998. Bremerhaven: WBGU. 75 pp.

Whittaker, R. H. and G. E. Likens. 1973. The primary production of the Biosphere. Human Ecology 1:299-369.Whittaker, R. H. and G. E. Likens. 1975. The biosphere and man. In: H. Lieth and R. H. Whittaker (Eds.) Primary

Productivity of the Biosphere. Springer-Verlag, New York. pp. 305–328.Yang, X., K. Zhang, B. Jia, and L. Ci. 2005. Desertification assessment in China: an overview. Journal of Arid

Environments Vol. 63. pp. 517–531.Zha, Y. and J. Gao. 1997. Characteristics of desertification and its rehabilitation in China. Journal of Arid

Environments Vol. 37. pp 419–432.Zheng, Y. R., Z. X. Xie, C. Robert, L. H. Jiang, and H. Shimizu. 2006. Did climate drive ecosystem change and induce

desertification in Otindag sandy land, China over the past 40 years? Journal of Arid Environments Vol. 64. pp. 523–541.

Zhu, Z., Z. Wu, S. Liu, and X. Di. 1980. The Generality of deserts in China. Science Press, Beijing. 107 pp.

44

A Study on Moghra Oasis by Remote Sensing

Abstract

Six major land cover classes, representing the most prevailing land cover types in Moghra Oasis were distinguished using the unsupervised classification for the satellite image of the Oasis. Most of the study area is covered by dry salt marshes and sand dunes covering an area of about 565.5 hectares accounting for about 40.1% of the total area represented in the classified image. These land cover classes were found to represent nine major habitats in which the plant communities were combined: reed swamp vegetation, salt marshes, salt marshes covered by sand accumulations, sand hummocks/salt marsh transition, sand hummocks, sand dunes slopes, sand dunes, sand plains and gravel desert. These habitats support the growth of about 22 species, 9 of which were newly recorded in the present study. All the species are perennial belonging to fourteen families, half of which belong to the gramineae, chenopodiaceae and compositae families. These species relate to 3 different life-forms, the majority of which are chamaephytes (54.6%), and the remaining 45.6% are either geophytes or phanerophytes. The dominance of the chamaephytes and geophytes in the study area would seem to be a response to the hot dry climate and to the prevailing environmental conditions (high salinity). Most of the species recorded in the present study are multipurpose species (86.4%); of which 91% have grazing value (about 45% of them are highly palatable and are under threat from overgrazing in the studied habitats). About 81.8% of the recorded species are of medicinal importance in traditional medicine, 54.5% are used as fuel wood and 36.4% have many miscellaneous uses. About half the species recorded have a conservation status between vulnerable to endangered, this highlights the need for extensive efforts to limit the threats exerted on these species especially from grazing pressure. The habitat average of conservation value (see Table 2) can be used as an indicator to highlight areas of importance for conservation. The sand dune slopes habitat was found to support the largest number of species compared to other habitats (11 species) and hence it attained the largest cumulative average conservation value (60), followed by the salt marshes which support the growth of 9 species and attained a cumulative average conservation value of 47.9 in contrary to the gravel desert and sand plain habitats, which support the lowest number of species (3 and 5 respectively) and hence attained the lowest cumulative average conservation value (15.9 and 27.2 respectively). Any future efforts for conservation should focus on prioritizing the sand dune slopes and salt marsh habitats of Moghra Oasis especially as the Moghra Oasis is now subjected to some environmental threats. The main threats are represented in the grazing pressure exerted on the vegetation cover in the oasis where local communities from the north western coastal area bring their herds of camels, sheep and goats to graze from May to October each year.

Key words: Moghra Oasis, remote sensing, habitats, conservation value

I. Introduction

Saline lands and inland water bodies are widely distributed globally and make up about 10% of the Earth’s terrestrial surface (O’Leary and Glenn, 1994). Compared to studies of coastal marshes, little attention has been paid to inland saline landscapes (Krüger and Peinemann, 1996). The inland salt marshes of Egypt’s Western Desert are found in the form of sabkhas around lakes, springs and wells of the oases, e.g. Siwa, Dakhla, Kharga, Bahariya and Farafra; and depressions, e.g. Qattara, Wadi El-Natrun, and El-Faiyum (Zahran, 1982). The inland salt marshes of Egypt’s Western Desert, including sabkhas around the lakes, springs and wells of the oases, belong to the Saharan halophytics ecoregion. The Saharan halophytic ecoregion is restricted to a number of suitable semi-desert and desert locations in northern Africa such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Western Sahara and Mauritania. Situated at lower altitude than the surrounding territories, the inland salt marshes are characterized by a shallow underground water table. In certain areas, the underground water is exposed forming lakes of brackish or saline water (Zahran and Girgis, 1970; Zahran, 1972). Their formation can be attributed to the uncontrolled spilling of water, the flooding of plains or to the water table, which is close to the ground surface (Migahid et al., 1960). The severe arid conditions of the oases coupled with the lack of a drainage system flooding the soil with slightly saline artesian water rapidly increases its salinity. Vegetation in such lands has a patchy structure with different patches containing different species (or sometimes one species) and even different growth forms (Abu-Ziada, 1980; El-Hadidi, 1993). Despite the low number

Boshra B. Salem and Marwa Waseem, Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Alexandria, Egypt

29

Part III

Presentation of Project Sites

29

45

of halophyte species in Egypt, with 80 terrestrial plant species from 17 families (Batanouny and Abo Sitta, 1977), they constitute the principal vegetation of extensive areas in the country. The purpose of this study is to highlight one of the geographically distant oases of Egypt’s Western Desert – the Moghra Oasis. It is situated in the hinterland of the El-Omayed area (El-Omayed Biosphere Reserve, OBR) in the north western coastal region of Egypt and is considered one of the most important inland-water bodies in Egypt. Its importance stems from the dependence of the local El-Omayed inhabitants on this area as an alternative rangeland during the dry season, where water resources maintain a dense vegetation cover and thus increases the grazing capacity of Moghra’s rangeland. During periods of natural forage shortage, herds from the El-Omayed region move to Moghra to benefit from its rangelands. This places the region under increasing pressure of overuse and exploitation of resources especially the vegetation cover. Moghra oasis has received little attention in terms of study and evaluaton of its natural resources. The aim of the current research paper is to study the habitats of Moghra oasis, its plant composition and vegetation pattern by both field surveys and the use of the highest possible spatial resolution satellite imagery. The process of evaluation will involve an estimate of the conservation values of the prevailing perennials. It is hoped that the results obtained from this study could be used to link Moghra oasis to El-Omayed Biosphere Reserve (OBR) situated on the northern coast and inland to Moghra oasis. Moghra oasis could serve as an additional core area linked to the OBR by an ecological corridor or a satellite protected area on its own.

II. Study area

Location, geology and geomorphology

Moghra Oasis is one of two oases in the Qattara Depression (Moghra and Qara), which is the largest depression in the Egyptian desert. It covers an area of about 19,500 km2 of land below sea level with a maximum depth of -133 m (Girgis et al., 1971; Hughes and Hughes, 1992; Zahran and Willis, 1992). Moghra Oasis is a small uninhabited oasis (Lat. 30º 14′ N, Long. 28º 55′ E), situated on the north eastern edge of the Qattara Depression and centered by a brackish-water lake (Figure 1). The lake is about 4 km2 including a Phragmites swamp. Salt marshes are found along the boundaries, which are encroached by wind blown sands in some areas. The lake comprises the lowest part in the oasis (-38 m) as displayed in the digital elevation model (Figure 2). The shallow water table and the outward seepage of the lake’s water accompanied by excessive evaporation create the wet salt marshes that surround the lake. Sand formations are dominant in the western and southern sides of the Moghra Lake. The deposits are in the form of dunes in areas adjacent to the lake or in the form of deep sand sheets in other places.

OBR

M oghra

Climate

The same as that of Wady El-Natrun with an average temperature range from 13°C in January to 27.6°C in August. Annual rainfall is about 40 mm with a maximum of 13 mm in November. Relative humidity varies between 44.6% in May and 63.0% in November. Relative wind velocity ranges from 8.1 knots (knt) in December to 11.4 knots in April (Zahran and Willis, 1992).

Figure 1. Location of Moghra Oasis on a satellite image (Landsat-TM) Figure 2. Digital Elevation Model of Moghra Oasis

46

Flora

The plant cover of Moghra Oasis has a number of common characteristics and combines all or some of the features of the reed swamp vegetation, salt marsh vegetation and sand formation vegetation. Relicts of Phragmites australis reed are present in one locality – the Moghra Oasis Lake. The salt marsh vegetation comprises two groups: communities of saline flats and communities of accumulated sands. Vegetation of the saline flats is mostly dominated by the extensive growth of Juncus rigidus, associated with Inula crithmoides, Phragmites australis and Tamarix nilotica. Patches of Arthrocenmum macrostachyum are found associated with Juncus spp. tussocks. Other associates are Cressa cretica and Nitraria retusa. The sand formation communities can be distinguished into three main communities dominated by Zygophyllum album, Nitraria retusa, and Tamarix nilotica (Girgis et al., 1971 and Zahran & Willis, 1992).

III. Materials and methods

Analysis of satellite image

The satellite image used in this study is the product of the orbital QuickBird satellite. QuickBird is the highest-resolution remote sensing commercial satellite now operating offering imagery capable of 60 cm resolution for earth resources observation. It was launched on the 18th October 2001 by Vandenberg Air Force Base, California in a sun-synchronous orbit with an altitude of 450 km. QuickBird collects multi-spectral and panchromatic imagery concurrently, and pansharpened products in natural or infrared colours. QuickBird’s on-board tape recorder gives worldwide coverage. The panchromatic, multi-spectral and colour products of QuickBird enable superior image classification and analysis based on discrete spectral bands and 11-bit information depth. QuickBird data covering the study area were produced from a mosaic of two QuickBird frames covering Moghra Oasis and its surroundings. Each of the two frames is composed of 16,913 columns and 8,700 rows. Their location in latitude and longitude together with pixel number and line number are presented in Table 1. These frames represent the most recent images that were available at the time of acquisition (the acquisition date for the two frames was 25/1/2005). The data of the two frames is geometrically corrected.

CornerScene 1 Scene 2

Latitude LongitudePixel No.

Line No.

Latitude LongitudePixel No.

Line No.

Upper Left30° 18’ 55.08” 28° 51 ’ 13.06” 1 1 30° 16 ’

21.29”28° 51 ’ 13.02” 1 1

Upper Right 30° 18’ 55.08” 28° 57’ 27.44” 8700 1 30° 16’ 15.80”

28° 57’ 26.81” 8700 1

Lower Left 30° 16′’ 11.00′” 28° 51 ’ 13.03 ” 1 8700 30° 13 ’31.75 ”

28° 51 ’ 13.02 ” 1 8700

Lower Right 30° 16′’ 05.56′” 28° 57 ’ 26.76 ” 8700 8700 30° 13 ’31.33 ”

28° 57 ’ 26.17 ” 8700 8700

Table 1. Metadata of the two QuickBird frames covering the Moghra Oasis

Image processing

The statistics of the digital numbers of the images were obtained and the images were preprocessed then processed using ERDAS (IMAGINE) 8.4 software. Processing involved enhancements for visual interpretation of the image and on-screen digitization of the major land/cover types guided by ground-truth data. It also involved obtaining the false colour composite image of the extracted 1.41 km2 of Moghra by mosaicing from the two QuickBird frames. The false colour composite image of the resulted subscene was carefully examined visually for the preliminary visual interpretation and distinction of the different land cover classes present in Moghra Oasis. Confirmation of visual interpretation was made

47

through field investigations that were carried out over several seasons for accurate identification of each type of the present land cover classes. In addition, ground truth using base maps and reference points using GPS, for determining geographic locations and boundaries, were also employed. The study area was visited 19 times; during these visits the area became increasingly familiar. The features which were unclear and difficult to interpret in the False Colour Composite (FCC) were identified and thus became more apparent and clear. Processing of satellite images also involved classification so as to produce the most dominant and distinct land cover classes. Prior to classification procedure, the statistics of the digital image produced were used to determine the spectral signature of the prevailing land cover and to assess the spectral pattern recognition of the prevailing features. The digital distribution of the subscene was examined using histograms and scatter plots, and spectral signatures of each land cover class were extracted. The image was analyzed using the unsupervised classification, which involves algorithms that examine a large number of unknown pixels dividing them into a number of classes based on natural groupings present in the image values. The classes that result from the unsupervised classification are called spectral classes. Because they are based on the natural groupings in the image values the identity of the spectral classes will not initially be known. The classified data must be compared with some form of the reference data. Classification accuracy measures were estimated for the resulted classification. Field surveys were conducted to verify the satellite image classification results (Lillisand and Kiefer, 2000).

Accuracy assessment

Accuracy assessment is a general term for comparing the classification to geographical data that are assumed to be true in order to determine the accuracy of the classification process. Usually, the assumed-true data are derived from ground truth data. A set of reference points is usually used. Reference pixels are points on the classified image for which the actual data are or will be known. The reference points are an important factor in determining the accuracy of the classification. It has been shown that more than 250 reference pixels are needed to estimate the mean accuracy of a class to within plus or minus 5% (Congalton, 1991).

Field Work

Vegetation analysis

A total of 19 field visits were conducted so as to survey the natural plant resources of Moghra Oasis to assess their sustainable uses and provide a basis for their conservation, together with studying plant community structure, species composition and the vegetation pattern of the oasis. A total of 50 stands were selected and located on the FCC to represent major apparent variations in physiognomy and vegetation, and in edaphic features of the major types of the habitats present in the study area (see Figure 3). In selecting each stand, a reasonable degree of visual physiographic and physiognomic homogeneity and a minimum degree of disturbance were ensured. In each stand, plant species where identified and presence-absence data were recorded. For an estimate of cover, ten 20-metre-line transects were established in each stand, where the lengths of each intercepted species in a stand were measured to the nearest centimeter. A sum of these lengths were then expressed as a relative value of the total lengths of the ten transects and used to calculate its cover. Samples from the recorded species were collected and prepared as herbarium sheets for identification. Floristic identifications were based on Täckholm (1974) and the Latin names of the species were updated based on Boulos (1995). For assessing the value of each habitat, the following mathematical procedure was applied: data on the degree of threat and ecological and economic value were assembled for every species and were used for calculating a conservation value (CV) for each species (Salem, 2003). Information on the economic value of the recorded species was noted by Boulos (1983); Boulos (1989); Le Houérou (1985); Ayyad (1998) and Heneidy & Bidak (2004). This conservation value was obtained according to a scoring system on a graduated scale of 10 identified by the criteria listed in Table 2.

Criterion Degree Score

Status

ExtinctEndangeredIntermediate (endangered/vulnerable)Vulnerable

10754

Commonness

EndemicVery rareRareCommonVery common

108742

Life form

TreeIntermediate (small tree or large shrub)ShrubWoody herbPerennial herb

108742

Use

More than three usesThree usesTwo usesOne use other than aboveSingle use (wood production)

108642

Table 2. Criteria and scoring used to calculate conservation values (CVs)

The CV for each species, as a function of four criteria (each scored out of 10) were added to yield a value out of 40 which was then divided by four to produce an average conservation value (ACV) out of 10 for each of the plant species recorded in Moghra Oasis. The ACVs for all species occurring inside the major habitats in Moghra Oasis were calculated to produce a cumulative average conservation value (CACV) for each habitat. These values were used as an indicator to highlight the areas of importance for conservation.

Soil analysis

Observation sites were selected in the Moghra area according to habitat types, for surface and subsurface soil sampling. Location of samples was recorded using the Global Positioning System (GPS). Collected soil samples were transferred to the soil laboratory for air-drying and further lab analysis. Some general procedures were performed before analysis; these procedures are summarized in the pretreatment where soil samples were air-dried then ground to pass through a 2mm sieve. A portion of the samples was kept untreated for the preparation of the soil paste after air-drying. Procedures for determining the physicochemical properties of the soil are summarized as follows:

pH was determined in 1:2.5 (soil: water ratio) using the pH meter Orion. •Electrical conductivity (EC) was measured in the soil paste using a conductivity meter.•Total calcium carbonate (CaCO• 3%) was measured using the calcimeter method.Organic matter content (OM %) was determined using the Walkly-Black method.•Particle size distribution (sand, silt, and clay %) was measured using the hydrometer; the texture was later •

identified.

All the above-mentioned parameters were determined using the standard methods of soil analysis (Page, 1982).

48

49

IV. Results and discussion

Remote sensing work

The use of the results of satellite image analysis representing the Moghra Oasis is very important for the objectives of this study. The results will be incorporated into the Environmental Information System established for the Moghra Oasis – an essential digital data source which will prove significant for development or conservation activities. The selection of the sampling site is further facilitated using satellite imagery as it gives a synoptic view of the whole study area. This greatly reduced the effort and time spent on field work. It can reveal the extent of each land cover type and can facilitate the calculation of these areas. Thus, the satellite images allowed for better understanding of the existing land cover situation and in the determination of areas available for conservation and development.

BandScene 1 Scene 2

Min Max Mean StDev Min Max Mean StDev

Blue 0 446 318.36 67.73 0 477 322.17 72.62

Green 0 966 597.69 133.46 0 983 612.52 162.87

Red 0 935 549.16 125.578 0 958 562.8 167.79

NIR 0 1058 613.68 139.44 0 1069 624.4 183.82

Table 3. Statistics of the QuickBird satellite image of Moghra Oasis

The False Colour Composite image (FCC, see Figure 3) was used for the preliminary identification of the prevailing land cover classes. From the visual interpretation of the FCC we can see that the lake is oriented along the NE–SW axis and appears in black patches. The salt marshes surround the lake from the western side indicated by tones of grey. The reed swamp vegetation surrounds the lake from the eastern and southern side indicated by the tones in red. From the FCC image (Figure 3) the sand dunes in the western and the southwestern parts skirting the salt marshes appears mainly in yellow. All information extracted from the FCC was used as a basis for the field surveys. The main areas of obvious cover change were visited for field checks and sample collection. Locations of stands for carrying out the field work were located on the FCC to indicate their relationship to each other and their prevailing land cover (Fig. 3). The image was analyzed using the unsupervised classification of 6 major land cover classes (Fig. 4), representing the most prevailing land cover types in Moghra Oasis. The total area in hectares of each class is presented in Table 4. As was observed from the classified image most of the study area is covered by dry salt marshes and sand dunes that cover an area of about 565.5 hectares accounting for about 40.1% of the total area represented in the classified image (Table 4). The lake covers an area of about 156.8 hectares (about 11.1% of the total area) surrounded from the eastern side by saline flats with reed swamp vegetation covering an area of about 247.3 hectares (about 17.5% of the total area), and surrounded by wet salt marshes from the western side covering an area of 193.3 hectares (about 13.7% of the total area). The gravel desert covers the southeastern corner and parts of the north eastern side of the study area with an area of 248.1 hectares (about 17.1% of the total area).

Land Cover Class Area in ha Percentage of total area

Open water 156.8 11.1

Saline flats with reed swamp assification. sing were estimated for to 6 classesvegetation 247.3 17.5

Wet salt marsh 193.9 13.7

Gravel desert 248.1 17.6

Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 303.1 21.5

Sand dunes 262.4 18.6

Total area in hectares 1411.5

Table 4. Area of the land cover classes in hectare (ha) as resulted from classification of the satellite image of Moghra Oasis

Accuracy assessment of classification was carried out using the ERDAS-Imagine software module. Random points were selected form each class and checked in the field. The results indicated 96% classification accuracy after refining the land cover as a result of class combinations. It thus becomes possible to interpret with the classification results and combine them with the results of field surveys. Tables of accuracy assessment are provided in the appendix.

Field work

Vegetation analysis

The results of the present study show that 22 species were recorded in Moghra Oasis (only 12 were recorded by Girgis et al. (1971) and Zaharan & Willis (1992)). These species belong to 14 families, half of which belong to the gramineae, chenopodiaceae and compositae families (Table 5). These species relate to 3 different life-forms, the majority of which are chamaephytes (54.6%) the remaining 45.6% are either geophytes or phanerophytes (Figure 5). The life-form compostion reflects the response of vegetation to variations of certain environmental factors. The life-form spectrum is thought to be a hereditary adjustment to the environment (Schwartz, 1939). The dominance of chamaephytes and geophytes in the study area appears to be a response to the hot dry climate and to the prevailing environmental conditions (high salinity).

Figure 3. False Colour composite (FCC) of Moghra

Oasis, with the location of the 50 selected sampling

stands.

Figure 4. Classified image of Moghra Oasis.

50

51

Species Family Life-form

Alhagi graecorum Boiss. Leguminosae Chamaephyte

Artemisia monosperma Delile Compositae Chamaephyte

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric) K. Koch Chenopodiaceae Chamaephyte

Calligonum polygonoides L. subsp. comosum (L̀Hér.) Soskov Polygonaceae Chamaephyte

Cistanche phelypaea (L.) Cout. Orbanchaceae Geophyte

Cressa cretica L. Convolvulaceae Chamaephyte

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Gramineae Geophyte

Halocnemum strobilaceum (Pall.) M. Bieb. Chenopodiaceae Chamaephyte

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Gramineae Geophyte

Inula crithmoides L. Compositae Chamaephyte

Juncus rigidus Desf. Juncaceae Geophyte

Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook. f. Compositae Chamaephyte

Minuartia geniculata (Poir.) F. N. Willimas Caryophyllacea Chamaephyte

Moltkiopsis ciliata (Forssk.) I. M. Johnst. Boraginaceae Chamaephyte

Nitraria retusa (Forssk.) Asch. Nitrariaceae Phanerophyte

Phoenix dactylifera L. Palmae Phanerophyte

Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin ex. Steud. Gramineae Geophyte

Sarcocornia fruticosa (L.) A. J. Scott Chenopodiaceae Chamaephyte

Sporobolus spicatus (Vahl) Kunth Gramineae Geophyte

Stipagrostis scoparia (Trin. & Rupr.) de Winter Gramineae Geophyte

Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge Tamaricaceae Phanerophyte

Table 5. Family and life-form of the wild plant species recorded in Moghra Oasis

14%

54%

32%

Phanerophytes Chamaephytes Geophytes

Figure 5. Life-form spectrum of the wild species recorded in Moghra Oasis

Through field studies it is possible to distinguish nine major habitats in which the plant communities were combined: reed swamp vegetation, salt marshes, salt marshes covered by sand accumulations, sand hummocks/salt marsh transition, sand hummocks, sand dunes slopes, sand dunes, sand plains and gravel desert (Table 6). These habitats support the growth of about 22 species all of which are perennial species (Table 7). Most of these species are important as grazing plants. The coordinates of the 50 stands and the altitude of their habitats are presented in Table 1A. The presence/absence of species and their percentage cover is presented in Table 2A and Table 3A respectively.

Habitat No. of stands Stands

Reed swamp vegetation 3 11, 30, 43

Salt marshes 12 4, 5, 9, 14, 22, 28, 35, 38, 39, 42, 46, 47

Salt marsh covered with sand accumulations 10 1, 8, 12, 15, 21, 23, 25, 29, 32, 41

Sand hummocks/salt marsh transition 5 7, 26, 33, 34, 41

Sand Hummocks 3 17, 24, 48

Slope of sand dunes 4 2, 6, 27, 37

Sand dunes 7 3, 10, 13, 18, 19, 20, 49

Sand plains 4 16, 36, 44, 45

Gravel desert 2 31, 50

Table 6. Habitat and number of stands representing each habitat

Many substances used by humans are in fact plant products; many medicines and industrial products are derived from plants. The economic value of plant species is considered here according to medicinal values, grazing values, fuel wood production, and other miscellaneous uses. Most of the species recorded in the present study are multipurpose species (86.4%), of which 91% have grazing value (about 45% of them are highly palatable and are currently under threat of overgrazing in the studied habitats). About 81.8% of the recorded species are of medicinal importance in traditional medicine, 54.5% are used as fuel wood and 36.4% have many miscellaneous uses such as human consumption, leather tanning and desert shelters and fence construction (Figure 6).About half of the species recorded are considered vulnerable to endangered in terms of conservation status. This highlights the need for extensive efforts to limit the threats exerted on these species especially from grazing pressure.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Grazing Medicinal Fuel wood Others

Economic Importance

Species (%)

Figure 6. The economic importance of species recorded in Moghra Oasis

Table 8 represents the link between remote sensing work and field surveys. It represents the habitats identified by remote sensing versus those identified in the field (column 1) as well as the associated number of perennial species and stands in each of these habitats. It is obvious form this table that the sand formation habitat identified from satellite imagery was found on the ground to cover about 5 habitats in reality and accordingly exhibits 86.4% of the species recorded in Moghra (22 species). Although this habitat covers about 20% of the total cover of the area under study according to satellite image analysis it is considered as a key habitat since it is composed of all the species in Moghra Oasis.

52

53

Species Ecological value EV

Conservation value

CV Commonness CMEconomic value

ECV Total ACV

Alhagi graecorum shrub 7 vulnerable 4 very common 2 Gr, Md & Fu 8 21 5.3

Artemisia monosperma

shrub 7 vulnerable 4 very common 2Gr, Md, Fu & others

10 23 5.8

Arthrocnemum glaucum

shrub 7intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4Gr, Md, Fu & others

10 26 6.5

Calligonum polygonoides

shrub 7intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4 Gr, Md & Fu 8 24 6.0

Cistanche phelypaeaperennial herb

2intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4 Md & others 6 17 4.3

Cressa cretica subshrub 4 vulnerable 4 very common 2 Md & Fu 6 16 4.0

Cynodon dactylonperennial herb

2 vulnerable 4 very common 2Gr, Md, Fu & others

10 18 4.5

Halocnemum strobilaceum

shrub 7intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4 Gr & Md 6 22 5.5

Imperata cylindricaperennial herb

2intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4Gr, Md & others

8 19 4.8

Inula crithmoides shrub 7intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4 Gr 4 20 5.0

Juncas rigidusperennial herb

2 vulnerable 4 very common 2Gr, Md & others

8 16 4.0

Launaea nudicaulis subshrub 4 vulnerable 4 very common 2 Gr & Md 6 16 4.0

Minuartia geniculata subshrub 4 endangered 7 rare 7 Gr & Md 6 24 6.0

Moltkiopsis ciliata subshrub 4intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4 Gr, Md & Fu 8 21 5.3

Nitraria retusa shrub 7 vulnerable 4 very common 2 Gr, Md & Fu 8 21 5.3

Phoenix dactylifera tree 10intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4Gr, Md, Fu, & others

10 29 7.3

Phragmites australisperennial herb

2 vulnerable 4 very common 2Gr, Md, Fu & others

10 18 4.5

Sarcocornia fruticosa shrub 7intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4Gr, Fu & others

8 24 6.0

Sporobulus spicatusperennial herb

2intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4 Gr 4 15 3.8

Stipagrostis scopariaperennial herb

2intermediate (Vu/En)

5 common 4 Gr 4 15 3.8

Tamarix nilotica tree 10 vulnerable 4 very common 2 Gr, Md & Fu 8 24 6.0

Zygophyllum album shrub 7 vulnerable 4 very common 2 Gr & Md 6 19 4.8

Table 7. Conservation value of plant species recorded in Moghra Oasis, Ecological value (EV), Conservation value (CV), Commoness (CM),

Ecomonic Value (ECV), Grazing (Gr), Medicinal Value (Md), Fuel use, (Fu) Average Conservation value (ACV)

Land cover classesCorresponding habitat

Number of species in each land cover classes

Species nameNumber of stands

Saline Flats with Reed Swamp Vegetation

RSV 6

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Inula crithmoides, Juncus rigidus, Phragmites australis, Sarcocornia fruticosa & Tamarix nilotica

3

Salt Marsh SM 9

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Halocnemum strobilaceum, Imperata cylindrical, Inula crithmoides, Juncus rigidus, Nitraria retusa, Phragmites australis, Sarcocornia fruticosa & Tamarix nilotica

12

Gravel Desert GD 3Artemisia monosperma, Nitraria retusa & Zygophyllum album

2

Salt Marsh covered by sand accumulations

SMC 9

Alhagi graecorum, Artemisia monosperma, Cistanche phelypaea, Juncus rigidus, Moltkiopsis ciliate, Nitraria retusa, Phoenix dactylifera, Phragmites australis & Zygophyllum album

10

Sand Formations SD, SSD, SP, SH, SH/SM 19

Alhagi graecorum, Artemisia monosperma, Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Calligonum polygonoides subsp comosum, Cressa cretica Cynodon dactylon, Halocnemum strobilaceumImperata cylindrical, Inula crithmoides, Juncus rigidus, Launaea nudicaulis, Minuartia geniculata, Nitraria retusa, Phoenix dactylifera, Phragmites australis, Sporobolus spicatus, Stipagrostis scoparia, Zygophyllum album & Tamarix nilotica

23

Table 8. Number of species and stands of the land cover classes assessed using remote sensing techniques and the corresponding habitats

observed in field surveys (GD, gravel desert; SMC, salt marshes covered with sand accumulations; SSD, slopes of sand dunes; SD, sand dunes;

SM, salt marsh; SH/SM, sand hummocks/salt marsh transition; RSV, reed swamp vegetation; SP, sand plain; and SH, sand hummocks).

From the present study it was noticed that sand dune slopes support the largest number of species compared to other habitats (11 species) and hence it attained the largest cumulative average conservation value 60), see Table 9. This is followed by the salt marshes which support the growth of 9 species and attained a cumulative average conservation value of 47.9, conversely the gravel desert and sand plain habitats support the lowest number of species (3 and 5 respectively) and hence attained the lowest cumulative average conservation value (15.9 and 27.2 respectively).

54

55

Species

Habitat

GD SMC SSD SD SMSH/SM

RSV SP SH

Alhagi graecorum 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3

Artemisia monosperma 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum 6.5 6.5 6.5

Calligonum polygonoides subsp comosum

6

Cistanche phelypaea 4.3

Cressa cretica 4 4

Cynodon dactylon 4.5

Halocnemum strobilaceum 5.5 5.5

Imperata cylindrica 4.8 4.8

Inula crithmoides 5 5 5

Juncus rigidus 4 4 4 4 4 4

Launaea nudicaulis 4

Minuartia geniculata 6

Moltkiopsis ciliata 5.3

Nitraria retusa 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3

Phoenix dactylifera 7.3 7.3

Phragmites australis 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

Sarcocornia fruticosa 6 6

Sporobolus spicatus 3.8

Stipagrostis scoparia 3.8

Tamarix nilotica 6 6 6 6 6

Zygophyllum album 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8

Habitat CACV 15.9 46.6 60 39 47.6 42.4 32 27.2 28.7

Total Number of species 3 9 11 8 9 9 6 5 6

Table 9. Habitat cumulative average conservation value (CACV) and number of species in each habitat (GD, gravel desert; SMC, salt marshes

covered with sand accumulations; SSD, slopes of sand dunes; SD, sand dunes; SM, salt marsh; SH/SM, sand hummocks/salt marsh

transition; RSV, reed swamp vegetation; SP, sand plain; and SH, sand hummocks).

Types and severity of threats

Table 10 shows a complete overview of the plant resources on Moghra as it appears in literature compared to the actual occurrence of natural plant species. The table shows that there are 28 species recorded in Moghra; only 22 were recorded through field work during the present study. The remaining 6 species may have disappeared from all the habitats; we were unable to locate them in the studied stands in Moghra, however 9 species were newly recorded in the present study.The above conclusion indicates that Moghra Oasis is being subjected to some environmental threats. The main threats on the habitats are manifested by the grazing pressure exerted on the vegetation cover in the oasis. This is due to local north-western coastal communities bringing their herds of camels, sheep and goats to graze during the period from May to October each year. Overgrazing in the dry season by camels, sheep and goats, which are used for transport by

desert dwellers, is believed to be a threat to some areas. Moreover, there is a proposed project to reclaim some areas near the oasis and to establish some desert resorts that would destroy the natural habitats and replace them with new artificial ones thereby changing the species composition and polluting the area. An additional threat is the continued natural drying of the area (possibly induced by global warming), which might result in the complete loss of wetland habitats being replaced with salt flats and sand areas similar to those widely seen in the Sahara Desert.

Species Present study

Literature

Anabasis articulata - SUMAMAD (2005)

Alhagi graecorum + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Artemisia monosperma + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Calligonum polygonoides +

Centropodia forsskaolii - SUMAMAD (2005)

Cistanche phelypaea +

Cornulaca monacantha - SUMAMAD (2005)

Cressa cretica + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Cynodon dactylon +

Frankenia revoluta - SUMAMAD (2005)

Halocnemum strobilaceum +

Imperata cylindrica + SUMAMAD (2005)

Inula crithmoides + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Juncus rigidus + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Launaea nudicaulis +

Minuartia geniculata +

Moltkiopsis ciliata +

Nitraria retusa + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Phoenix dactylifera + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Phragmites australis + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Sarcocornia fruticosa +

Sporobolus spicatus + SUMAMAD (2005)

Stipagrostis ciliata -

Stipagrostis pulmosa - SUMAMAD (2005)

Stipagrostis scoparia +

Tamarix nilotica + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Zygophyllum album + Girgis et al (1971) & SUMAMAD (2005)

Table 10. Species recorded in the studied stands of Moghra Oasis

56

57

Soil analysis

According to the international standards presented in Table 4A the results revealed that the soil of Moghra Oasis is strongly alkaline. Soil salinity as indicated by the Electrical conductivity (EC) describes the amount of electrical current conducted by a saturated soil extract at a fixed temperature. The greater the amount of salts in solution, the greater the EC reading which in turn increases its toxicity to plants. According to soil salinity classification presented in Table 5A the results indicate that all collected soil and water samples are classified as moderately to highly saline yet they are highly saline in most locations. Total dissolved salts (TDS) provide similar information as EC.

Sample ID/ Habitat

Location pHECdS/m

TDS(ppm)

CaCO3

%Texture

Soil (0-10 cm)/30 14 49.1 N23 56 9.3 E Elevation -44

8.8 26 16640 5 Sandy Loam

Soil (0-10 cm)/30 14 50.8 N23 56 08.0 E Elevation -38

8.56 11.03 7059.2 9 Sandy

Soil (10-20 cm)/30 14 50.8 N23 56 08.0 E Elevation -38

8.71 15.55 9952 8 Sandy

Soil (0-10 cm)/ Shoreline

30 14 50 N23 56 02.2 E Elevation -43

8.61 21.80 13952 4 Sandy

Soil (0-10 cm)/South lake

30 14 46.4 N28 56 14.20 E Elevation -25

8.66 10.66 6822.40 11 Sandy

Water in springs 8.50 6.20 3000

Table 11. Chemical and physical properties of soil and water at Moghra Oasis

Soil texture of Moghra soil is controlled by both geological and geomorphological factors. Weathering of the omnipresent marine limestone produces soils of medium texture, sandy or, less commonly, sandy loam but this can be altered by two main factors. The first factor is the presence of Aeolian sediments. These are deposited quite close to their source, and are consequently very sandy. The second factor is the sorting of sediments i.e. the distribution pattern of the sediments. The sparseness of the vegetation cover and the harsh climate cause extensive soil erosion. The quantity of water is insufficient to eliminate most of the eroded material that accumulates in depressions. High-standing surfaces are generally bare, also because of the hard parent rock, while soils of medium to high depth are formed by accumulation processes in depressions. Flat areas generally exhibit shallow and often stony soils, whose depth rarely exceeds 30 cm. In depressions, soil depth is proportional to depression level and catchments size, and increases progressively towards the centre of the depression.The Organic Matter content (OM %) was determined using the Walkly-Black method (Page, 1982). The results revealed that the soil is low in organic matter in all locations, but it may increase in the root zone of the natural vegetation compared with other habitats due to some plant and microorganisms residues found in the root zone, but the OM content is still low.

Land evaluation

According to the chemical and physical properties presented in the soil, soil grades can be identified. The dominant soil grade in Moghra area was found to be of grade 5. This soil type is unsuitable for agriculture under current conditions but it can be upgraded to grade 3, which would be slightly suitable for mild agricultural practices, but salinity will still be the limiting factor for unsuitability. This leads to the conclusion that this area has acute environmental conditions that make it unsuitable for agricultural purposes. On the other hand it may be very suitable for grazing as a natural pasture. Therefore, it is recommended that this area be used as a natural pasture for the inhabitants of OBR, where this would

help in decreasing the pressure of overgrazing in the OBR habitats, and where water resources are suitable in terms of quality and quantity for animal husbandry. For herders, it is recommended that the protected area management system allows for drinking water points in different grazing areas. It is also recommended that grazing pressures be managed by a rotational grazing scheme that allows for the regeneration of the natural vegetation. Although the resources of Moghra is still pristine and the productivity of its natural vegetation is high, particularly in the salt marshes around the lake, its very fragile ecosystem has to be kept in consideration and it is certainly prone to degradation – and the irreversibility of human pressure exceeds the limits of tolerance.

V. Appendix (Tables)

Stand Lat Long Habitat description Area (m2) Altitude

1 30.246 28.950 Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 400.00 -46

2 30.267 28.939 Slope of sand dunes 300.00 -35

3 30.266 28.931 Sand dunes 400.00 -46

4 30.264 28.928 Salt marshes 300.00 -48

5 30.257 28.925 Salt marshes 400.00 -42

6 30.259 28.923 Slope of sand dunes 320.00 -39

7 30.251 28.948 Sand hummocks/salt marshes transition 400.00 -41

8 30.246 28.943 Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 400.00 -47

9 30.249 28.939 Salt marshes 200.00 -48

10 30.235 28.929 Sand dunes 400.00 -47

11 30.245 28.936 Reed swamp vegetation 360.00 -43

12 30.239 28.924 Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 150.00 -36

13 30.241 28.919 Sand dunes 400.00 -35

14 30.246 28.919 Salt marshes 400.00 -45

15 30.246 28.947 Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 400.00 -33

16 30.258 28.949 Sand plain 400.00 -40

17 30.263 28.944 Sand Hummocks 400.00 -47

18 30.236 28.919 Sand dunes 200 -40

19 30.251 28.919 Sand dunes 400 -35

20 30.257 28.920 Sand dunes 400 -41

21 30.261 28.943 Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 400 -49

22 30.248 28.949 Salt marshes 400 -48

23 30.239 28.934 Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 400 -36

24 30.248 28.947 Sand hummocks 400 -41

25 30.247 28.939 Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 400 -43

26 30.248 28.938 Sand hummocks/salt marshes transition 100 -52

27 30.249 28.944 Sand dunes slope 400 -48

28 30.246 28.935 Salt marshes 400 -42

29 30.259 28.940 Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 400 -36

58

59

30 30.258 28.938 Reed swamp vegetation 400 -37

31 30.235 28.936 Gravel desert 400 -24

32 30.241 28.935 Salt marsh covered by sand accumulations 400 -37

33 30.240 28.929 Sand hummocks/salt marshes transition 400 -39

34 30.240 28.932 Sand hummocks/salt marshes transition 200 -34

35 30.255 28.925 Salt marshes 400 -40

36 30.267 28.945 Sand plain 400 -37

37 30.264 28.941 Slope of sand dunes 400 -33

Table 1A. Habitat type, location, area, and altitude of the stands studied in Moghra Oasis

SpeciesStand

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Alhagi graecorum + + + + + +

Artemisia monosperma + +

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum

+ + + + +

Calligonum polygonoides +

Cistanche phelypaea +

Cressa cretica

Cynodon dactylon

Halocnemum strobilaceum + + + +

Imperata cylindrica

Inula crithmoides + + +

Juncus rigidus + + + + + + + +

Launaea nudicaulis +

Minuartia geniculata +

Moltkiopsis ciliate +

Nitraria retusa + + + +

Phoenix dactylifera +

Phragmites australis + + + + + + +

Sarcocornia fruticosa + + + +

Sporobolus spicatus +

Stipagrostis scoparia +

Tamarix nilotica + + + + + + + + +

Zygophyllum album + + + + + + + + + + + +

Table 2A. Presence /absence of species recorded in stands studied in the Moghra Oasis

SpeciesStand

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Alhagi graecorum 7.4 5.2 11.8 17.1 16.6

Artemisia monosperma 0.4 12.4

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum

0.3 6.2 14.0 2.4

Calligonum polygonoides

Cistanche phelypaea 0.3

Cressa cretica

Cynodon dactylon

Halocnemum strobilaceum 11.1 40.0 1.2 7.5

Imperata cylindrica

Inula crithmoides 0.4 0.1 4.6

Juncus rigidus 8.2 0.2 0.9 30.1 2.5 55.2 13.3

Launaea nudicaulis 0.2

Minuartia geniculata 0.2

Moltkiopsis ciliata 0.1

Nitraria retusa 0.2 18.3

Phoenix dactylifera 1.1

Phragmites australis 22.6 13.7 0.8 16.1 12.9

Sarcocornia fruticosa 2.3 27.4 2.4 4.6

Zygophyllum album 12.7 6.6 11.5 14.6 3.3 25.8 11.3 1.4 0.8

Table 3A. Cover percentage of the recorded species in the studied stands of Moghra Oasis

60

61

pH Classes pH

Ultra acid <3.5

Extremely acid 3.5-4.4

Very strongly acid 4.5-5.0

Strongly acid 5.1-5.5

Moderately acid 5.6-6.0

Slightly acid 6.1-6.5

Neutral 6.6-7.3

Slightly alkaline 7.4-7.8

Moderately alkaline 7.9-8.4

Strongly alkaline 8.5-9.0

Very strongly alkaline >9.0

Table 4A. Soil pH classes

After USDA-NRCS Conservation Practice Standard, 2002

Salinity ClassEC (electrical conductivity)

dS m-1or mmhos cm-1

Nonsaline 0-2

Very slightly saline 2-4

Slightly saline 4-8

Moderately saline 8-16

Strongly saline >16

Table 5A. Soil salinity classes

After USDA-NRCS Conservation Practice Standard, 2002

Land Cover ClassOpen Water

Saline Flats with Reed Swamp Vegetation

Wet Salt Marsh

Gravel Desert

Salt Marsh covered by sand

accumulation

Sand dunes

Total

REFERENCE

DATA

Open Water 17 1 0 0 0 0 18

Saline Flats with Reed Swamp assification. sing were estimated for to 6

classesVegetation

0 19 1 0 0 0 20

Wet Salt Marsh 0 0 16 0 0 0 16

Gravel Desert 0 0 0 18 0 0 18

Salt Marsh covered by sand accumulations

0 0 0 0 22 0 22

Sand dunes 0 0 0 0 2 23 25

Total 17 20 17 18 24 23 119

Total Accuracy 96.6

Table 6A. Accuracy assessment of the unsupervised classification of the satellite image

References

Abu-Ziada, M.E.A. 1980. Ecological Studies on the Flora of Kharga and Dakhla Oases of the Western Desert of Egypt. Ph.D. Thesis, Fac. Sci., Mansoura Univ., 342 pp.

Ayyad, M. A. 1998. Multipurpose Species in Arab African Countries. UNESCO Cairo Office, Cairo, Egypt, 90 pp.Ayyad, M.A. & R. El-Ghareeb. 1974. Vegetation and environment of the western Mediterranean coastal land of Egypt.

II. The habitat of saline depressions. Bull. Inst. Désert d’Egypte, Vol. 24, pp. 1–9.Batanouny, K.H. and J.M. Abo Sitta. 1977. Ecophysiological studies on halophytes in arid and semi arid zones. In:

Autecology of the salt secreting halophyte Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss. Acta Bot. Acad. Sci. Hung. Vol. 23, No.1–2, pp. 13–31.

Blanckenhorn, M. 1901. neues zur Geologie, und pëpontologie aegypens. III: Das Miozën. Z. deut. Geol. Ges., Vol. 53, pp. 52–132 (In German.)

Boulos, L. 1983. Medicinal plants of North Africa. Reference Publication, Inc., Algonas Michigan, 286 pp.Boulos, L. 1989. Egyptian desert plants with promising economic potentials. Arab Gulf Journal ofScientific. Res. 7(2):

91-108. Boulos, L. 1995. Flora of Egypt: Checklist. Al-Hadara Publishing, Cairo, 287 pp.Dargie, T.C.D. and M.A. El-Demerdash. 1991. A quantitative study of vegetation-environment relationships in two

Egyptian deserts. J. Veg. Sci. Vol 2, pp. 3–10.El-Hadidi, M.N. 1993. Natural vegetation. In: G.M. Craig (ed.), The Agriculture of Egypt. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford,

pp. 39–62.Fahmy, G.M. 1986. Ecophysiological Studies on some Halophytes in the Mediterranean Zone, Egypt. Ph.D. Thesis,

Fac. Sci., Cairo Univ., 283 pp.Fourtua, R. 1918. Contribution à l’étude des Vertebrés miocènes de l’Égypt. Egypt. Survey Dept., Cairo, 109 pp. (In

French.)Heneidy, S. Z. and Bidak, L. M. 2004. Potential uses of the plants species in the coastal Mediterranean region,

62

63

Egypt. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. Vol. 7, No. 6, pp. 1010–1023.Hughes, R.H. and J.S. Hughes, 1992. A directory of African wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,

UK. Krüger, H.R. and N. Peinemann. 1996. Coastal plain halophytes and their relation to soil ionic composition.

Vegetation Vol. 122, pp. 143–150. Le Houerou, H. N. 1985. Forage and fuel plants in the arid zones of North Africa, the Near and Middle East. In:

Wickens, G. E., Goodin, J. R. and Field, D. V. (Eds.) Plants for Arid Lands. George Allen and Unwin. London, Boston, Sydeney pp. 117–141

Lillisand, T. M. and Kiefer, R. W. 2000. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. 4th ed. John Wiley and Sons. 724 pp.Migahid, A.M., A.M. El-Shafei, A.A. Abdel Rahman, and M. A. Hammouda. 1960. An ecological study of Kharga and

Dakhla Oases. Bull. Soc. Géogr. D’Egypte Vol. 33, pp. 279–310.O’Leary, J.W. and E.P. Glenn. 1994. Global distribution and potential for halophytes. In: V.R. Squaries and A.T. Ayoub

(Eds.) Halophytes as a Resource for Livestock and for Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands, Tasks for Vegetation Science, Vol. 32, pp. 7–15.

Ozenda, P. 1983. Flore du Sahara. Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris. pp. 21–32 (In French.)

Page, A.L. 1982. Methods of soil analysis part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties, second edition. No.9 in the series AGRONOMY. American Society of Agronomy, Inc. Soil Science Society of America, Inc. Publisher Madison, Wisconsin USA.

Said, R. 1962. The Geology of Egypt. Elsevier Publishing Company. 376 pp.Salem, B. B. 2003. Application of GIS to biodiversity monitoring. Journal of Arid Environment. Vol. 54, pp. 91–114.Schwartz, O. 1939. Flora Destropischen Arabien. Mitt. Inst. Allg. Bot. Hamburg, Vol. 10, pp.1–393.Soil Salinity Management-Nonirrigated, USDA-NRCS (2002) Conservation Practice Standard, Code 571.SUMAMAD (Sustainable Management of Margianal Drylands). 2005. Omayed Biosphere reserve and its hinterlands.

Progress report , Jan. 2005, National UNESCO Commission, Cairo-Egypt, 118 pp.Tackholm, V. 1974. Student’s Flora of Egypt. Cairo University Press, Cairo, 888 pp..Zaharan, M.A. and A.J. Willis. 1992. The vegetation of Egypt. Chapman and Hall, London.Zahran, M.A. 1972. On the ecology of Siwa Oasis. Egyptian J. Bot. Vol. 25, pp. 223–242.Zahran, M.A. 1982. Ecology of the halophytic vegetation. In: D.N. Sen and K.S. Rajpurhit (Eds.) Contribution to the

Ecology of Halophytes, Tasks for Vegetation Science Vol. 2, pp. 3–20.Zahran, M.A. and W.A. Girgis. 1970. On the ecology of Wadi El-Natrun. Bull. Inst. Désert D’Egypte. Vol. 18, pp.

229–267.

Report of SUMAMAD activities at the project site, Gareh Bygone Plain, I. R. Iran

Prof. Sayyed Ahang Kowsar, Fars Research Centre for Natural Resources and Animal Husbandry, Islamic Republic of Iran

I. Introduction

Our flagship project Aquitopia at the project site of Gareh Bygone Plain (GBP) had a period of rough sailing up until August 2006, when the governor of the City of Fasa, with jurisdiction over the area, was asked to intervene in our dispute with the illegal occupiers of the public land donated to the project. Due to our desertification control activities through floodwater harvesting, particularly with its associated and substantial increase in groundwater resources, the farm fields has seen an astronomical price increase of over 1000 fold! Minor nomadic chieftains who exercise covert power claimed over 500 ha of good arable land. Despite our humanitarian intentions we had no option but to apply force as our surveyors and bulldozer operators had been threatened. Moreover, court proceedings have begun in order to obtain the necessary deeds of the land. Hopefully, these actions will end the claims of the infringers.

II. Achievements

The most remarkable event of our 35 years of work with floodwater harvesting has been the I.R. Iran’s Government intention to act. A recurrent drought since 1996 and the damage it caused to our agriculture and animal husbandry has been instrumental in obtaining such an important decision. The Cabinet, headed by the President of the I.R.Iran, passed Bill No.3545/44425 on 16 July 2006 stating that $1 billion be spent on aquifer and watershed management. The Forest, Range, and Watershed Management Organization plan to construct 1.5 million hectares (mha) of floodwater spreading systems on the fringes of the deserts during 2006–2010, expandable to 14 mha in due time. Needless to say, exposure of the SUMAMAD project and the UN-supported awards (UN-HABITAT, UNESCO-Great Man Made River International Prize) in recognition of the work and achievements over the years, has been instrumental in facilitating these important decisions, for which I am very grateful.As concerns the SUMAMAD project we are ahead of our commitments. We had intended to construct 125 ha of the floodwater spreading system in 2005. However, due to the occupation of land speculators (some still remain) on good parcels of land in the hope of reaping a bonanza when irrigation water becomes available following the construction of the artificial recharge of groundwater systems, we were only able to complete 27 ha of the area. We planned to complete the remaining 98 ha, including the current year commitment of 76 ha, in 2006. So far, we have constructed 4 systems totaling an area of 230 ha. Furthermore, we have constructed 8 masonry chutes using the material bought with SUMAMAD funds and paid wages from the same source (see Table 1 and 2). So far these small systems have harvested 71,000m3 of floodwater, which is remarkable considering the severe drought that the country is experiencing. At the current rate of 1000 rials m3 ($1.00 = 9176 rials at the time of reception of SUMAMAD funds), and an efficiency of 80% (the percentage of recharge water reaching the aquifer), the floodwater spreading system has already paid for itself.At the Kowsar Station, we have constructed 14,5 x 2m enclosures for our plant biodiversity monitoring at the total cost of $ 842.83. These permanent plots will be surveyed at regular intervals to ascertain the response of indigenous plants and microflora and microfauna to floodwater spreading. The main objective is to study the different responses of plant species and microorganisms to water availability and to sedimentation; some thrive, some die, while the remaining species show no visible reaction. This information is important in plant propagation for rangeland improvement. As concerns the main function of our station i.e. floodwater harvesting, we are currently facing a severe drought. The most recent major flooding occurred on 26 December 2005. We experienced a rather minor flow on 5 September 2006 in which only about 600 ha, a quarter of the area of our station, was irrigated, and a medium sized flood on 18 December 2006, which covered about 80% of our systems. Another of our ongoing studies, which has become a PhD thesis by Mr. Mehrdad Mohammadnia at the University of Putra, Malaysia, deals with the nitrate and ammonium contamination of groundwater. The floodwater emanating from the Bisheh-Zard Basin, which is conducted to the floodwater spreading systems through the Bisheh Zard ephemeral river and the incoming groundwater flow into the Bisheh-Zard aquifer, are the main inflows into the aquifer.

64

65

Intensive agricultural activities upstream and downstream of the recharge area has increased NO3– concentration in

the groundwater to more than 45 mg/L, which was set as the upper permitted limit for drinking water by the USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). The main objective of this study was to identify the most suitable place for the supply of safe drinking water in the GBP. The impacts of different land uses on the groundwater NO3

–

concentration was investigated during a monitoring period of 12 months. A transect of 9 production wells corresponding to groundwater direction and located in areas of different land use in the alluvial fan were selected as groundwater observatory and sampling points. Groundwater was located at a depth of >30m on average during the study period. Fresh samples were analyzed for NO3

–, NH4+, dissolved O2 , total organic carbon, Na+, K+, Ca+2, Mg+2, Fet, Mn+2, Cl–,

SO4-2, CO3

-2, HCO3, alkalinity, EC and pH. Results show that the oxidizing condition is predominant in the aquifer and that denitrification in the aquifer is indeed remote. A close correlation between NO3

– and Cl–concentration in the groundwater proved the effect of artificial recharge of groundwater (ARG) on NO3

– hazard mitigation in the recharge area mainly through the dilution process making it suitable for drinking. However, NO3

– concentration in groundwater located upstream and downstream of the ARG, was more than 45 mg/L NO3

–. The HYDRUS-1D software proved to be useful in predicting vertical nitrate transport through the saturated soil column. Nitrate breakthrough curves obtained from both leaching and simulated columns were compatible in general. The nitrate distribution pattern throughout the groundwater was successfully predicted using a MODFLOW_PMPATH computer code. The main result of this study showed that the most suitable drinking water in the area for rural people, including the Aquitopia project site, is available from wells located in the artificial recharge of groundwater systems. The most degraded waters were found in the vicinity of the farming areas.

III. Current studies

One of our most interesting and ecologically relevant research projects, which forms the framework of Mr. Gholamreza Rahbar’s PhD dissertation, is the determination of the lining of sowbug (Hemilepistus shirazi Schuttz) burrows and the characterization of the microorganisms that inhabit its digestive tract.The appearance of sowbugs in the sedimentation basins of the ARG systems in the Gareh Bygone Plain in southern Iran is considered an ecological breakthrough in desertification control. This crustacean, which drills 7–8 mm holes down to 1.8 m in the freshly laid sediment and sand, facilitates a preferential flow of water towards the aquifers. Were it not for this fauna, the systems would have lost their effectiveness within a short lapse of time. Moreover, by bringing up the excavated material sowbugs affect the surface soil composition in the long term. Therefore, the presence of sowbugs may be considered a valuable indicator of land suitability for floodwater harvesting activities. The importance of fauna as indicators of soil quality must be assessed in terms of the specific functions they are expected to perform. The main function expected of sowbugs derives from its ability to puncture the hard crust thus facilitating rapid percolation of the recharge water. However, as the sowbug was a welcome addition in our research site we hypothesized that it could start a completely new life cycle in the immediately adjoining area. A species of this genus has been shown to excavate up to 1.5 tons per ha during its active period of about 3 months in Central Asia. The excavated soil proved to have more organic matter and a better structure and was thus more resistant to erosion than the original soil from where it was extracted. We also observed that the lining of the burrows prevented the collapse of fine sand. This unexpected discovery encouraged us to study as many different aspects of the sowbug’s life as was practicable. We reasoned that the body fluid, which dries instantly and forms a strong tube that functions as the entrance to the sowbug’s semi spherical, 5–10cm diameter nests, affects the composition of the parallelepiped-shaped burrowed material (see Figs. 1, 2, 3). Chemical analysis of the lining revealed that it contains a protein, which appears to be extremely strong and environmentally safe. By carrying out further research to discover its exact composition it may be possible to synthesize and prove suitable for the stabilization of moving sand and other applications. Moreover, as the microorganisms that inhabit this crustacean’s digestive tract are instrumental in extracting micronutrients (Zn, Cu, etc.) from the soil, determination of their species will open pathways for further discoveries. Mr. Hans-Paul Velema, a student intern from the University of Wageningen in the Netherlands, initiated an important study entitled ‘Threat of beet curly top virus hosted by Atriplex lentiformis’ under the supervision of Prof. Izadpanah. So far his preliminary results indicate that atriplex plants, the major fodder species at our station, are not harmful to the sugar beet industry in the area. This study will be continued by Mr. Velema’s co-workers at our center.

66

Figure 1.

Figure 2. Figure 3.

67

IV. Benefits of SUMAMAD

Equipment Cost (rials) Cost ($)

Steel post, 427 kg 2,882,250 314.10

Galvanized barbed wire, 100 kg 882,000 96.12

Pliers, 2 pairs 60,000 6.53

Wire twisters, 2 pairs 80,000 8.72

Shears, 2 pairs 160,000 17.43

Shovels, 2 70,000 7.62

Picks, 2 70,000 7.62

Laborers, 32 man-day 2,240,000 244.12

Cement, 25,50kg bags 750,000 81.73

Cement transportation 90,000 9.80

Sieved sand, 5 m3 450,000 49.04

Total $ 842.83

Table 1. Item(s) of expenditure (biodiversity monitoring)

Equipment Cost (rials) Cost ($)

Bulldozer rental (Caterpillar D7) 37,350,000 4070.40

Bulldozer rental (Komatsu D65E) 94,734,166 10324.12

Bulldozer rental (Komatsu D65E) 19,950,000 217.41

DHL (postage) 390,000 42.50

DHL (postage) 390,000 42.50

Total $ 14,696.93

Table 1. Item(s) of expenditure (water harvesting)

As stipulated in item 3 of the contract, 4 common laborers and 1 mason are working for the SUMAMAD project. The main aquifer of the 220 inhabitants of Ahmad Abad Village is being recharged by our activities; they are the direct beneficiaries of this project. Other advantages include fodder and environmental benefits which are associated with such projects.As these mixed crop farmers depend on irrigation the project is instrumental in generating their income. Furthermore, the research station has produced 35 metric tons of honey last spring and summer. As mentioned in previous annual reports, upwards of 2,000 inhabitants from four villages surrounding the research station are the direct beneficiaries of our aquifer management project which directly supplies three villages with freshwater via piping systems.As regards the participatory activities, we have appointed a liaison person to the four villages to convince them of the benefits of cooperatives, which will operate and administer on-going and future projects. We have achieved some success in forming the cooperatives who will operate the recharge systems and farm fields.

68

NoteOfficial Report of Terms of Reference, (CTC No. IW-2006-CTC-0-00007) with UNU-INWEH (items 1-3).

References

Our center’s recent contributions to the SUMAMAD objectives in relevant literature:

Kowsar, S.A.2005. Abkhandari (aquifer management): A green path to the sustainable development of marginal drylands. Journal of Mountain Science, Vol. 2. pp. 233–243.

Kowsar, S. A. 2006. An empirical design of stilling basins for the artificial recharge of groundwater. In: B.Neupane, R. Jayakumar, A. Salamat, and A. Salih (Eds) Management of Aquifer Recharge and Water Harvesting in Arid and Semi-arid Regions of Asia. Proceedings of a Regional Workshop held in Yazd, I.R.Iran, under the auspices of UNESCO. 27 Nov.-1 Dec.2004. Oxford&IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. pp.207–218.

Esfandiari-Baiat, M. and Gh. Rahbar. 2006. Monitoring of inflow and outflow rate from Kaftari artificial recharge of groundwater system in Dorz & Sayban region in southern Iran. In B.Neupane, R. Jayakumar, A. Salamat, and A. Salih (Eds) Management of Aquifer Recharge and Water Harvesting in Arid and Semi-arid Regions of Asia.Proceedings of a Regional Workshop held in Yazd, I.R.Iran, under the auspices of UNESCO. 27 Nov.–1 Dec.2004. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. pp.149–157.

Kowsar, S. A. 2006. The SUMAMAD activities in the undulating area SW of the Gareh Bygone Plain: A progress report. Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands (SUMAMAD). In: Proceedings of Fourth Project Workshop, Islamabad, Pakistan 27–31 Jan. 2006. Pakistan Council of Research on Water Resources, Islamabad.

Kowsar, S.A. 2006. Aquitopia: An Institution for Fairness in Water Allocation. Presented at the Regional Conference ‘Towards a Sustainable Water Future, Strategies to Address Competing Claims’, 29–30 March 2006, Jodhpur, Rajastan, India.

Kowsar, S.A. 2006. Desertification Control through Floodwater Harvesting: The Current State of Know-How. Presented at ‘The Future of Drylands Conference’, 19–21 June 200, Tunis, Tunisia.

Zabetian, J. 2006. Facilitation of rural participation in the aquifer management project implementation: The Gareh Bygone Plain case study. Poster resented at ‘The Future of Drylands Conference’, 19–21 June 2006, Tunis, Tunisia.

Moreover, the work by Esfandiari & Rahbar mentioned above has been reported in a digested form by Ian Gale, in ‘Strategies for Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) in Semi-Arid Areas, UNESCO, IHP, 2005, 30pp.

69

The 2005 Annual report for SUMAMAD Project in Dana Bios-phere Reserve

By Mohammad Al-Qawaba’a, Dana Biosphere Reserve, The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, Jordan

I. Country background

Jordan is a small country with few resources and a population of 5.5 million covering 90,000 square kilometers of which more than 80% of area is classified as desert. It has a remarkably varied topography, geological structure and climatic regime, which have led to the formation of an equally varied range of ecosystems, from evergreen oak forests to sand dune desert.Arid and semi-arid ecosystems are particularly fragile. Habitat degradation and species losses have been severe. Seven large mammals and at least ten plant species are known to have become extinct within the last ninety years and it is estimated that about one million hectares of rangelands have degraded into marginal steppe (NEAP Working Paper, 1995). The persistent causes of such degradation and loss are deforestation, over-grazing, inappropriate agriculture, urbanization, and population growth. More recently, the increase in tourism following the Peace Accord has been identified as a growing threat to environmental quality (Neap Working Paper, 1995).

70

II. Dana Biosphere Reserve

Dana was established as a national park in 1993 and is managed by the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN). Dana BR is a system of wadis and mountains, which extend from the top of the Rift Valley down to the desert lowlands of Wadi Araba (see Fig.1). Dana is truly a world of natural treasure. Visitors to Dana can experience the beauty of Rumanah Mountain, the mystery of ancient archaeological ruins of Feynan, the timeless tranquility of Dana Village, and the grandeur of the red and white sandstone cliffs of Wadi Dana.Dana is a relatively large reserve (300 square km), established as a protected area in 1993. It contains a remarkable diversity of landscapes; it represents all four of the main bioeographical zones occurring in the country, namely the Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, Sudanian biogeographical and Saharo Arabian zones. It supports a wide variety of wildlife including many rare species of plants and animals. In fact, Dana is home to about 714 species of plants, 45 species of mammals and 214 species of birds.Dana offers a variety of services for visitors, including an information center at the Tower entrance, a campsite at Rumanah, six hiking trails, a visitor center at Dana village, and Feynan eco-lodge in the hyper arid climate of the reserve lowlands. The reserve’s tourism policy is to allot visitors to experience the nature of Dana in a sustainable way while ensuring their enjoyment.Dana Biosphere Reserve, through its new management principles, links the conservation of nature with socio-economic programs that were created by the reserve in an integrated way. DBR has built a model of integrated management for reserves at the national and regional level, which led UNESCO to nominate Dana Biosphere Reserve (the first in Jordan) in 1998.

Figure 1. Location of Dana Biosphere Reserve

71

III. Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands project

The project’s main objectives:

Improved and alternative livelihoods of dryland dwellers.1. Reduce vulnerability to land degradation in marginal lands through the rehabilitation efforts of degraded lands.2. Improve productivity through the identification of wise practices using both traditional knowledge and scientific expertise.

IV. Proposed activities for the year 2006

Through a participatory approach, involving local people, to carry out the following activities:1. Testing and evaluation of practices for sustainable soil and water conservation.2. Associated training on the management techniques, data collection and inventory.3. Exploration of one or two environmentally sustainable income-generating activities.4. National seminar on dryland conservation issues.

Testing and evaluation of practices for sustainable soil and water conservation

Developing the water monitoring program in Dana BR

Activity introduction: The water monitoring program is one of the more important monitoring programs in Dana BR. It covers all the springs in the reserve and in the surrounding areas used by the local communities. As water is one of the main abiotic factors in monitoring programs, and which affect many biotic elements in the reserve, it was very important to ensure that this was achieved with great effectiveness. The following parameters are measured in the monitoring program:1. Temperature: temperature of water indicates the amount of dissolved gases in the water, mainly dissolved oxygen.

As temperature increases the solubility of oxygen decreases.2. pH: pH measures the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution as measured on a scale (pH scale) of 0 to 14. 3. The midpoint of 7.0 on the pH scale represents neutrality; a ‘neutral’ solution is neither acid nor alkaline. Numbers

below 7.0 indicate acidity; numbers above 7.0 indicate alkalinity. Standard for pH levels in drinking water should be between pH 6.5 and 8.5 to be considered safe for drinking.Acidity: the base neutralizing capacity of water is known as acidity. Acids contribute to corrosiveness, influence chemical reactions, and chemical/biological processes.Alkalinity: the acid neutralizing capacity of water is known as alkalinity. For surface waters alkalinity has been called ‘the Protector of the Stream’, since the alkalinity of the water resists sudden changes in the pH. The alkalinity of precipitation can be from 1 to about 10 mg CaCO3/L, were in limestone areas the alkalinity can be greater than 1000 mg CaCO3/L.

4. Phosphate (PO4): salt of phosphoric acid, there is no maximum contaminant level (MCL) for phosphate. In surface waters, phosphate is a plant nutrient needed for growth and is a fundamental element in the metabolic reactions of plants and animals (hence its use in fertilizers). Excess phosphate causes extensive algal growth or ‘algal blooms’ which are a symptom of eutrophication and lead to decreased oxygen levels in the water body.

5. Chloride (Cl): one of the major anions found in water and wastewater. The recommended maximum contaminant level is 250 mg/L as chloride ions impart a salty taste to the water. If ions of calcium and magnesium are present, the chloride ion may not impart a salty taste until it reaches over 1000 mg/L.

6. Conductivity: the property of a substance to conduct (carry) heat or electricity at a specified temperature; the unit of measure is the siemens (formerly called mho), which is the reciprocal of resistivity (1 divided by resistivity). Conductivity or specific conductance is directly related to the concentration of dissolved substances. As the total dissolved substances in the water increases, the conductivity of the water also increases.

7. Hardness: the hardness of water is a measure of the concentration of the multivalent cat-ions (positively charged particles) in the water but primarily it is equivalent to the calcium and magnesium concentration of the water. Hardness is typically reported as mg/L as CaCO3 (calcium carbonate). Hardness classification: Soft: 0 to 17 mg CaCO3/L; Slightly Hard: 17 to 60 mg/L; Moderately Hard: 60 to 120 mg/L; Hard: 120 to 180 mg/L; and Very Hard >180 mg/L.

8. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Measure of water quality indicating free oxygen dissolved in water. It is essential for the process of respiration. Oxygen is required for the process of self purification in water bodies. When all oxygen is used up water quality begins to deteriorate, a sign of this deterioration is ‘black water’.

72

The analysis used on all these factors is simple but still leads to an assessment of the quality of water especially drinking water for human consumption, and for livestock such as some wildlife species i.e. Nubian Ibex (the mountain goat).

The water monitoring program does however encounter many problems including:The use of inaccurate water testing kits.•The irregular availability of the materials needed for carrying out the tests (such as calcium concentration •

testing tablets). The water testing kit is dependant on visual observation, so readings and interpretation can vary from one •

researcher to another.

Activity:Faced with the problems encountered with the water monitoring program, there was a strong need to change the water testing tool used in the reserve. Consequently a new digital water testing kit was purchased through the SUMAMAD project. The precedent monitoring program (carried out in summer) used the old water test kit; the next monitoring program will be carried out using both kits in order to develop a proper correlation between the obtained results.

Water management activities in the orchard of Dana Village

Activity introduction: Water from the three springs in Dana village is used to irrigate a total area of 40 hectares of fruit farms. However due to the ineffectiveness of the present water management system, productivity on these farms is low. To overcome this problem an effective water management system was established and implemented with the full cooperation of Dana Charitable Society (the only charitable society in the village). This was achieved through a participatory approach involving farmers and thus benefited from their indigenous knowledge and experiences. (See Figure 2)

Figure 2. Figure 3.

In the past year, through SUMAMAD project activities, the reserve conducted the following activities:A workshop was held for the farmers in the village on the best way of irrigating the terraced gardens in Dana •

village. The workshop was held in the reserve complex and it was facilitated by an agriculture engineer – a specialist in irrigation systems.

73

The installation of more than 500m of pipes between channels thereby building a good irrigation system.•

Activity:Following on from the activities carried out in 2005, to develop the water irrigation system in the village orchard gardens, many channels had to be prepared and maintained. The local knowledge of farmers was very important for finding out the best and most efficient arrangement and routes for the channels. Consequently, the following activities were carried out:

360 m of channels were constructed and maintained in the orchard gardens in Dana village, (Fig.3). The •main beneficiaries were the farmers who owned the gardens, who now had a higher share of water due to the reduction of water loss through the system. Nineteen farmers benefited from the improvement in the channel system. Because of the difficult geography of the area, most of the orchards are situated in steep sloping areas.

an awareness-raising program for the farmers was carried out for soil conservation. The program •concentrated on the use of stones terraces to conserve the soil in the orchard gardens. A total of 20 farmers attended the workshop which thus enhanced and developed their knowledge in conserving the soil of their gardens using terraces.

Figure 4.

Associated training on management techniques, data collection and inventory

Capacity building of the Dana BR team was carried out with the participation of three major training programs funded by the SUMAMAD project. The three training programs focused on management techniques, data collection and inventory, see below:

1- Methods of Sampling Vegetation Attributes: held 22–28 April 2006 at Amman, Shomary Nature Reserve and Azraq wetland reserve:

Trainers:Dr. Mahfouz Abu-Zanat Specialization: Range ManagementDepartment of Animal Production

74

The Faculty of Agriculture-Jordan University.Email: Mahfouz@ju.edu.jo Dr. Mohammad J. TabbaaSpecialization: Animal Breeding and GeneticsDepartment of Animal ProductionThe Faculty of Agriculture-Jordan University.Email: mjtabbaa@ju.edu.jo

Organizer: The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN).

Dana MBR trainee: Mohammad Al-Tabashat, Ecologist, Dana BR.

The workshop covered the following topics:

Sampling terminology and design•Methods to determine vegetation cover, such as:•– Step point– Line intercept– Dauber mire method

Plant attributes and the methods used to identify them:•– Plant species frequency– Density– Species composition– Biomass

Data entry•Statistical analysis and the use of software programs for analysis, such as SAS (Statistical Analysis System)•Reporting•

Each topic and method taught was followed by fieldwork training.

2- Management Plan writing for Nature Reserves: held 20–25 August 2006 at Ajloun Forest Reserve

Trainers:Laith M El-Moghrabi, Conservation Specialist, RSCN.Email: Laith.elmoghrabi@rscn.org.jo Nashat A Hamidan, Dibeen Project Manager, RSCN.Email: nashat.hamidan@rscn.org.jo

Organizer: The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN).

Dana BR trainees:Amer Al-Rfoa’a, Head of Rangers, Dana BR.Mohammad Al-Tabashat, Ecologist, Dana BR.

The workshop covered the following topics:The concept and types of nature reserves.•The preliminary steps before establishing any reserve.•The components of a nature reserve management plan, including:•– The information section: physical, ecological, historical and archeological information etc.– The evaluation stage: the evaluation is carried out based on a number of indicators, such as its nature, rarity, fragility, and representativeness.– Logical framework and SWOT analysis: used to derive objectives from problem analysis framework. – Elaborating objectives and work plans.

75

The trainees practice these stages during the workshop in Dibeen woodland reserve.

3- Ecology and Biodiversity workshop: held 28 August – 2 September 2006 at Amman and Dana Nature Reserve

Trainers:Enas F Sokajha, Head of Research & Survey Section, RSCNEmail: enas@rscn.org.jo Laith M El-Moghrabi, Conservation Specialist, RSCN.Email: Laith.elmoghrabi@rscn.org.jo Khaldoon A Al-Omari, Field Research & Monitoring Programs Coordinator, RSCNEmail: alomari-k@rscn.org.jo

Organizer: The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN).

Dana MBR trainees:Amer Al-Rfoa’a, Head of Rangers, Dana BR.Mohammad Al-Tabashat, Ecologist, Dana BR.

The workshop was divided into three main parts which covered many sub-topics:

Introduction to ecology and biodiversity. The following topics were given special emphasis: •– Species– Populations interaction and relations– Food webs– Energy pyramids– Succession

Remote sensing and the use of GPS systems, building databases from GPS, and how to construct maps that •show the distribution of certain vegetation types.

Introduction to:•– Plant surveys: including survey methodologies such as transects, quadrats, as well as conducting interviews with local people.– Surveys of carnivores: including survey methodologies such as spot light, spore transect, baiting station, and trapping.– Bird survey: including survey methodologies such as direct count, transects, and mist netting. It also included bird identification and bird ringing techniques.

Fieldwork was carried out on Dana NR on all the above topics and sup-topics.

Exploration of one to two environmentally sustainable income-generating activities (Olive oil soap production workshop)

Activity introduction: In Dana village and the other villages and towns around the reserve people enjoy the best olive oil south of Jordan. Olive trees are grown without the use of pesticides and fertilizers yet despite the very high quality of olive oil owners are suffering many marketing and price fluctuation problems. A proportion of the olive oil produced by local farmers is used to produce high quality olive oil soap in a workshop situated within the Dana Reserve Centre complex. The soap is chemical-free and traditionally produced and is decorated with inscriptions inspired from animals and plants of Dana BR. The product will be promoted and sold in the eco-tourist sites of the reserve. In the last two years thanks to the SUMAMAD project we have developed a good quality olive oil soap (Figs. 5 and 6), but because of the rise of other olive oil soap products on the national market, new themes and concepts should be added to our primary soap product.

76

Figure 5. Olive oil soaps. Figure 6. Olive oil soap products on sale.

Activity:After exploring the market for similar products to see whether our prototype has the right characteristics to be competitive, and after consultation with marketing experts and the local soap-making expert. A conclusion was reached to further develop the products in terms of:

the way the olive oil soap is presented and sold;•the natural ingredients that are used in producing the soap.•

Working with very professional local experts with great knowledge of making olive oil soap in the traditional way, good progress has been made to develop new soap shapes and characteristics. The main developments made so far are as follows:

A new way of presentation has been developed whereby visitors can cut a chunk of soap directly from the •main piece; many shapes with different dimensions has also been developed (Fig. 6).

A new herpes plant treatment has been introduced; so now we have an olive oil prototype with lemon, its •acidity has been found to be very good for skin care.

National seminar on dryland conservation issues

The national seminar on dryland conservation was held on 3rd December at Dana BR Center in Dana Village; the seminar was opened by the governor of Boseira district and by the Director General of the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature. (Figures. 7, 8 and 9)Workshop participants were made up of local government stakeholders, local communities stakeholders, local specialists in agriculture and drylands, and other interested parties (Table 1). The national seminar focused on the following subjects and was presented through lectures:

Rangeland uses and assessments in drylands: case study of the rangeland study in Mojeb Nature reserve. •Presented by: Prof: Mahfouz Abu-Zanat, Department of Animal Production, The Faculty of Agriculture, Jordan University.

Best uses of medicinal and aromatics plants in drylands, case study from Mojeb Nature reserve. •Presented by: Prof: Tallal Abu Rjea’a, the Faculty of Pharmacy, Jordan University.

Socio-Economic studies at Marginal Dry lands. Case study from Feynan Area at Dana Biosphere Reserve.•Presented by: Mr. Majdy Salama, Environmental and Soci-economic consultant.

Integrated management in marginal drylands in the world. Case study from the Sustainable Management of •Marginal Drylands project (SUMAMAD).Presented by: Mohammed Al-Qawaba’a, Dana Biosphere Reserve Manager. The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature.

77

The seminar would also have covered the issue of water conservation in marginal drylands. It was to have •been presented by: Dr. Odieh Al-Jauioseh, the head of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) regional office for the Middle East and Western Asia. Unfortunately, the lecturer was unable to make a presentation due to health problems.

Figure 7. Figure 8.

Figure 9.

78

Position Name

Boseira District Governor Mr. Hussain Khalaf Al-Habahbeh

RSCN director general /RSCN Mr. Yehya Khaled

Conservation department manager / RSCN Mr. Mohammed Y Abedalfatah

Reserves Section head / RSCN Mr. Maen Alsmadi

Jordan University / Agricultural College Prof. Mahfouz Abo Zant

Jordan University / Paramedical college Prof. Talal Abo Rajaih

Socioeconomic consultant Mr. Majdi Salameh

Governorate employee Mr. Khaled M Al-Mazaideh

Governorate employee Mr. Sedqy K Al-Rofou

Qadesyyah Municipality president Eng. Hussain Al-Qtameen

Land survey / Qadesyyah Municipality Eng. Khloud Al-Na’nah

Tafilah Agriculture department president Eng. Ahmad Y Madadha

Forest department manager Eng. Ahmad S Al-Sharaideh

Grazing Coordinator Eng. Ahmad S Al-Qawabeh

Forest Coordinator Eng. Osama M Al-Tourk

Boseira Municipality president Eng. Hamed Al-Bdour

Busaira Municipality co-president Mr. Hashim AlSafasfeh

Fatimah Al-Zahra Charitable society president Mrs. Amal Y Al-Rofou

Fatimah Al-Zahra Charitable society Coordinator Mrs. Ahlam Al-Zedanyeen

Fatimah Al-Zahra Charitable society co-president Mrs. Khoula AlSalman

Qadesyyah women co-operative president Mrs. Bander Al-Kraimeen

Qadesyyah women co-operative co-president Mrs. Halemah Al-Khawaldeh

Tafilah women union president Mrs. Khoula Al-Kaladeh

The head of Busaira Police center Mr. Mohammed Lazani

Environment Society president / Tafilah Mr. Ghazi Al-Amreein

Charitable union president / Tafilah Mr. Hussain A Al-Mosaideen

Dana Reserve Community liaison officer / RSCN Mr. Ghazi S Al-Rofou

Dana Reserve head ranger / RSCN Eng. Amer M Al-Rofou

Dana Reserve Ecologist / RSCN Mr. Mohammed AlTabashat

Dana Biosphere Reserve Manager/RSCN Mr. Mohammed Qawaba’a

Table 1. The National Seminar on dryland issues. List of participants.

References

NEAP, 1995. National Environmental Action Plan working paper, prepared by the Jordanian Gov. UNESCO (Ed.), 2004a. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Sustainable Management of

MarginalDrylands, Shiraz, I.R.Iran, 29 Nov.–2 Dec., 2003. UNESCO, Paris. UNESCO (Ed.), 2004b. Proceedings of the Third Project Workshop, Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands,

Djerba, Tunisia, 11–15 Dec., 2004. UNESCO, Paris.

79

Use of Saline Water for Vegetable Production in Dryland of Lal Sohanra Biosphere Reserve,Pakistan

M. A. Kahlown, M. Akram And Z. A. Soomro, Pakistan Council For Research In Water Resources, Islamic Republic Of Pakistan

Abstract

The population of Pakistan is increasing rapidly and is outgrowing its food resources. The per acre crop yield in Pakistan has remained stagnant for many years. Vegetable and fruit consumption is very limited and as a result people suffer a deficiency of minerals, vitamins and proteins, which in turn encourages disease. The total agricultural area in Pakistan is about 22 million hectares consisting of irrigated and dry agriculture. It seems impossible to meet the food requirements of the increasing human population if agricultural production cannot reach its full potential. The crop yield can only achieve this if the necessary irrigation water and other inputs are available when required. However, due to a shortage of water storage reservoirs in the country irrigation water is simply not available. Under these circumstances, it appears very difficult to produce more food from these already agricultural areas to supply grains for people living in marginal drylands. Therefore, drylands should be utilized wisely in order to generate new sources of income. The water sources in the marginal drylands of Lal-Sohanra Biosphere Reserve in Pakistan can be developed for vegetable farming with the use of rainwater harvesting systems and ground saline water. A pilot model was developed in March 2006 at Dingarh and Naraywala in the drylands of Lal Sohanra Biophere Reserve to observe the effect of saline water irrigation on the growth and production of vegetables, namely eggplant, pepper, red gourd, bottle gourd and bitter gourd as well as provide an opportunity for income generation. The overall growth and production of the vegetables demonstrated the huge scope for vegetable production in the drylands when using soil, plant and water resources wisely and efficiently. In Cholistan, an average of 350 million cubic meters of rainwater can be harvested and stored in the reservoirs. This quantity of water can be used for growing vegetables on an area of about 0.1 million hectares providing vegetables to the local community – even to cities situated close to the desert. The organic and inorganic fertilizers increased plant growth by providing the correct quantity of nutrients and thus improving soil fertility. Where irrigation is made with saline water the application of fertilizers should improve the plant’s salt tolerance. Irrigation with moderate to high salinity water adds salt to the soil layers. Heavy rains during the monsoon season may flush the salts downward from the plant root zone. The climate of Cholistan in the vicinity of Lal Sohanra Biosphere Reserve is very harsh particularly during the summer months. More water is therefore needed to grow summer vegetables or other crops. Moreover, the climate is more suitable for growing winter vegetables.

I. Introduction

Food shortages in underdeveloped and developing countries are mounting daily due to the escalating population growth. Hyper-arid and arid areas particularly deserts are severely affected by food shortages due to the unavailability of sufficient water to irrigate agricultural crops. The population of Pakistan is increasing faster than its growth in food resources. The per acre crop yield in Pakistan has stagnated for many years (Table 1). About 41 million hectares of land in Pakistan is subjected to an arid climate where rainfall is inadequate to produce food crops. However, short duration crops such as pulses, millet, and cluster beans are grown. The main source of income in the drylands is livestock rearing. In Pakistan, 22 million hectares consists of irrigated and dry agriculture. Dry agriculture farming is also practiced in areas where the average annual rainfall is greater than 200 mm. About 14% of Pakistan consists of desert drylands with the land used mostly for livestock grazing consisting of sheep, goats, cattle, camels and donkeys. The daily consumption of vegetables and fruit is very low and as a result people suffer a deficiency of minerals, vitamins and proteins, which in turn encourages disease. The recommended daily intake of vegetables is between 300–350 grams; in Pakistan this is closer to 100–120 grams.It seems impossible to meet the daily food requirements of the increasing human population if agricultural production does not achieve its full potential. The crop yield can only achieve this if the necessary irrigation water and other inputs are available when required. In addition, there is high water unavailability due to the shortage of water storage

80

reservoirs in the country. More than 50 percent of water comes from monsoon rains and snow melt during the year, which is lost to the sea without its benefits being exploited. Under these circumstances, it is very difficult to produce more food from these areas. Food shortages become severe during periods of no rainfall causing drought conditions. Drylands should therefore be utilized wisely and new income sources should be developed. An integrated farming system could generate a potential income through various means such as livestock, medicinal plants, dry-agriculture, saline-agriculture, vegetable farming and saline fish farming.Water sources in the marginal drylands of Lal Sohanra Biosphere Reserve could be developed for vegetable farming using rainwater harvesting systems and ground saline water. The Pakistan Council for Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) has estimated that 350 million cubic meters of rainwater could be collected annually from the marginal drylands of Cholistan desert for human consumption and vegetable farming.

Production of Grain Crops/Vegetables (Million Tons)

Year Wheat Rice Maize Millet Sorghum Barley Potato VegetablesHuman

Population(Million)

1995 16.9 3.9 1.5 0.20 0.25 0.17 1.1 2.8 -

1996 16.6 4.3 1.5 0.20 0.22 0.15 1.0 2.9 -

1997 18.7 4.3 1.5 0.15 0.23 0.17 1.4 2.9 -

1998 17.8 4.6 1.7 0.21 0.23 0.14 1.8 3.0 134.7

1999 21.1 5.2 1.7 0.21 0.22 0.12 1.9 2.9 137.9

2000 19.0 4.8 1.6 0.16 0.22 0.10 1.7 2.9 140.5

2001 18.23 3.9 1.7 0.20 0.22 0.10 1.7 2.9 143.3

2002 19.20 4.5 1.7 0.20 0.20 0.10 1.9 2.9 145.9

2003 19.5 4.8 1.9 0.27 0.24 0.10 1.9 3.0 148.7

2004 21.6 5.0 2.8 0.20 0.19 0.10 2.1 3.1 151.6

Table 1: Increase In human population and production of various grain crops/vegetables in Pakistan.

II. Objectives

To develop a pilot model for vegetable production in marginal drylands by utilizing local water resources.•To provide an opportunity for income generation in drylands by developing small vegetable farms.•

III. Methodology

The land used to conduct the experiments was selected within the marginal drylands of Lal Sohanra Biosphere Reserve at Dingarh and Naray Wala. For the sake of the experiment, the land was prepared for vegetable cultivation and an irrigation system was set up. The experimental area was also fenced off to protect it against grazing livestock herds. The vegetables were cultivated in March 2006 and included brinjle (eggplant), pepper (red chilies), red gourd, bottle gourd and bitter gourd. Irrigation was supplied immediately after the transplant of the nursery and whenever necessary, depending on soil moisture. A distance of between 3.0–3.5 m was maintained between the beds and 1m between the plants in order to provide space for the plants to spread as well as to distance the fruit from the irrigation water to prevent fruit spoiling. Channels between the beds were created to irrigate the crops. Other preparations such as thinning, hoeing, application of inorganic and inorganic fertilizers, weeding, plant protection against high temperature, hot winds and wind erosion, were carried out depending on the specific requirements of the crops. The quality of irrigation water ranged from moderate to high salinity. The high salinity groundwater (4000 TDS – Total Dissolved Salts) was used for the irrigation of vegetables at the Dingarh site while at the Naray Wala site the moderate salinity groundwater (2000 TDS) was used.Data was collected to observe the effect of the different qualities of water on the growth and production of the vegetables as well as its effect on the soil.

81

The growth parameters were:germination of seeds•survival of plants •height of plants •leaves per plant •canopy cover and weight of fruit per plant •plant branches •girth of plant stems•

The soil profile parameters were: texture •electrical conductivity (EC x 10• 6)

pH •ESP (Exchangeable Sodium Percentages)•

The treatments for moisture conservation experiments were: T• 1 = Irrigated area without any cover. T• 2 = Irrigated area covered with gravel material. T• 3 = Irrigated area covered with grasses. T• 4 = Irrigated area covered with polyethylene. T• 5 = Irrigated area covered with farmyard manure. T• 6 = Irrigated area covered with thermopore grains. T• 7 = Irrigated area mulched by planking.

To ensure representative data each treatment was repeated twice. The moisture percentage of each treatment was recorded at a fixed time to compare the different mulch materials.Other aspects of the experiments included observation of the effect of inorganic NP (Nitrogen-Phosphorus) and FYM (farmyard manure) organic fertilizers on crop growth and yield. The treatments were:

T• 1 = Nitrogen fertilizer application (75 kg per acre or 185 kg per hectare) T• 2 = Nitrogen fertilizer application (100 kg per acre or 250 kg per hectare)T• 3 = Nitrogen fertilizer application (125 kg per acre or 325 kg per hectare)T• 4 = Nitrogen plus phosphorus fertilizer application @ 75 kg nitrogen and 35 kg phosphorus per acre or 185 kg

nitrogen and 82 kg phosphorus per hectare T• 5 = Nitrogen plus phosphorus @ 100 kg and 50 kg respectively per acre or 250 kg and 125 kg per hectareT• 6 = Nitrogen plus phosphorus @ 125 kg and 60 kg respectively per acre or 325 kg and 150 kg per hectareT• 7 = Farm Yard Manure application @ 4000 kg per acre or 10000 kg per hectare

The growth and soil profile data was thus collected. Soil samples were collected for analysis of salinity parameters and to monitor the soil salinity level before and after irrigation.

IV. Results

Germination and survival of vegetable crops with saline water irrigation

The vegetable crops cultivated in March 2006 in the study sites at Naray Wala and Dingarh in Cholistan in the vicinity of Lal Sohanra Biosphere Reserve were red gourd (Petha kadu), bottle gourd (Geia kadu), bitter gourd (Karella), brinjle (eggplant) and pepper (red chillies). The TDS of the irrigation water applied to the vegetable crops at Naray Wala was 2000 ppm (moderate salinity) and 4000 ppm at Dingarh (high salinity). Data on seed germination and plant survival in terms of percentages is given in Table 2. Seed germination among the above mentioned vegetables under T1 conditions range from 69.5% to 75% while seed germination under T2 conditions range from 26.5% to 74.5%. Germination under T1 conditions appeared in the following order from highest to lowest germination i.e. bitter gourd (75%), red gourd (74.5%), pepper (72%), eggplant (70%), and bottle gourd (69.5%), respectively. While germination under T2 conditions was as follows: bottle gourd (85%), red gourd (74.5%), bitter gourd (65.5%), eggplant (34.5%) and pepper (26.5%), respectively. Therefore the overall average germination under T1 conditions is greater than for T2. The germination of eggplant and pepper under T2 conditions was less than 50 %. This could be due to the high salinity of the irrigation water at the Dingarh site (T2), which is double the salinity level at the Naray Wala site (T1). This indicates that eggplant and pepper plants are more sensitive to high salinity than

82

other vegetable crops sown under the same conditions.Plant survival was recorded after a period of one and two months from the time of sowing. The data indicates that survival after one month under T1 conditions range between 0% and 35% and survival under T2 conditions range between 0% and 48.5%. The survival rate dropped to zero in the case of bitter gourd under T1 and in the case of pepper under T2. The overall survival percentage dropped to as much as one third of the total seeds sown. Plant survival at two months remained the same under T1 conditions while in the case of T2 none of the vegetables survived. This may be due to the following main factors:

The vegetables at Dingarh did not tolerate the high salinity of the irrigation water. •During the summer months considerable sand movements, due to wind erosion caused by high speed winds, •

affected the young plants – they were unable to tolerate the pressure of strong hot winds. Despite protection with micro-fences the adverse effect of wind erosion proved to be too severe. This was further compounded by the bare area surrounding the experimental site. The beating action of sand particles was an additional cause of death among young plants.

High day temperatures may have also contributed to the mortality of young plants. The sand becomes very •hot during the day and cool at night as compared to other soil particles i.e. clay and silt. The hot sand particles striking the soft succulent parts eventually destroyed the plants.

High evapotranspiration of plants as well as soil surface evaporation may have also caused plant mortality.•Rapid percolation of irrigation water from the sandy soil at Dingarh led to the rapid loss of soil moisture from •

the root zone of plants. As a result, the low moisture available to the young plants contributed to their mortality.

Growth of vegetables irrigated with moderate and highly saline water

The growth parameters of the vegetable crops were recorded to evaluate the effect of high salinity water irrigation on their growth and production. The data is given in Table 3. The data showed that the growth of vegetables was satisfactory under hard desert climatic conditions and irrigation with saline water. The data for height, girth, branches, leaves, canopy and yield per plant was recorded for red gourd, bottle gourd, eggplant and pepper. Red gourd and bottle gourd obtained a stem girth thickness of 2.5 cm and 2.0 cm respectively. They both had the same number of branches (5) yet there were twice as many leaves in red gourd (110) than in bottle gourd (61). The canopy was 95cm for red gourd and 70.5 cm for bottle gourd while the yield per plant was 2.1 kg and 1.3 kg respectively. The canopy for red gourd was 34.75% more than bottle gourd and yield was almost doubled in the case of red gourd compared to bottle gourd. The data indicates that these crops can be successfully grown, even when irrigated with moderately saline water, to obtain a satisfactory yield that meets the food requirements of the local inhabitants of Cholistan desert. The eggplant (brinjle) and pepper also showed good growth. The eggplant grew to a height of 35cm, girth 2.25cm, 5 branches, 38 leaves, canopy 38 cm and yielded 1.3 kg per plant. Production seems satisfactory considering the harsh desert and the condition of soil and irrigation water. The pepper grew to a height of 26 cm, a girth of 1.2 cm, with 19 branches, 292 leaves, a canopy of 21.5 cm, and yielded 0.16 kg per plant. Pepper growth was also satisfactory. The overall growth and production of vegetables proved that by utilizing soil, plant and water resources wisely and efficiently there exists a wide scope for vegetable production in the drylands. In Cholistan, an average of 350 million cubic meters of rainwater can be harvested and stored in the reservoirs. This quantity of water can be used for growing vegetables in an area of about 0.1 million hectares, which could provide vegetables to the local community and even to cities situated close to the desert.

Germination and survival of vegetables under various mulch materials

Vegetables were sown and irrigated with moderately saline water but various mulch materials were used to conserve soil moisture over a longer period so as to observe their effect on germination and survival. The germination and survival data is given in Table 4. There were seven soil moisture conservation treatments: T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6 and T7. The crops sown were red gourd, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, eggplant and pepper. The data showed that germination of seeds under T1 conditions was 71.5, 77.5, 81.0, 74.5, 74 percent respectively. The germination under T2 conditions was 61.5, 73.0, 74.0, 77.0 and 68 percent respectively. The germination for T3 was 73.5, 77.5, 60, 65, 56 per cent respectively. The germination for T4 was 77, 65.5, 58.5, 65 and 63 respectively. The germination for T5 was 58, 67, 69, 78.5, 69 percent respectively. The germination for T6 was 69, 67.5, 70, 58, 66.5 percent respectively. The treatment for T7 germination was 70, 55.5, 70, 59 and 71.5 percent respectively. The data showed germination to be greatest at T1 with an average for all the vegetables at 75.7 percent. This was followed in second position by germination at T2 with an average of 71.9 percent. Germination at T5 was in third position with 68.2 percent. Germination at T3 was in fourth

83

position with 66.4 percent. T4 was in sixth position with 65.8 percent germination while T7 was in the seventh and last position with 65.2 percent germination. The survival of plants in terms of percentage under the conditions of the seven different treatments after one month is given in Table 4. The data indicates the survival of vegetables after one month to be the following (from a higher to a lower percentage): T7, 15.2%; T6, 14.4%; T5, 14.2%; T2, 13.5%; T1, and T3, 13.3%; and T4, 12.6%. The overall germination was highest with T1 and lowest with T4. The other treatments were between these two values. Germination was influenced by the type of mulch material used to conserve soil moisture. Treatments using more porous mulch materials showed greater germination than less porous materials. This may have provided more favourable conditions for germination thus facilitating respiration, aeration and sunlight etc. In less porous materials conditions were not so favourable for germination, which due to the cover type, may have hindered germination. Survival among the plants increased where the material used was more porous and retained moisture over a longer period thereby providing more favorable conditions. The overall result showed that germination and survival were adversely affected by non-porous coverage. Porous coverage coupled with increased soil moisture obtained better results.The results of vegetables grown under different mulch materials and irrigated with highly saline water at Dingarh are shown in Table 5. Here the experiment involved seven treatments. Germination of vegetables with T4 treatment was greatest at 60% followed by 59%, 58%, 57%, 57%, 56%, and 55% with the other treatments. On the whole, bottle gourd achieved the highest germination under all seven treatments. This was followed by red gourd on the basis of all seven treatments. The third position was held by bitter gourd followed by brinjle in fourth position and pepper in fifth position. Germination depends on many factors but the time of sowing and climatic conditions proved to be the most important factors. Germination was influenced by sowing time, moisture conditions, type of mulch coverage, sunlight, physical conditions of soil etc. The overall germination for spreading-type plants i.e. red gourd, bottle gourd and bitter gourd, which did not grow vertically but spread on the soil surface, was found to be between 65.5% to 86%. The minimum germination was shown to be pepper with T6 at 25.5% and a maximum germination of brinjle with T2 at 36.5%. In case of survival rates, highest survival was 31.2% with T1 and the lowest was 24 % with T6. The other vegetables were situated between these two figures. The survival of bottle gourd was highest in all treatments. Bottle gourd and bitter gourd on average obtained second and third positions for all treatments. Eggplant survival was between 11% and 21% while others ranged between these two figures. The pepper did not survive in the first month. The second month resulted in the mortality of all the plants. The factors may include strong wind erosion, high temperature, low humidity, high rate of evaporation and transpiration, and poor soil physical properties as well as high salinity of irrigation water. All the above mentioned factors contributed to plant mortality.

Growth of vegetables under irrigations of moderately saline water

With reference to Table 6, the red gourd had a stem girth between 1.5 cm and 2.25 cm for all treatments. Greatest girth thickness was observed at T7 and the lowest was at T1. For T3 and T4 treatments this was equal to 2.0 cm, T5 and T6 was equal to 1.75 cm and T2 at 1.7 cm.The number of red gourd branches was between 2 and 5. The number of leaves was between 28 (T5) and 63 (T2). The other vegetables had a number of leaves between the two figures. The highest canopy for red gourd was 113 cm with T2 and the lowest was 32 cm with T5. While in others it was 109 cm with T1, 70 cm with T3, 61 cm with T4, 56 cm with T7, 41 cm with T6 and the yield per plant was between 1.25 kg and 1.80 kg. Bottle gourd growth with the same treatments was almost similar to red gourd with very minor variation. The girth of bottle gourd was between 1.5 cm and 2.0 cm. The number of branches was between 2 and 5; with the number of leaves between 31 and 62. The canopy ranged between 42 cm and 122.5 cm. The yield per plant was between 0.75 kg and 1.7 kg. The bitter gourd did not survive any of the treatments. Growth and germination of brinjle remained satisfactory. Height ranged between 34 cm and 39 cm with a girth between 2 cm and 2.75 cm. The number of branches was between 4 and 9 and the canopy was measured between 34 cm and 51 cm. Brinjal yielded between 0.75 kg and 1.5 kg per plant. The growth of pepper was also satisfactory. Height ranged between 18 cm and 27 cm with a girth between 1 cm and 1.25 cm. The number of branches was between 11 and 25 and the canopy was measured between 17 cm and 21.5 cm. Yield per plant was between 0.13 kg and 0.23 kg per plant. Vegetable production under dryland desert conditions was shown to be less than production observed in canal irrigated areas beyond the desert. This is due to harsh climatic and soil conditions as well as irrigation with moderately saline water. However, the crop production irrigated with saline water conditions was 50 percent less than with crops growth irrigated with good quality water.

84

Moisture percentage under different mulch materials used for soil moisture conservation for growing vegetables

Data for the Naray Wala site is given in Table 7. The data indicated that the moisture retained by the soil (with all treatments) on the fourth day following the first irrigation are as follows, in descending order: T2, 44%; T5, 43%; T4, 43%; T3, 42%; T6, 40%; T1, 36% and T7, 35%. On the fifth day following irrigation, percentage moisture was as follows: T4, 32%; T2, 31%; T5, 31%; T3, 30%; T6, 28%. A second irrigation was applied to treatments T1 and T7 after the fourth day. The percentage moisture following the second irrigation on the fifth day is as follows, in descending order: T2, 32%; T4, 32%; T3, 27%; T6, 27%; T7, 25% and T1, 24%. The data showed that almost all mulch material contributed positively to moisture conservation.

Data for the Dingarh site is given in Table 8. The data indicating percentage moisture (with all treatments) measured on the second day after the first irrigation were as follows, in descending order: T4, 56%; T3, 48%; T2, 45%; T5 and T6, 36%; T7, 23; and T1, 21%. The percentage moisture following the second irrigation on the second day was as follows: T2 and T4, 66%; T3, 63%; T6, 53%; T5, 50%; T7, 45% and T1, 42%. The percentage moisture was measured at the third and fourth irrigation, which was given when soil moisture dropped below 40% to prevent the permanent wilting point from occurring, and were as follows: T4, 78%; T3, 75%; T2, 72%; T5, 52%; T6, 51%; T7, 50% and T1, 47%. The overall data showed that all mulch materials contributed positively to soil moisture conservation positively. The soils at Naray Wala are clay loam to clay; moisture was therefore conserved for four to five days by all the mulch materials. However at Dingarh the soils are mostly sand, therefore soil moisture was conserved for only two days. This also affected vegetable growth. The vegetables grown at Naray Wala survived satisfactorily while at Dingarh all the vegetables died within two months.

Germination and survival of vegetables under organic and inorganic fertilizers and irrigation with moderately saline water

Data for the Naray Wala site is given in Table 9 and the Dingarh site in Table 10. The data in Table 9 showed vegetable germination to be satisfactory. The vegetables were sown and subjected to seven treatments, they include: red gourd, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, eggplant and pepper. Germination under treatment T1 was between 69.5% and 75% for all the vegetables; under treatment T2, between 67% and 82.5%; under treatment T3, between 61.5% and 75%; under treatment T4 between 70% and 84%; under treatment T5 between 55% and 66%; under treatment T6 between 56% to 72.5%; under treatment T7, between 76% and 82%. In terms of successful germination, the descending order of treatments is as follows: T7, T4, T2, T1, T3, T6, and T5. The data indicates that all the fertilizers contributed to an increase in seed germination. The degree of contribution may be due to other various factors. The survival of the vegetables after one month dropped to between 20% and 41.5% except for bitter gourd which did not survive. Survival was highest for red gourd followed by bottle gourd, eggplant and pepper in that order. Seed germination at the Dingarh site was also satisfactory but was not as successful as the Naray Wala site. The descending order of successful germination is as follows: red gourd, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, eggpant and pepper. Plant survival up to one month was between 11.5% and 48.5% except for pepper which did not survive. None of the plants survived the second month. The factors responsible for mortality were wind erosion, high temperature and evaporation, and the poor physical properties of the soil.

Growth of vegetables under application of inorganic fertilizers with irrigation of moderately saline water.

The growth data is given in Table 11. Both red gourd and bottle gourd grew by spreading on the soil surface but did not grow in height. In fact they shared similar growth parameters i.e. girth, branches, leaves, canopy and yield with slight variation. Red gourd yielded between 1.7 kg and 2.2 kg per plant for all the treatments. Bottle gourd yielded between 1.8 kg and 2.4 kg per plant. Eggplant growth was also satisfactory under all the treatments and ranged between 1.0 kg and 1.6 kg per plant. Pepper also showed minor variations in growth with a yield between 0.165 kg and 0.235 per plant. Fertilizers, whether organic or inorganic, contributed to increased growth and plant yield. The plant’s growth parameters clearly showed a difference in treatments with and without fertilizer application. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers increased plant growth by providing an adequate quantity of nutrients and improved soil fertility. Where saline water irrigation is applied fertilizers should be used that improve salt tolerance of plants.

85

Soil analysis before and after sowing crop vegetables

Soil analysis was carried out before and after vegetable sowing with an interval of 15, 30 and 45 days in order to ascertain the effect of irrigation, with moderate and highly saline water, on soil salinity. The soil analysis data is given in Table 12. The soil samples were collected up to depth of 15 cm, 30 cm, 45 cm, 60 cm and 90 cm. Analyses were made after irrigation with saline water for EC x 10-6, pH, and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) to determine changes in these parameters. Analysis of data of the soil parameters before sowing showed that from the soil profile 0–15 cm the EC x 10-6 is 516; at 15–30 cm the EC x 10-6 is 1755; at 30–45 cm the EC x 10-6 is 1705, which is almost equal to the second layer (15–30 cm), at 45–60 cm the EC is less than the half of the third layer (30–45 cm) at 821 while at 60–90 cm the EC is 1129. A soil analysis was subsequently made at intervals of 15, 30 and 45 days after sowing. Analysis showed that the EC increased in the 0–15 cm soil profile by almost 100% i.e. 1231. However, the EC decreased in the second (15–30 cm) and third layer (30–45 cm) i.e. 1171 and 1211 respectively. The EC again increased in the fourth (45–60 cm) and fifth (60–90 cm) soil layer i.e. 1349 and 1565. Analysis at 30 days showed a change in the trend. The EC in the first (0–15 cm) soil layer was slightly reduced i.e. 1204. The EC in the second (15–30 cm) soil layer increased to 1324. In the third (30–45 cm) soil layer the EC was reduced to 1085. The EC was also reduced in the fourth (45–60 cm) and fifth (60–90 cm) soil profile layers. Analysis at 45 days showed an increase in EC for the first (0–15 cm) soil layer. In the second (15–30 cm) layer the EC now decreased to 1184. However, in the third (30–45 cm) soil layer the EC increased to 1170. In the fourth (45–60 cm) layer the EC was further reduced to 992. In the fifth (60–90 cm) soil layer the EC increased slightly. The overall analysis data carried out at four different times at each depth (before sowing, and subsequently at 15, 30 and 45 days) showed EC in the first soil layer had increased by more than 200%. In the second and third soil layer the EC was reduced by about one-third or 33%. In the fourth soil layer the EC increased by about 10%. There was only a slight change in the fifth soil layer. The greatest increase in EC was observed in the first layer. In the second and third layer there was a decrease in EC by about 40% while in the fourth and fifth layer there was only a slight change in EC. The change in the first layer can be attributed to the addition of salts due to decreased leaching with irrigation water. Change is least in all the other layers as there was greater leaching than the first layer. However, analysis indicates the addition of salts due to irrigation with saline water.The soil analysis data for the Naray Wala site is also given in part 2 of Table 12. The analysis of soil samples before sowing indicated that the soil in the experiment area was made up of clay loam to a depth of 0–30 cm. At a depth of 30–90cm the soil had a clay texture. The ECx10-6 from 0–15m was 1400 and at a depth of 15–30 cm the EC measured 1500. The EC at a depth 30–90 cm was between 500 and 800. Intervals at 15, 30 and 45 days after sowing indicated that ECx10-6 increased in all the soil layers after 15 days (1200–1800), 30 days (1900–3900), and 45 days (2100–4000).The pH ranges between 7.7 and 7.9 in all the soil profile layers from 0–90 cm. The pH also increased after 15 days (7.8– 8.2), 30 days (8.1–8.3) and 45 days (7.9–8.4). The ESP ranged between 4.5% and 7.0% at a soil depth 0–90 cm before sowing. The ESP also increased after 15 days (7.5–9.6), 30 days (10.8–12.4) and 45 days (12.2–14). The data showed that irrigation water at moderate to high salinity add salt to the soil profile. Therefore, heavy rains during the monsoon may flush salts downward into the plant root zone.

86

Table 2: Germination and survival of vegetables with irrigation of moderate and highly saline waters (%)

Germination

Vegetable T1 T2

Red gourd 74.5 74.5

Bottle gourd 69.5 85.0

Bitter gourd 75.0 65.5

Eggplant (brinjal) 70.0 34.5

Pepper 72.0 26.5

Survival after one month

Vegetable T1 T2

Red gourd 35.0 47.0Bottle gourd 28.5 48.5Bitter gourd 00 40.5Eggplant (brinjal) 33.0 19.0Pepper 30.5 00

Survival after two months

Vegetable T1 T2

Red gourd 35.0 00

Bottle gourd 28.5 00

Bitter gourd 00 00

Eggplant (brinjal) 33 00

Table 3: Growth of vegetables with Irrigation of moderate and high salinity groundwater

Treatment 1

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 2.5 5 110 95 2.1

Bottle gourd - 2.0 5 61 70.5 1.3

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant 35 2.25 4.5 38 38 1.3

pepper 26 1.2 18.5 292 21.5 0.16

Treatment 2

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant

Red gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00

Bottle gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00

Bitter gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00

Eggplant (brinjal) 00 00 00 00 00 00

Pepper 00 00 00 00 00 00

* T1 Moderately saline water ** T2 Highly saline water

87

Table 4: Germination and survival of vegetable crops under different mulch materials used for moisture conservation at Naray Wala irrigated with moderate salinity waters (%)

Germination

Vegetable T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 71.5 61.5 73.5 77.0 58.0 69.0 70.0Bottle gourd 77.5 73.0 77.5 65.5 67.0 67.5 55.5

Bitter gourd 81.0 74.0 60.0 58.5 69.0 70.0 70.0

Eggplant (brinjal) 74.5 77.0 65.0 65.0 78.5 58.0 59.0

Pepper 74.0 68.0 56.0 63.0 69.0 66.5 71.5

Average 75.7 71.9 66.4 65.8 68.2 66.1 65.2

Survival after one month

Vegetable T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 17.0 12.0 16.5 18.0 16.5 23.5 21.5Bottle gourd 14.5 16.5 17.5 14.5 12.5 13.0 17.0

Bitter gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Eggplant (brinjal) 14.5 18.5 13.0 13.0 20.0 14.5 15.0

Pepper 20.5 20.5 19.5 17.5 22.0 21.0 22.5

Average 13.3 13.5 13.3 12.6 14.2 14.4 15.2

Table 5: Germination and survival of vegetable crops under different mulch materials used for moisture conservation irrigated with high salinity water at Dingarh (%)

Vegetable Germination %

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 74.5 73.5 70.0 80.5 73.5 68.5 73.5

Bottle gourd 85.0 86.0 80.0 85.0 81.0 86.0 85.5

Bitter gourd 65.5 70.5 78.0 72.5 69.0 67.5 73.5

Eggplant (brinjal) 34.5 36.5 28.5 32.0 29.0 27.5 29.5

Pepper 26.5 29.0 29.5 29.0 26.5 25.5 30.0

Average 57.2 59.1 57.2 59.8 55.8 55.0 58.4

Vegetable Survival % after one month

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 47.5 45.0 47.5 52.5 45.0 36.0 49.0

Bottle gourd 48.5 32.5 41.0 44.5 47.5 39.0 32.5

Bitter gourd 41.0 38.5 37.0 32.5 41.5 31.5 42.0

Eggplant (brinjal) 19.0 21.0 15.0 17.0 16.0 13.5 11.0

Pepper 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Average 31.2 27.2 28.1 29.3 30.0 24.0 26.9

88

Vegetable Survival % after two months

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Bottle gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Bitter gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Eggplant (brinjal) 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Pepper 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Table 6: Growth of vegetable crops under different mulch materials used for moisture conservation irrigated with moderately saline water at Naray Wala

Treatment 1

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 1.5 4.5 61.5 109 1.5

Bottle gourd - 2.0 5 61 70.5 1.35

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 35 2.25 4.5 38 38.5 1.30

Pepper 26.5 1.25 18.5 292 21.5 0.160

Treatment 2

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 1.7 4.5 63 113 1.30

Bottle gourd - 1.5 2.5 35 44.5 1.60

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 23 2.75 4 29 34.5 1.250

Pepper 18 1.0 11.5 178 17.5 0.130

Treatment 3

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 2.0 2.0 39 70 1.30

Bottle gourd - 2.0 1.5 49.5 122.5 1.40

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 33.5 2.25 9.0 46 47.5 1.48

Pepper 23.5 1.25 25.0 254 21.0 0.185

89

Treatment 4

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 2.0 3.0 41.0 61 1.25

Bottle gourd - 2.0 2.0 38 95 1.70

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 37 2.25 5.5 38.5 43.5 0.750

Pepper 26 1.25 20.5 223 21.0 0.20

Treatment 5

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 1.75 2.5 28.5 32.5 1.60

Bottle gourd - 2.0 2.0 31.0 42.0 0.750

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 34 2.25 5.5 41 50.5 1.5

Pepper 24 1.25 15 168 20.5 0.180

Treatment 6

VegetableHeight (cm) Girth (cm)

No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 1.75 2.5 37 41.5 1.80

Bottle gourd - 2.0 2.5 48.5 52.0 1.60

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 39 2.0 5.5 39.5 40.0 1.60

Pepper 18.5 1.5 12.5 147.5 20.0 0.230

Treatment 7

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 2.25 3.0 37.5 56.0 1.25

Bottle gourd - 1.5 2.5 49.5 58.5 0.750

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 38.0 2.75 7.5 46.5 41.5 1.0

Pepper 26 1.25 17 206 17 0.210

90

Table 7: Moisture conserved by different mulch materials after each irrigation applied to the vegetable crops at Naray Wala

Treatment 1st irrigation 2nd irrigation 3rd irrigation

Soil moisture on daily basis till next irrigation

Soil moisture on daily basis till next irrigation

Soil moisture on daily basis till next irrigation

Moisture retained (%)

Moisture loss (%)

Moisture retained (%)

Moisture loss (%)

Moisture retained (%)

Moisture loss (%)

T1

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 21 79 42 58 47 53

3rd day - - - - 13 34

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T2

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 45 55 66 34 72 28

3rd day - - 34 32 34 38

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T3

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 48 52 63 37 75 25

3rd day - - 35 28 32 43

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T4

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 56 44 66 34 78 22

3rd day - - 31 35 38 40

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T5

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 36 64 50 50 52 48

3rd day - - 18 32 24 28

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T6

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 36 64 53 47 51 49

3rd day - - 9 34 - -

91

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T7

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 23 77 45 55 50 50

3rd day - - - - 16 34

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

Table 8: Moisture conserved by different mulch materials after each irrigation applied to the vegetable crops at Dingarh

Treatment 1st irrigation 2nd irrigation 3rd irrigationSoil moisture on daily basis till next irrigation

Soil moisture on daily basis till next irrigation

Soil moisture on daily basis till next irrigation

Moisture retained (%)

Moisture loss (%)

Moisture retained (%)

Moisture loss (%)

Moisture retained (%)

Moisture loss (%)

T1

2nd day 21 79 42 58 47 53

3rd day - - - - 13 34

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T2

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 45 55 66 34 72 28

3rd day - - 34 32 34 38

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T3

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 48 52 63 37 75 25

3rd day - - 35 28 32 43

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T4

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 56 44 66 34 78 22

3rd day - - 31 35 38 40

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

92

T5

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 36 64 50 50 52 48

3rd day - - 18 32 24 28

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T6

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 36 64 53 47 51 49

3rd day - - 9 34 - -

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

T7

1st day 100 - 100 - 100 -

2nd day 23 77 45 55 50 50

3rd day - - - - 16 34

4th day - - - - - -

5th day - - - - - -

Table 9: Germination and survival of vegetable crops using organic and inorganic fertilizers irrigated with moderately saline water at Naray Wala (%)

Germination

Vegetable T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 74.5 77.5 68.5 70.0 58.5 63.5 80.0

Bottle gourd 69.5 73.0 71.0 84.0 65.5 70.5 78.5

Bitter gourd 75.0 82.5 75.0 80.0 65.0 72.5 77.5

Eggplant (brinjal) 70.0 67.0 61.5 75.0 55.0 56.0 82.0

Pepper 72.0 67.5 67.5 81.0 66.0 61.0 76.0

Survival after one month

Vegetable T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 36.5 37.0 31.0 41.5 23.0 25.5 41.5

Bottle gourd 28.5 28.5 23.5 39.5 23.5 24.0 41.0

Bitter gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Eggplant (brinjal) 33.0 30.5 24.0 40.5 22.5 28.5 39.0

Pepper 30.5 34.0 24.5 36.0 20.5 20.0 35.0

93

Table 10: Germination and survival Of Vegetable Crops using Organic And Inorganic Fertilizers Irrigated With Highly Saline Water At Dingarh (%)

Germination

Vegetable T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 73.5 77.0 78.0 71.0 74.5 76.0 80.5

Bottle gourd 80.0 74.5 69.0 77.5 69.0 72.0 73.0

Bitter gourd 72.5 69.0 72.0 76.5 76.5 72.5 70.5

Eggplant (brinjal) 38.0 35.0 33.0 31.5 31.5 28.5 31.5

Pepper 26.5 30.0 33.0 28.5 27.5 27.5 28.5

Survival after one month

Vegetable T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 41.0 52.0 40.0 35.0 47.0 47.0 44.5

Bottle gourd 48.5 43.0 39.5 42.0 33.0 37.0 43.0

Bitter gourd 33.5 33.5 26.5 27.5 31.5 28.0 31.5

Eggplant (brinjal) 20.0 22.0 18.0 18.0 11.5 11.5 13.0

Pepper 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Survival after two months

Vegetable T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Red gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Bottle gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Bitter gourd 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Eggplant (brinjal) 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Pepper 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

Table 11: Growth of vegetable crops using organic and inorganic fertilizers irrigated with moderately saline water at Naray Wala (%)

Treatment 1

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 2.5 5.0 110 95.0 2.1

Bottle gourd - 1.5 5.0 112.5 95.0 1.9

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 32.5 1.5 6.5 68 41.5 1.0

Pepper 22.5 1.0 16.5 335 18.5 0.190

94

Treatment 2

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 1.5 4.5 106.5 95.0 1.90

Bottle gourd - 2.5 5.5 117.5 122.5 2.1

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 34 1.5 5.5 60 47.5 1.20

Pepper 21.0 1.0 17.5 295 20.0 0.165

Treatment 3

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 1.5 6.5 130 100.0 2.20

Bottle gourd - 2.5 4.5 99 109.5 2.1

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 32.5 1.25 8.5 65 51.5 1.0

Pepper 21.0 1.5 29.0 295 25.5 0.195

Treatment 4

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 2.0 5.5 106.0 117.5 1.70

Bottle gourd - 1.5 3.5 107.5 130.0 2.4

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 42.5 1.70 9.5 82.5 55.0 1.25

Pepper 24.5 1.50 27.5 270 28.5 0.235

Treatment 5

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 2.5 4.0 106.0 90.0 1.70

Bottle gourd - 2.0 2.5 92.5 109.0 1.80

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 40.0 1.5 12.0 85 58.0 1.25

Pepper 21.5 1.0 25.5 295 20.5 0.235

Treatment 6

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 1.75 4.0 125.0 112.5 2.20

Bottle gourd - 2.0 3.0 115.0 109.0 1.90

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 43.5 1.70 12.0 89.0 55.0 1.1

Pepper 19.5 1.20 23.0 287.5 18.5 0.205

95

Treatment 7

VegetableHeight (cm)

Girth (cm)No. of branches

No. of leaves

Canopy (cm)

Yield (Kg per plant)

Red gourd - 1.5 5.5 115.0 130.0 2.20

Bottle gourd - 2.0 5.0 120.0 123.0 1.80

Bitter gourd - - - - - -

Eggplant (brinjal) 45.5 1.5 14.0 106 56.5 1.60

Pepper 25.0 1.5 24.0 302.5 24.0 0.185

Table 12: Soil analysis before and after sowing the vegetable crops with an interval of 15, 30 and 45 days.

DINGARH (i)

Soil profile depth (cm)

Soil Texture

ECx106

Before sowing the

crop

After sowing the crop

15 days 30 days 45 days

15 Sand 516 1231 1204 1314

30 Sand 1755 1171 1324 1184

45 Sand 1705 1211 1085 1170

60 Sand 821 1349 1175 992

90 Sand 1129 1565 1100 1139

(ii)

Soil profile depth (cm)

Soil Texture

pHBefore

sowing the crop

After sowing the crop

15 days 30 days 45 days

15 Sand 7.6 7.9 7.8 7.7

30 Sand 7.6 8.0 7.6 7.5

45 Sand 7.62 8.0 7.8 7.3

60 Sand 7.8 8.1 7.7 7.1

90 Sand 7.85 8.0 7.7 7.2

(iii)

Soil profile depth (cm)

Soil Texture

ESPBefore

sowing the crop

After sowing the crop

15 days 30 days 45 days

15 Sand 5.0 9.8 7.4 7.2230 Sand 11.4 7.6 7.4 7.145 Sand 11.3 6.95 5.6 6.1360 Sand 3.2 11.2 7.13 5.290 Sand 5.3 11.1 7.16 6.8

96

Part 2: Soil analysis before and after sowing the vegetable crops with an interval of 15, 30 and 45 days.

NARAY WALA (i)

Soil profile depth (cm)

Soil Texture

ECx106

Before sowing the

crop

After sowing the crop

15 days 30 days 45 days

15 Clay loam 1400 1450 1900 2600

30 Clay loam 1500 1800 2800 2800

45 Clay 800 1700 3900 4000

60 Clay 600 1200 2100 2200

90 Clay 500 1200 1900 2100(ii)

Soil profile depth (cm)

Soil Texture

pH

Before sowing the

crop

After sowing the crop

15 days 30 days 45 days

15 Clay loam 7.7 7.8 8.1 7.9

30 Clay 7.8 7.9 8.1 8.4

45 Clay 7.9 7.8 8.1 8.3

60 Clay 7.8 8.1 8.3 8.3

90 Clay 7.7 8.2 8.2 8.2(iii)

Soil profile depth (cm)

Soil Texture

ESP

Before sowing the

crop

After sowing the crop

15 days 30 days 45 days

15 Clay loam 6.4 8.4 11.4 13.3

30 Clay loam 7.0 9.6 10.8 12.2

45 Clay 4.5 7.4 11.2 13.8

60 Clay 6.0 9.3 12.4 14.0

90 Clay 4.8 7.5 12.0 13.0

V. Conclusions

The climate in Cholistan, close to Lal Sohanra Biosphere Reserve, is very harsh particularly during the summer •months. The winds cause severe erosion, with air temperatures above 50°C high evaporation, high transpiration and low rainfall occurs. Because of these factors plant growth cannot be assured and plant mortality is high. More water is needed for growing summer vegetables or other corps. However, the climate is more suitable for growing winter vegetables or other crops.

Fertile and well-drained land should be selected for cultivating vegetables or crops. Loamy soils are more •suitable for growing vegetables.

The land should not be saline or saline sodic if growing vegetables that are sensitive to salinity.•The land should be well permeable and well drained and have a low salt concentration i.e. sodium. •The rainwater collected in the Cholistan reservoirs is best used for growing all types of vegetables on non-•

saline and non-sodic soils with good permeability and drainage.

97

With good soil management practices the groundwater of marginal quality could be used for growing summer •and winter vegetables in the Cholistan desert. The soil should be very well drained when using such irrigation water. Salt tolerant vegetables should also be selected.

Moderate to highly saline water could also be used for growing more salt tolerant vegetables on excessively •drained and fertile lands and where wind erosion is not a serious problem.

Water management practices should be adopted when saline waters are used for irrigation i.e. by adding •manures, fertilizers, planting vegetables on ridges, beds etc.

Mulch material should be used to conserve and prolong soil moisture, which helps produce better vegetable •crops.

The application of inorganic fertilizers increases seed germination, plant survival, improves growth and good •plant yield.

VI. Project benefits

The technology established through the SUMAMAD project for saline fisheries and vegetable production is becoming popular among the local farmers. More than one hundred local dryland farmers gathered at the SUMAMAD seminar/workshop organized at Dingarh Cholistan desert. The farmers were convinced of the project’s results to grow vegetables using small scale saline water irrigation for their domestic use and at a larger scale for income generation at suitable sites where irrigation water facilities are available or can be made easily available. The SUMAMAD experiments have created excitement among the Cholistani community and it is hoped that they will be provide the much needed breakthrough in terms of income generation for the dryland farmers in the near future.

VII. Recommendations

Select areas with a mild climate where crops and plants are to be cultivated or planted.•Fertile and well drained soils should be selected for vegetable cultivation.•Loamy well drained soils should be used for vegetable cultivation.•Barren lands prepared for cultivation should first become grasslands for one or two years to help make the •

soil porous and well permeable before vegetable cultivation.Vegetables should not be sown where irrigation water is of good quality and on excessively percolated soil, •

however vegetables are more suitable for growth on excessively drained soils and where irrigation water is saline.Adding organic manure to the soil improves soil fertility and nutrient concentration. Inorganic fertilizers should •

also be used to provide nutrients to the plants.The land should be well prepared before vegetable or plant cultivation, as is required.•Irrigation water should preferably be good quality whether it comes from the river, canal, groundwater, or •

rainwater collected in the reservoirs or conserved in the soil through different operations or mulches.If good quality water is unavailable then marginal quality water should be used on well drained soils.•If marginal water is also unavailable then moderately saline water should be used for growing vegetables or •

plants on excessively drained soils; salt tolerant plants or vegetables should be selected.If moderately saline water is unavailable then highly saline water on deep excessively drained soils should be •

used; select highly salt tolerant crops, plants or trees.When moderate to high salinity water has to be used then soil management practices may be adopted to •

reduce the effect of saline water on the growth i.e. use organic and inorganic fertilizers plantation on ridges, beds etc.

Inorganic fertilizers should be used to increase vegetable growth and production i.e. phosphorus and •nitrogenous fertilizer.

In order to reduce the quantity of irrigation water needed soil moisture should be conserved by using mulches •of different types.

A maximum quantity of rainwater should be harvested and stored to cultivate precious vegetables.•All farmers should grow vegetables for their domestic use by planting summer and winter vegetables. The •

manual irrigation could come from the tobas.Farmers should continue their tradition of growing vegetables for domestic use, which will improve their food •

sources and supply proteins, vitamins and carbohydrate-rich food to their families to maintain good health.

98

References

Akram, M., Abdullah, M., Khan, W.A. and Sheikh, B.A. 1997. Management strategies for water resources development in Cholistan desert for human, livestock and small scale agriculture. In: Proceedings of the International symposium on Water for the 21st Century: Demand, supply, development and socio-environmental issues. 17–19 June, 1997, Lahore, Pakistan.

Akram, M. 1999. Management of desert water resources for sustainable use. Case study - Cholistan desert. In: Proceedings of the workshop on Promoting Best Practices in the Conservation, Management and sustainable use of water resources in the South. 27–28 Nov. 1999 at Trieste, Italy. pp.45–54.

Akram, M., Abdullah, M. and Majeed, A. 1991. Role of surface and ground saline water for agriculture development in Cholistan deser. In: Proceedings of the National Seminar of the People’s participation in the management of resources in arid lands. 11–13 Nov. 1990 Bahawalpur, Pakistan. pp. 53–60.

Akram, M.,Abdullah, M. 1990.Wind erosion and sand dune stabilization in the Cholistan desert. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on applied soil physics in stress environments. 22–26 Jan. 1989. PARC, Islamabad, Pakistan. pp. 323–334.

Akram, M., Malik, M.K., Khan, W.A., Sheikh, B.A. and Khan, A.D. 1996. Transformation of sand dunes in to forest and grassland. A Geographical case study of Cholistan desert. Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. Vol.15, No.2, pp.27–38, Islamia University, Bahawalpur, Pakistan.

Akram, M and Chandio, B.A, 1997. Conjunctive use of rainwater and saline groundwater for desertification control in Pakistan through agro-forestry and range management. In: Proceedings of the Desert Technology IV, International Conference, Kalgoorlie Western Australia.

Hussain, A. 1978. Vegetables of Punjab. Amir Printers, Lahore pp.1–224.

99

The Khanasser Valley Integrated Research Site – Progress Report 2006

R. Thomas, F. Turkelboom, A, Bruggeman, H. Dessougi, E. Luijendijk, & S. Wahiba, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria

I. Introduction

Activities in 2006 focused on a Participatory Learning and Action Research (PLAR) approach, continued analyses of the groundwater resources via a modelling approach and dialogue with national policy makers. Details of these and the biophysical and socio-economic context of the research site are reported elsewhere (Thomas et al., 2004, 2006).

II. Description of activities

National workshop on marginal drylands in Syria

Following the series of national workshops held in previous years sponsored by the SUMAMAD project, a meeting was organized on January 22, 2006, with the Head of the State Planning Commission of Syria to discuss the results of the KVIRS study and its implications for similar marginal zones in Syria and elsewhere. Around 40 participants drawn from the research organizations and relevant government ministries such as agriculture, water and irrigation, rural development, reviewed the results of the project. It was emphasized that the KVIRS represents the marginal dryland or Zone 4 of the Syrian classification system, i.e., marginal land for cropping. This zone covers around 11% of Syria’s land area and houses 2 million people or 14% of the population, most of whom are poor. Rather than dwell on the limitations of the zone, the positive aspects were highlighted as indicated in Table 1:

Biophysical:• Relativelyunpollutedenvironment.• Lowerriskforcropandanimaldiseases• Lowinputofpesticides.• Specificbiodiversity.• Ecologicalhotspots(e.g.Jabbul• saltlake).

Socio-economic:• Indigenousknowledgeandlocalinnovations.• Relativecheaplandandlabour.• Someinvestmentsfromoff-farmincomeinto

productive resources. • Improvedaccesstoeducation.• Presenceofsocialnetworks.• Cultureheritage.

Market:• Improvedmarketknowledgeviamobile

phones and other media. • Reasonablemobility.• Accessiblemarkets(somewhat• remote,butnottoofarfrom• urbanmarkets).

Institutional:•Improvedbasicservices(electricity,roads,mobilephone network). Increased government attention for poverty alleviation and environment.

Table 1. The comparative advantages of Zone 4.

The following range of options were presented and discussed based on on-going research.Options that strengthen the traditional farming system:

Extensive sheep production and technologies to improve animal productivity.•New barley varieties selected through a farmer-participatory approach.•Wheat production with supplemental sprinkler and surface irrigation to improve water productivity.•Dairy production from sheep for household consumption and sale of surplus.•

100

Diversification options: Drought-tolerant vetch varieties to expand cultivation and minimize production risks.•Improved management of rainfed cumin (a new cash crop) to increase production and price.•Olive orchards cultivated on hill foot slopes, with water harvesting, to increase production and reduce need for •

groundwater irrigation.Barley intercrop with Atriplex shrubs to stabilize forage production and enhance protein content in sheep diets•Application of phosphogypsum to improve soil fertility, increase and stabilize barley production in dry years.•

Intensifaction options: fattening with lower-cost feeds.•

These options were discussed in terms of the possible future livelihood trends and anticipated development pathways that include the intensification and diversification of agricultural enterprises, the temporary out-migration of workers for income generation, permanent migration or exit from agriculture. The meeting concluded that the zone is worthy of increased attention because of the large population numbers with high densities of poverty and that scenarios should be built that include economic, environmental, social, institutional and policy options based on a long-term vision.Any development strategy for this zone and similar areas in the drylands should consider the multi-functionality of such zones that include agricultural production, social dimensions, environmental services and the need to combat land degradation.A positive output of the meeting was the recognition by the government ministries of the potential of these areas and a commitment to replicate the study in 3–4 areas with different socio-economic contexts.

Progress on Objective 2. Identification of practices for sustainable soil and water conserva-tion with local communities

Participatory Learning and Action Research approach (PLAR) for monitoring nutrient flows and the development of integrated soil-fertility management practices at the household level.

Before the beginning of the cropping season 05/06, the PLAR team visited the farmers of the selected village and the new season’s planning maps were discussed. Different strategies for improving their soil fertility, which had been tested during the 2004/05 cropping season, were reviewed (Thomas, et al., 2005). Farmers expressed their interest in improved rotations using vetch (Vicia sativa. L.), and the planting of a food legume e.g. lentil. In addition the farmers opted to continue experimenting with the improved cereal varieties. This resulted in the following agreed activities for the 2005/06 season:

Rotation experiments of vetch and lentil with barley • (Hordeum vulgare L.).Experiments to select new improved cereal and legume cultivars: farmers tested different barley varieties in •

comparison to the local variety and 2 improved lentil varieties.

As in the previous planting season 04/05 (Thomas et. al., 2005), all experiments were conducted by farmers using their own management strategies under the supervision of the PLAR team.

Results and Discussion

Rotational experiments

The average yield of barley after vetch was comparable or slightly higher to that obtained before incorporating the vetch (1.1 and 0.9 t/ha grain and straw and 1.05 and 0.9 t/ha, respectively) under medium and good fertility management conditions. The average yield of barley after vetch plus added animal manure (20 m3) was only 50% (1.8 and 0.4 t/h grain and straw, respectively) that of barley with animal manure only, which yielded 2.8 and 1.0 t/ha of grain and straw. This indicates that further research is needed on the effects of animal manure and vetch on cereal yields in the rotation. Soil analysis showed no differences in nitrogen concentrations in the soil before and after vetch as would be expected after one growing season. In general, the participating farmers, as well as over 50% of the households in the community, who have adopted the planting of vetch in rotation with barley and/or wheat, expressed their satisfaction with this strategy because it restores or builds the soil fertility (which is a slow process) and at the same time provides the farmers with additional income by selling the vetch seed, i.e. it combines long term soil fertility maintenance and build up and provides short term increases in income. Improved barley and lentil varieties

101

The average grain yield of the local barley variety was 1.05 ton/ha and average straw yield of 0.9 t/ha under medium soil fertility management classes and 2.8 t/ha grain and 1 t/ha straw under good fertility management as compared to the introduced varieties Zanbaka and Tadmour with an average grain yield of 0.9 t/ha and straw yield of 1 t/ha and 0.62 t/ha grain and 0.8 t/ha straw, under good and medium fertility management. The farmers again opted for the local barley variety indicating that it is superior in terms of adaptability to their conditions, needs less inputs and the fact that the local variety yields more grain than the improved ones. However, one of the farmers expressed his interest to continue testing with other new cultivars and comparing to the local barley variety.The yields of both improved and local lentil varieties were severely affected by a phase of hot temperatures during the flowering stage. However, the improved lentil variety (Idlib 3) had a higher grain and straw yield of 0.4 and 1.3 t/ha, respectively, as compared to the local variety with 0.1 and 1 t/ha of grain and straw, respectively, under good fertility management conditions and 0.04 and 0.6 t/ha of grain and straw, respectively, under medium fertility management. The farmers were enthusiastic for the new improved variety but suggested planting it again in the new cropping season in order to assess its full potential under their conditions.However seed production is a problem. The PLAR test farmers kept the seeds from the harvest for the new season 2006/07 and agreed to consider the possibility of providing other interested farmers with some of the improved lentil variety seeds, under the condition that the same amount of the improved seed should be given back to them at harvest time.

Nutrient flow analysis

To be able to analyse the nutrient status at community level as affected by the land use systems, fertility management level and environmental conditions, a large scale study needs to be conducted. The PLAR nutrient flow questionnaire was modified and data is being collected from 140 farmers from 10 different villages representing all land use systems and all rainfall zones. The analysis of this data is pending and will give an idea about the nutrient status and the factors affecting it under dryland conditions.

Use of animal manure in home gardens

With regard to the study investigating the use of animal manure in home gardens (Thomas et. al., 2005), the MSc. student has finished with the first pot experiment in the glasshouse at ICARDA to study the effect of different rates of manure on tomato growth and yield of irrigated tomato. Soil from the participating farmer’s field was analysed and collected for pot experiments under controlled conditions. The soil was sieved and put in the pots and then mixed with sheep manure at rates equivalent to 0; 10; 20; 40; 60; 80; and 100 t/ha (treatments M0; M1; M2; M3; M4; M5; M6, respectively). In addition, there was a fertilizer treatment of added NPK. The seeds were germinated and 1 month old seedlings were transplanted to the pots with each treatment being replicated 4 times. The experiment was harvested after 4 months and soil and plant nutrient contents were analysed. To determine the most appropriate rates for using sheep manure on tomato plants in home gardens in rural societies under field conditions, the same experiment was conducted in the field. The experiment was harvested after 6 months.

Chemical analysis of soil and plant samples is pending

Results

Generally, the results have shown that at low levels of manure application from treatments M1 to M4 there were no differences in dry weights of the shoot, roots or nutrient contents of the plants as compared to the control at 0 t/ha (Figs. 1; 2a and 2b; 3a and 3b). The results showed that with about 80 t/ha (M5) the plants had their highest yields both above and below the ground and had highest uptake nutrient content (Figs. 1, 2, 3). MP4 and MP6 shoot and root dry weights were comparable to the optimum NPK dose but, with regard to nutrient concentration the MP6 treatment produced highest nutrient concentrations. Thus it can be concluded that the optimum amount of sheep manure for growing tomato is 80 to 100 t/ha. On completition of chemical analysis, the data from the field experiment will also be analysed and the results compared to those from the pot experiment, and a final conclusion can be draw

102

8.99

14.64

22.47

45.9744.57

48.2

32.93 34.62

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

M0 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 NPK

Fertilization

Dry Weight ( g )

Fig. 1 Shoot dry weight of tomato plants as affected by different levels sf sheep manure and inorganic fertilization

Figure 1. Shoot dry weight of tomato plants as affected by different levels of sheep manure and inorganic fertilization

The project activities have mainly helped the farming communities that are part of the Participatory and Learning Action Research and made researchers realize that farmers can undertake experimentation when motivated other than through financial incentives. The gains in productivity and income generation remain a main driving force for farmer participation but along side this is an increasing awareness that soil fertility can be built up and land degradation can be reversed.Farmers have agreed to continue the experimentation in future growing seasons but will need to be supported by the PLAR team. In this respect it is too early to determine if there will be ‘sustainability’.

8.0607.548

16.668

7.2507.973

5.520

4.548

1.803

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

M0 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 NPK

fertilization

Dry weight ( g )

Fig. 2 Root dry weight of tomato plants as affected by different levels of sheep manure and inorganic fertilization

Figure 2a. Root dry weight of tomato plants as affected by different levels of sheep manure and inorganic fertilization

103

26.189

50.36956.442

77.73764.525

115.009111.522

95.108

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8fertilization

Root length (m)

Fig. 2a Root length of tomato plants as affected by different levels of sheep manure and inorganic fertilization

Figure 2b. Root length of tomato plants as affected by different levels of sheep manure and inorganic fertilization

-0.2000

0.0000

0.2000

0.4000

0.6000

0.8000

1.0000

1.2000

1.4000

1.6000

1.8000

2.0000

Mo M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 NPK

Fertilization

g/g

N

P

K

Fig 3: N , P and K uptake of tomato plants as affected by different levels of sheep manure and inorganic fertilization

Figure 3a. N, P and K uptake of tomato plants as affected by different levels of sheep manure and inorganic fertilization

104

-0.01

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

Mo M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 NPK

fertilization

g/g

Zn

Mn

Cu

Fe

B

Fig 3a: Zn , Mn , Cu , Fe and B uptake of tomato plants as affected by different levels of sheep manure and inorganic fertilization

Figure 3b. Zn, Mn, Cu, Fe and B uptake of tomato plants as affected by different levels of sheep manure and inorg

Numerical modeling to estimate sustainable groundwater use rates for the Khanasser Valley

In dryland areas such as Khanasser Valley access to groundwater can help stabilize rainfed crop production. But groundwater is often also the only drinking water source for rural families and their livestock. With the rural population in the valley doubling in size during the last three decades, the stress on this resource has been enormous. On the other hand, due to the low rainfall and high evaporation rates in this environment, little water replenishes the aquifers. Isotope analysis in Khanasser Valley indicated that some of the water being pumped today was recharged more than 3,000 years ago. Current day recharge mainly takes place in the basalt covered plateaus of the Jabal Al-Hass and Jabal Shbayth hill ranges that border the valley. Remains of four ancient qanats, slightly sloping underground tunnels that have been dug into the hillsides to let the groundwater flow out in to the valley, have been found in the Khanasser Valley area. Two of these qanats dried up in the 1970s when motorized pumping started, whereas two others had collapsed much earlier. A fifth qanat located in the undisturbed valley of Shallalah Saghirah is still in use today.To improve our understanding of the dynamics of the groundwater system in the Khanasser Valley and the reaction of this system to external influences, such as pumping, a numerical flow model (MODFLOW-2000) was used. The model was calibrated to match groundwater levels and flow observations taken in the 1970s, prior to the development of the groundwater resources in the valley, supplemented by a number of recent observations from locations where groundwater levels were not likely to have been substantially affected by pumping. Parameter uncertainty was taken into account by calibration of the model for a range of recharge values. The optimum calibrated parameters gave an average recharge over the study area of 1.0% of the long term average annual precipitation, with an uncertainty range of 0.24% to 2.4%.Simulation of the impact of present pumping rates (1.3 ×106 m3yr-1) indicated that these pumping rates would cause an inflow of water from the Jabbul Sabkhah (saline depression) after 15 to 62 years of pumping, and should, therefore, be considered unsustainable. An example of the change of flow volumes over time following the initiation of pumping is presented in Figure 4. Initially, pumping is mainly compensated by a decrease of the water stored in the aquifer. In a later stage the system stabilizes. The change in storage slows down, and evapotranspiration and outflow into Jabbul Sabkhah are both reduced, as compared to the initial steady-state situation. The slight decrease of pumping in the first 150 years is caused by the drying up of a number of wells. Simulation of the current climate scenario indicated that the groundwater levels are much more vulnerable to changes in pumping rates than to droughts. The groundwater level changes in a 30 year simulation generally remained within a range of 0.4 m. Water level declines were mainly confined to the basalt plateaus. Testing of sustainable scenarios indicated that a uniform redistribution of the production wells, in which each village was assigned one well, resulted in higher sustainable pumping rates than could be obtained by the current production wells. Estimated sustainable pumping volumes per village were within the range of 800 to 29,740 m3 yr-1.

105

Year after start of pumping

0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Flux (million m

3 per year)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

RechargeInflow from Sabkhah Jabbul Storage changePumpingEvapotranspiration and qanat outflowOutflow to Sabkhah Jabbul

Figure 4. Example of simulated changes in flow volumes over time as a response to current pumping rates.

III. Conclusions

The national workshop was successfully used to present the overall project results and possibilities to high level policy makers within the Syrian government. The project team will work together with relevant ministry staff to develop a new development project for international funding.The PLAR approach has proved to be very successful in understanding production constraints and farmers’ concepts and ideas with regard to appropriate soil fertility management. The approach also has provided satisfactory strategies for soil fertility management which are being adopted by the PLAR farmers as well as other farmers not involved directly in the approach.Lessons learned from the approach shows farmer to farmer communication and demonstration is one of the most convenient methods for disseminating good technology and this has helped us in introducing the vetch to a large number of farmers who are now using the vetch without any interference from the PLAR team. Modelling of groundwater use rates indicate that excess pumping from wells is more of a threat to supplies than unpredictable droughts and that it is possible to set targets for water extraction that will not jeopardise long-term sustainability. The MSc. student will continue working with field experiments to study the effect of water shortage on tomato growth and yield when manure is applied; effect of manure on tomato plants at the different growth stages, and on the physical and chemical properties of the soil, and the trade-offs of manure uses.

106

IV. Draft workplan for 2007

Continuation of glasshouse and field studies on the use of organic nutrient resources for tomatoes. (income •generation)

Completion of a M.Sc. thesis. (training)•Continuation of farmer selected interventions in crop rotations. (soil and water conservation practices and •

income generation).National workshop or planning meeting (communication with policy makers).•

References

Thomas, R., Turkelboom, F., La Rovere, R., Oweis, T., Bruggeman, A. and Aw-Hassan, A. 2004. Towards integrated natural resources management (INRM) in dry areas subject to land degradation: the example of the Khanasser valley in Syria. UNESCO-MAB Drylands Series No. 3. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands, Shiraz, Islamic Republic of Iran, 29 Nov–2 Dec., 2003. pp. 80–93, UNESCO, Paris.

Thomas, R.J., Bruggeman, A., El Dessougi, H., Luijendijk, E., Turkelboom and LaRovere, R., 2005. Sustainable management of marginal drylands: the Khanasser valley integrated research site in Syria. In: Proceedings of the Third Project Workshop, Djerba, Tunisia 11–15 December, 2004. pp. 137–148, UNESCO, Paris.

Thomas, R. J., Bruggeman, A., El-Dessougi, H., Luijendijk, E., Turkelboom, F. 2006. Sustainable management of marginal drylands – the Khanasser Valley Integrated Research Site in Syria. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Project Workshop held in Islamabad, Pakistan, 27–31 Jan., 2006. pp. 121–134, UNESCO, Paris.

107

Watershed of Zeuss-Koutine2006 report & outline of activities 2007

Mohamed Ouessar, Houcine Taamallah, Azaiez Ouled Belgacem, Mongi Sghaier & Houcine Khatteli, Institut des Régions Arides, Médenine, Tunisia

I. Research activities 2006

The research activities have focused on:Soil, water and rangeland management•Socio-economic aspects, and•Income generation.•

Water harvesting and flooding risks

Introduction

One of the roles assigned to the soil and water conservation work is the attenuation of risks in flooding in urban areas.

Methodology

This concerned an investigation into the roles of water and soil conservations in the Oued Hajar catchment on the risk of flooding in the town of Médenine.

Use was made of:historical rainfall and flood records (1969–2003);•field surveys conducted with GPS and GIS;•the 38 questionnaires and interviews of farmers and riverside inhabitants.•

Results

The water harvesting techniques retained an important volume of the runoff.•The spreading systems play an important role in deviating large quantities of runoff from the main wadi.•

Evaluation of water-harvesting structures

Introduction

An evaluation of the water-harvesting structures would help decision makers in allocating resources for the construction and maintenance of these structures. This section discusses the development and application of an evaluation tool which allows for the assessment of the structural effectiveness of three of the most commonly used water-harvesting structures in southern Tunisia, namely the jessour, tabias and gabion check dams.

Methodology

An evaluation tool of water harvesting structures was developed following a similar procedure conducted by Bracmort (2004) in the evaluation of best management practices in the Black Creek watershed in Indiana, USA. The tool requires that the evaluator(s) rate the characteristics of the structure through physical inspection and compute an overall score of its condition. The evaluation tool includes:

1. Introduction of the evaluation form.2. Description of the structures to be evaluated.

108

3. List of materials needed4. Instructions on the use of the tools that include: a. quantitative code description for the different structure characteristics; b. computation of the overall score of the structural condition based on the quantitative code data above.5. Guide for the selection of the quantitative code described above6. Actual evaluation data sheet and criteria used for evaluating the final condition score.

A sample of practices along the wadi Hallouf within the wadi Oum Zessar watershed was evaluated using the evaluation tool. A total of 12 structures (4 tabias, 4 jessour and 4 gabion check dams) were conducted.

Results

Five of the twelve practices were in good condition while the others were in fair condition. It is possible that the presence of a recharge well influenced the condition score for the gabion check dams. Of the three structure types, jessour were found to be in better condition than tabias and gabion check dams while tabias were in the worst condition.

Program 2007

Due to the long functional life of the water-harvesting structures and the lack of pre-designed parameters the structures were evaluated by physical inspection of vital characteristics and not by comparison to design measurements as any hydraulic structures need to be designed before construction. However, for the long term evaluation, we need to assess the current functionality of the structure mainly with regard to runoff harvesting, crop production and groundwater recharge. The condition scores provide the present-day level of functionality of the structures. However, more research is needed to analyze the robustness, repeatability and validity of the evaluation tool. Additionally, more structures should be evaluated using the developed method to allow for comparisons between the functionality of the varying types of water-harvesting structures. An extension of the evaluation tool could involve using the functionality condition scores to determine the impact of water-harvesting structures in hydrological models i.e. a higher functionality represents a greater impact and therefore effectiveness.

Exploitation of the olive waste water ‘margine’

Introduction

Because of the harmful effects of margine on the environment (pollution, biotope destruction, etc) and the corrosion and blockages of sewage pipes, the disposal of margine in the public wastewater discharge network or in nature (water courses, etc.) is strictly prohibited and owners of olive mills are required to store it in individual or grouped ponds (ONAS, Office National de l’Assainissement, 1997). However, this is only a temporary solution when considering the increased production of margine and the risks of infiltration. Alternative solutions are: direct spreading on the olive groves or as a stabilizing material in the grazing lands to control wind erosion.

Methodology

This work is in fact a continuation of an on-going program conducted by IRA and IO (Institut de l’Olivier). The trials consist of spreading margine in the areas between the rows of olive trees. In addition to the control plot, three plots with different application doses were considered: 50, 100 and 200 m3 per ha. The cropping operations are similarly maintained on all plots. Each plot covers an area of 1 ha in the Office des Terres Domaniales (OTD) farm of Chammakh (Zarzis). The following various impacts are being monitored:

Chemical properties of the soil: pH, electric conductivity, organic matter, cation exchange capacity, N, P, K.•Soil physical properties: infiltration, aggregation, water retention, available water. •Natural plants: density, cover, diversity.•

In addition, 3 plots in the rangelands near IRA’s headquarters were set up and studied in 2005. The objective is to assess the extent at which margine could be used for improving the structural stability and the vegetation cover of the grazing lands, and particularly, wind erosion control.

109

Results

The experimental set up is being monitored and the results will be presented in 2007.

Rangeland rehabilitation techniques and their impacts on natural vegetation dynamics

Introduction

Since the 1950’s cropping was extended and traditional grazing systems (transhumance and nomadism), which had historically allowed for grazing deferment and control of grazing livestock, were abandoned. Almost all rangelands in pre-Saharan Tunisia (mean annual rainfall 100–200 mm) are now grazed continuously without any restriction on stocking rate. Such changes have led to deterioration in rangeland condition. The soil degradation and the loss of palatable perennial species are two of the direct results of the recent anthropic pressure on arid rangelands of Tunisia. Several attempts have been made to restore and rehabilitate degraded rangelands in the arid zone of Tunisia with exotic herbaceous species and shrubs. All these efforts however have largely failed due to the inability of the introduced species to adapt to the ecological constraints of the region. The objective is to determine the effects of restoration/rehabilitation operations, undertaken by the development agencies, on natural vegetation of the study area – the Jeffara region.

Methodology

The experiment was conducted in the sandy steppes (dominated by Rhanterium suaveolens when the steppe is in good condition) on different sites of the study area. It involved four different treatments: overgrazed areas, fallows, protected areas (restoration) and rehabilitated areas (planted with shrubs). Soil surface states, plant cover, species composition, flora diversity as well as range value and grazing capacity of the studied sites are determined using the point-quadrats method. Measurements are taken during the spring.

Mode Code

Post-cropping parcels (0-5 years) rk1

Post-cropping parcels (5-10 years) rk2

Post-cropping parcels (10-20 years) rk3

Degraded rangelands by overgrazing RK1

Fairly degraded rangelands by overgrazing RK2

Long term closed rangelands RK3

Sidi Toui National park Park

Table 1. Different rangeland management methods.

Results

The main results are presented in the Figures 1 and 2.

110

4.58.5

11.5

5.89

17.5

23.4

50

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

rk1 rk2 rk3 RK1 RK2 RK3 Parc

Mode de gestion

Taux de recouvrement (%)

Figure 1. Vegetation cover and management type.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

rk1 rk2 rk3 RK1 RK2 RK3 ParcMode de gestion

Fréquence spécifique (%)

R. suaveolens S. lagascae A. armatus A. campestris

Figure 2. Species frequency and management type.

The following observations were noted:the invasion of abandoned fallow parcels by • A. campestris, depending on the period of abandonment; the invasion of overgrazed rangelands by • A. armatus;in the absence of disturbance, • R. suaveolens dominates the vegetation cover; Stipa has completely disappeared because of cropping; its presence in RK1 is proof of its resistance to •

overgrazing.

111

Program 2007

Continuation of vegetation monitoring.•Measurements of plant cover parameters.•Data analysis.•

Socio-economic: Elaboration of the local action plan for combating desertification and development in the region of Béni Khédache

Introduction

Within the framework of the implementation of the UNCCD, the national action plan for combating desertification, and a request formulated by local actors, the SUMAMAD team partly assisted in the elaboration of the local action plan to combat desertification and development of the region of Béni Khédache. This was lead by the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development and supported by GTZ.

Methodology

This was based on a participatory approach and conducted in two main phases:Phase 1: Bio-physical and socio-economic synthesis: involved the inventory of all available documentation and additionally a series of meetings and surveys with the assistance of the local population and other local partners involved in the process (agriculture, environment, infrastructures, tourism, culture, etc), Phase 2: Elaboration of the local action plan for combating desertification and development: the plan was prepared by the working team (agriculture, environment, SUMAMAD team, GTZ) and debated in open meetings with the local population and key partners. The final plan was approved following numerous discussions and debates and was sent to the Ministry to seek funding from the national budget and/or other funding agencies.

Results

The plan consisted of:Biophysical characteristics.•Socio-economic characteristics.•Infrastructures.•Main development problematics.•Action plan for combating desertification and local development: agriculture, soil and water conservation, sand •

fixation, rangelands and livestock, non agriculture income generation activities, infrastructures, and institutions.

Program 2007

Assist in the implementation of the local action plan for combating desertification and local development in •Béni Khédache.

Contribute to the transfer of the approach to the other regions (Sabria oasis and Chareb watershed - province •of Kebili).

Income generation

Introduction

Following the study on the potential of income generation activities conducted in 2005 as well as the recommendations of the national workshop in the same year, the SUMAMAD project assisted two local NGOs in implementing common income generation activities.

Methodology

The idea was first developed by the AAMTT (Association des Amis de la Mémoire de la Terre de Tataouine) of Tataouine. It consists of exploitating sand originating from the erg (large sand sea dunes) in order to produce handicrafts with the use of simple techniques.

112

A member of AAMTT (Mr Marino Zecchini) volunteered to train 10 teachers at the Centre for the Mentally Handicapped of Médenine. Three sessions were organized to introduce the technique and to perform practical applications. Teachers later took over to successfully teach and train the students using the same technique.

Results

The teachers quickly understood the technique and it was clear that they later began to innovate. Together with their students they produced a variety of erg sand based handicrafts which were sold to visitors to the centre. A 10-minute film summarizing the main steps of the process is being prepared and will soon be available online.

Program 2006

Based on the 2005 study, the transfer of the experience to other partner NGOs will be explored.

II. Outreach activities

Capacity building

The SUMAMAD team assisted in the training of 12 NGO members (including our partners) on the elaboration •and implementation of combating desertification projects at IRA’s headquarters on 26 June –1 July 2006.

Training on GIS and RS was organized at IRA’s headquarters during the period 11–14 September 2006. It was •attended by 5 technicians and engineers from our main partner, the Regional Department of Agriculture (CRDA) in Médenine. The program was entirely practical and mainly covered: * routine and advanced applications of GIS ArcView; * basic image satellite image processing; * preliminary applications on the Agriculture Map (Carte Agricole) package.

Communication and exchanges

Dr Mongi Sghaier and Mr Mohamed Rahmani (Head of CRDA) participated at the international conference •on Water and Poverty organized by CIHEAM (Centre International des Hautes Etudes Agronomiques Méditeranéennes) in Cairo (Egypt) during 6–10 February 2006.

Some team members of the project (Khatteli, Rahmani, Sghaier, Ouessar, Fetoui, Boufelgha, Zammouri, Abed) •actively participated in the elaboration of the local plan to combat desertification and for development (PAL-LCD) in the region of Béni Khédache, which covers a large area of the study watershed. It was monitored by the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development with the assistance of the German Cooperation Agency (GTZ).

Most of the team members attended the IYDD ‘Future of Drylands’ international conference from 19–21 June •2006 in Tunis, Tunisia.

Association des Jeunes de Zammour (AJZ) organized a one day workshop on the occasion of the international •day of desertification (17 June 2006).

Mr M. Ouessar and H. Taamallah undertook a scientific visit to the Department of Soil Care and Management •at the University of Ghent from 15 August–30 September 2006.

National seminar

All the national partners and the local authorities were invited to attend the national seminar held at IRA on 22 September 2006. The state of progress of all the activities were presented and discussed:

General progress of the activities (Khatteli/Rahmani)•Rangeland management (Ouled Belgacem)•Use of margine (Taamallah/Abichou)•Soil & water conservation rapid assessement (Boufelgha/Ouerchefani/Ouessar)•Water harvesting and flood control (Chniter/Ouessar/Zerrim)•Socioeconomic and income generation (Sghaier) •Erg sand for income generation: From idea to application (Belhédi/Marino)•

The proposed planning for the subsequent year 2007 was subsequently debated.

113

III. Discussion

The main beneficiaries of the project activities can be grouped into three main categories:Research• : includes the IRA’s team and colleagues from the Institut d’Olivier. This group is backed by the

University of Ghent, Belgium, (Prof. Gabriels).Development• : concerns the regional department of the Ministry of Agriculture (CRDA). Three main sections

are involved: soil and water conservation (Médenine), water resources (Médenine), extension (Béni Khédahce).Local communities• : 6 NGOs have been involved with a main focus on income generation activities and local

development.

Progress towards the SUMAMAD project objectives:Based on the SUMAMAD assessment methodology (Adeel and King, 2004), it was very difficult to apply this •

methodology to the progress made on annual activities. We do recommend carrying out the exercise for the final report.

Evaluation of the sustainability of the activities during the timeframe of the project and beyond:The project is building on already on-going activities of other programs supported by national and other •

international agencies. Most of the activities are embedded in the short and long term strategies of the partners involved.•

IV. Conclusions

The project succeeded in:getting two NGOs to work together for the benefit of a group with special needs – the handicapped;•actively involving the team in the planning of a strategic local program to combat desertification.•

Overall lessons learned regarding the use of participatory research methods in drylands include:the mobilization and involvement of local actors (NGOs);•the effective contribution of SUMAMAD in local development and natural resources management, and •

combating desertification;the training of partners in the participative approach. •

Transferable lessons from sites on improved management approaches and livelihoods include:local action plans to combat desertification and development;•intra NGOs capacity development;•some research results (watershed management, land cover regeneration, soil amendment). •

V. Finance report

According to the agreement made between the Director General of IRA and the Director General of ICARDA, the funds are administered by ICARDA’s regional office for North Africa based in Tunis.

VI. Budget breakdown

The budget breakdown of the year 2007 is given in the following table:

Item Cost (US$)

Labor 2000

Consumables 2000

Workshops/Trainings/Seminars 4000

National workshop 2000

Miscellaneous and management 2000

Total 12000

Table 2.

114

VII. Planning 2007

The outline of the general planning of the year 2007 is summarized in the following table:

Action Activities Period (2007)

Patners

Practices for soil conservation- Use of margine (olive waste water) for soil stabilization

Feb – JunIRA, CRDA, UG

Practices for water management

- Inventory and analysis of groundwater recharge techniques.- Improved design. - Water desalination in the Dhahar of Béni Khédache.

Mar – JulIRA, CRDA, UG

Practices for rangeland management

- Assessment of rangeland rehabilitation techniques Mar – Jul IRA, CRDA

Agro-socio-economicsMulticriteria analysis and multiobjective programming for optimal natural resources allocation.

Mar – AugIRA, CRDA, NGOs

Income generating activities in the region

- Extending the experience on ‘Erg sand dune’ to other NGOs.- Assistance of the partner NGOs in implementing income generation related activities: ecotourism, medicinal and herbal plants, handicraft, etc.

Mar – Aug IRA, NGOs

Capacity building- Training of representatives of CRDA - Training of representatives of the NGOs - Training of the researchers/technicians of IRA

To be defined later

National seminar

- Discussion of the implemented activities.- Preparation of the results to be presented in the final international workshop.- Planning of the activities of the future activities (if project is extended).

Sept

IRA, CRDA , NGOs, local authorities

Annual international workshop- Presentation of the activities progress and planning for the subsequent year

Nov

Table 3.

115

SUMAMAD self evaluation and recommendations

Self evaluation Recommendations

It is rather difficult to tackle integrated aspects with limited resources

Scale down the scope of interventions

Not very clear focus on specifics objectives resulting in patchy actions

More focus on specific objectives and actions

Heavy management proceduresReduce the number of meetings to free some resources for actions

No application of common methodology for all sites Better harmonization of the actions in the intervention sites

Relatively excessive reliance on other projects/programs

Reduce the degree of reliance on other projects

Very low synergies with other sitesProvide more resources for exchanges between the teams/sites

Table 4. Tunisian research site self-evaluation

Team

Research sub-team:

Houcine KHATTELI Desertification DG of IRA Mohamed OUESSAR Water harvesting IRA, CoordinatorHoucine TAAMALLAH Soil Science IRAMongi SGHAIER Agro-socio-economy IRAAzaiez OULED BELGACEM Ecology and pasture IRADalel OUERCHEFANI Remote Sensing IRANihaya OUNALLI Agro-economy IRAMondher FETOUI Agro-economy IRAFethi ABDELLI SWC/GIS IRAHanen DHAOU Bioclimatology IRAAmmar ZERRIM RS/GIS IRAMohamed TARHOUNI Ecology IRA

With the active collaboration of:

Development sub-team:Mohamed RAHMANI Agro-economy Head of CRDA-MédenineMohamed BOUFELGHA SWC CRDA-MédenineHoucine YAHYAOUI Hydrogeology CRDA-MédenineMongi CHNITER SWC CRDA-Médenine

NGO sub-team:Ahmed EL ABED APB - Béni KhédacheFadhel LAFFET ASNAPED - TataouineFaical ZAMMOURI AJZ - Béni KhédacheHabib BELHEDI AAMTT – TataouineMarino Zecchini AAMTT – TataouineMohamed DABBABI ADD - MédenineHoucine TAAMALLAH UTAIM - Médenine

116

GIS/RS Application for Primary Plant Productivity and Resource Management Mappingin the Rangelands of Karnab Chul, Uzbekistan

Muhtor Nasyrov, Samarkand State University, Uzbekistan

I. Introduction

Drylands harbor spectacular resources, plant and animal life, hidden springs and large aquifers, solar and wind energy, open horizons and natural beauty. Using these resources in a sustainable manner can provide innovative sources of revenue for dryland residents bringing with it a measure of economic stability and a secure livelihood. Drylands are fortunate to have an abundance of solar radiation and free, open spaces for its absorption – prerequisites for the development of solar energy. International and national research programs are dedicated to developing solar radiation as an energy source for local and regional consumption and export. This technology can provide a viable economic enterprise that does not jeopardize natural resources.Every part of the country has suffered biodiversity loss and the disappearance of precious biogenetic resources. Biosphere reserves promote indigenous agriculture, paternalism, ecotourism and ensures that nature conservation is compatible with sustainable development. Of the 447,400 km² of Uzbekistan, some 225,000 km² is used as rangelands and pastures for goat, horse and camel breeding as well as the karakul sheep industry producing the famous ‘Astrakhan’ pelts. These rangelands are rich in medicinal and industrial plants and represent a ‘hot spot’ for the conservation of unique flora and fauna.

Figure 1. Map of Karnab Chul

117

However, vegetation on these lands is under pressure due to an increasing need for food and feed. Overgrazing and uprooting of shrubs for fuel wood in particular are threatening the precious biodiversity found in these lands, and the livelihoods of the people who live there. There is no single indicator of dryland degradation or an approach to assess and study it. Land degradation has many facets (driving forces as well as symptoms) and can only be assessed and understood through multidisciplinary study of the changing characteristics and integrated trends of a variety of biological, agricultural, physical and socio-economic indicators over a long time period and at a variety of scales. With changes in farming systems, intensification of cereal cropping, abandonment of orchards and tree crop production as well as increased pressure on pasture areas, the region is at risk of losing its terrestrial species and wild relatives of crop plants. The germplasm base from these Republics contained in global collections is limited and there is concern for the viability of germplasm held in these collections. The region also includes a large diversity of livestock breeds. Based on data from on-going activities, it is apparent that this diversity is under threat as a result of the large decline in livestock populations and the collapse of breeding schemes following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Historical information on the research and development operations undertaken within and adjacent to the project area that extend beyond the immediate past is invaluable. The outcomes, successes or failures, and lessons learned from these activities is fundamental to the formulation of development options.

II. Environmental data collection

Assessment work on the status of the natural resources of the study area was begun in late 2005 and was finalized in 2006. A detailed electronic database on soil, climate, flora and fauna as well as socio-economic parameters was also prepared. This primary environmental data is of enormous value. It can subsequently be aggregated into distribution maps, provide a retrospective viewpoint of the status and distribution of natural resources and, after precise analysis, can be projected onto a larger area with differing environmental conditions and at various climate change scenarios. Advanced techniques for carrying out these types of analyses are available using, for instance, ESRI (Environmental System Research Institute) and ENVI (Remote Sensing Software Institute) products. Both companies provided a consultancy service to initiate product use. Several layers of environmental information were integrated into the principal data frame. This framework consists of the following parts:

Climate•Soil (agrochemical, agro physical, biological characteristics)•Biomass monitoring (mean monthly, palatable, unpalatable)•Land/use land cover change•Land use change and socio-economics •Integration and syntheses•

Assessment of climate over time, in an historic and modern time perspective, has an extremely important value for comparison with indicators of degradation. A climate database was prepared using climatological data from Uzbek Meteorological Organization obtained from several stations in the vicinity over a period from 1948 to 2006. This long term database includes several climatic parameters such as:

precipitation (quantity, interannual variability, mean monthly, seasonal distribution, numbers of days with snow, •temperature);

temperature (min, max, mean daily, monthly etc); •wind (speed, direction); •radiation (net, photosynthetic active, duration of sunshine); relative humidity.•

This climatic information is a principal source for ecosystem and environmental modeling and is valuable for forecasting the rainfall-biomass relationship. On the basis of this relationship, it will be possible to identify potential grazing sites and estimate the amount of forage that will be produced following rainfall. In addition to data from the regional meteorological service we have installed two automatic recording mini-meteorological stations in the study area to obtain real-time data, such as rainfall, temperature and wind speed. Preliminary analysis of climatic data from 1948 up to 2006 shows a steady temperature increase of 0.6°C during the last 60 years. This increase is mainly due to an increase in the minimal monthly temperature and reveals that winter in the study region is becoming warmer with vegetation cover having a shorter dormancy period. Due to this phenomenon the phenology of the dominant plant species has shifted to the period during which rainfall does not occur, as it is well known that precipitation is a main predictor of biomass production. Consequently, only warmer temperatures with a certain amount of precipitation can provide higher biomass production

118

During summer 2006 twelve researchers received hands-on specialized training on GIS and RS (remote sensing) using ESRI and ENVI products. The ESRI (Germany) representative, Martin Kullmann, spent two months in Samarkand. During the training researchers were acquainted with the theoretical principals and the practical application aspects of GIS and RS. The ESRI representative certified the best students as resource persons for further projects. Data from meteorological stations is a valuable source for calculating several vegetation indices using satellite images such as NDVI, EVI, and VPM. These indexes indicate the current status of vegetation cover. Several satellite images (Landsat, Ikonos, Resource) were processed and used to calculate environmental parameters. On the basis of these indicators or indexes a map of seasonal biomass productivity is planned, which can be used for managing optimal grazing strategy in the research area that can later be applied to other similar areas.

Figure 2. General view of rangelands

The main vegetation is composed of different species, but the ephemeral Artemesia vegetation type is often dominant. The vegetation cover consists of various shrub-ephemeral plant communities. The sub-dominant species are: Carex pachystylis, Poa bulbosa, Gamanthus gamocarpus and Climocaptera lanata.The fodder production of such rangelands ranges from 0.15 t/ha to 0.36 t/ha of dry matter. The list of main plants and their utilization purpose is shown in Table 1. Unfortunately, the area is currently heavily uprooted for fuel wood, and with excessive and permanent grazing the rangeland is likely to disappear. Monthly biomass measurements are taken and compared with satellite data calculation. Dominant plant species were separated as palatable and unpalatable in order to calculate the seasonal fodder reserves in the study area. These observations showed that plants from sites with high grazing intensity were completely different to the plants from low intensity grazed areas. In fact their dimensions (height, diameter, projective cover) were much lower in the high grazed area compared to the low grazed area yet the number of plants per hectare was greater. All field measurements and observation were for the most part conducted near deep-water wells. The coordinates of twelve deep-water wells were recorded by GPS for further georeferencing. These wells were considered as principal points for all related measurements. The area surrounding each well displayed a concentric contour of degradation. The coordinates for all the contours at the different stages of degradation were recorded. On the basis of this data, the area of degradation (lower, moderate and severe) can be calculated. The long-term observation of biomass production showed a decline in the productivity of dominant plants over the last

119

two seasons. This can be attributed to the increasing total number of domestic animals per grazing area. Farmers are keen to keep animals for fattening and karakul pelts are still not in high demand. Therefore, an increased number of animals have a negative effect on vegetation cover dynamics.

Genus and species

Family Uzbek name Plant form Use

Amigdalus nana Rosacea Bodom Small tree Fuel wood and nuts

Artemisia diffusa Compositae Shouvok Shrub (10-30 cm)Summer and fall grazing/wood

Ziziphora tenior Labiatae Kiik ut Annual medicinal Medicinal/tea

Cousinia resinosa Compositae Karrak Annual thistle winter feed

Poa bulbosa Gramineae Konghur bosh Perennial grassWinter and spring grazing

Carex pachystylis Cyperaciae Rangue Perennial -

Alhagy pseudoalhagy

LeguminosaeYantak Shrab winter feed

Ferula assa-foetida Umbreliferae Kavrak Annual winter feed

Peganum harmala Zygophyllaceae Hazorispan or isfant Perennial poisonous Fumigation

Iris songarica Lilliaceae - Perennial poisonous -

Haloxilon aphyllum Chenopodiaceae Saxaul Tree Fuel wood/grazing

Aegelops truinciallis Gramineae - Annual grass Grazing

Acantophyllum borszczowii

Caryophyllaceae - Perennial

Ceratocarpus arenarius

Chenopodiaceae

Tortulla desertorum - - moss

Scabiosa oliveri Dispsacaciae - Annual

Salsola praecox Chenopodiaceae - Annual

Diarthon vesiculosum

Thymeilaeceae - Annual

Table 1. The list of main plants and their utilization purpose. Artemisia diffusa is dominant of cover vegetation of this territory, and Carex

pachistilis dominated at ephemeral and ephemeroidal sinuses. These plants also formed the main vegetative cover of rangelands.

A comparison of ground measurements of biomass production with satellite data calculations showed a close positive correlation in terms of seasonal trend and demonstrates the great potential for remote sensing techniques in the future. This approach can provide valuable information over a large area in a comparatively short period of time.The soil data collection group gathered information on the current status of related soils. The soil cores were taken from different sites that describe agrochemical, agro physical and biological features. The 137Cs tracer technique was used to calculate land degradation due to the deflation process. Soil samples were taken according to a procedure developed by Prof. D. Walling. The main part of this technique consists of describing the distribution of 137Cs along a

120

soil profile in comparatively different landscapes or degraded areas. The profile of 137Cs content data can be used as important input data for two models i.e. USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation) and RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation). These models are used to calculate degradation due to deflation in a given region. A large database on 137Cs was prepared under the guidance of Prof. D. Walling (University of Exeter, Exeter, UK) during his mission to the research area. He also provided brief training on soil sampling and analysis, and statistical processing of the obtained data. The data will also be used as a layer towards the proposed electronic atlas of the Karnap Chul area. The populations of arid fodder plants (about 25 species) from Chenopodiaceous, Fabaceae, Compositae, and Graminae families, distributed in the Uzbek territory, and patterns of perennial Atriplexes obtained from Syria and Tunisia, were used to prepare transplants. Laboratory investigations on the collected seed quality are on-going at the greenhouse facilities of Samarkand University as well as on-farm conditions. The revegetalization of saline and degraded lands requires a preliminary preparation of the soil, an improvement in the hydrological conditions and careful plant selection. In a special training/demonstration workshop farmers were introduced to simple techniques for revegetation by transplants. The main emphasis was placed on choosing simple, affordable and low cost techniques for such work. A special demonstration plot was established as a research station for the environmental testing of promising fodder plant varieties.

Figure 3. Figure 4.

Figure 5.

121

The most valuable technique for shrub establishment and rehabilitation of the rangelands of the Karnab Chul region appears to be the reseeding of native range species and the creation of artificial photocomposes. Some benefits can be obtained through range improvement by the creation of pastoral shelters, windbreaks and tree belts of Haloxylon spp., Calligonum spp., Pinus eldarica and other tree-like species used for erosion control and the reclamation of severely disturbed sites. Due to low seed germination and/or damage of seedlings at an early stage of root fixing, it would be reasonable to apply the vegetative method for reproduction with the subsequent transplantation of seedlings to degraded sites. Further study will result in the production of detailed maps of the natural resource base in similar areas and beyond. Landsat images and intensive ground-truthing on vegetation and soil are being combined with topographic maps to provide detailed resource characterization at scales appropriate for practical range management decisions.

III. Socio-economic data collection

Socio-economic data collection is an integral component in assessing the productivity, efficiency and feasibility of improved production and resource management options, and in identifying potential constraints to their adoption by smallholders. These assessments can detect changes in land resources policies, population pressure and socio-economic status, over historic and current time, for comparative analysis with indicators of land degradation.Socio-economic information consists of the following:

Family composition and structure: the composition of the family, identifying those members who are involved •in livestock production and whether any are involved in outside income-earning activities.

Livestock ownership. •Grazing rights and land tenure conditions. •Tax and government quota commitments. •Income and priority of use of any surplus cash. •Attitudes to livestock and elements of the landscape, particularly those that preclude use. •Perception of the condition and trend of the livestock and grassland resources. •Ideas of practicable development opportunities and how they might be implemented.•

Some of the data were compiled on a long-term basis so as to compare trends over recent years. The trend observed in terms of socio-economic information mainly occurred due to changes in the environment and society. The climate change phenomenon has two dimensions – natural and anthropogenic – as seen elsewhere. However, in the case of Karnab Chul we note a large proportion of anthropogenic factors, compared to natural factors, responsible for climate change compared to other regions. We should also point out that the decline of production systems in the study area could be attributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union. These factors combine to cause a decline in total productivity over the last few decades.Initial data processing showed a positive increase in the number of small ruminant animals during the last two–three years. The total number of animals increased up to 65,000 in 2005 compared to 40,000 in 2002. This increase in the number of animals is in addition to the increasing number of flocks in a given area. It is an Uzbek tradition for fathers to split their flock when their sons establish their own families. For example, if a father has five sons and possesses one flock of 100 animals, he will split his flock among his sons resulting in five flocks each with twenty animals. Unfortunately, the small number of animals per flock as well as the large number of flocks has a negative effect on the grazing strategy in the region. The farmers still have little or no idea about the marketing, processing and trading of pelts. They prefer to keep lambs for fattening and only value adult animals. These animals are seen as a form of deposit and can be cashed at any time or bartered in exchange for other home use products. Consequently, the total number of animals has increased with its associated pressure on natural resources.Another step could involve an investigation into the increasing number of animals in a herd in order to ascertain the optimal grazing strategy. Smaller herds mean greater potential to share and utilize the scarce rangeland resources. The farmers could also manage alternative income generating activities.During socio-economic data collection the situation of the animals near the twelve deep-water wells was monitored. It was noted that the animals were directed to the wells once during the day and returned to graze after noon. In this way all the herds were able to complete grazing. Information on the main migration routes will be used to construct an optimal migration strategy for animals in the region.The structure of herds has also changed due to the increase in the number of goats. Some farmers prefer to keep a greater number of goats in the harsh area than sheep. Data was recorded on the situation of animals based on ownership. We obtained information on 60 farmers in the study area. The size of the farms varied both in numbers

122

and structure. Some farmers have more than 1,000 collectively owned animals (i.e. farmers take care of animals owned by their brothers, uncles and friends for a fee) and some have only 200 animals. The structure of the flocks was also different in terms of composition and the ratio between rams/ewes. Additional information on each animal type (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.), and the age and sex composition of each herd and flock was recorded. This constitutes historical livestock population statistics representing many years. All information was entered into Excel format for further analysis. Socio-economic data collection also included information on family composition and structure as well as identifying those members involved in both livestock production and other income-earning activities. Adult family members were often externally employed, mainly in towns and cities, spending most summers working to make money. The other family members continue to work locally.

IV. Income generating activities

This is an integral part of the project and is the most interesting, where the potential of all the family members can be realized. Various income generating activities help realize the unique potential of dryland areas. This may include: processing different by-products, field activities, manufacture of handy-crafts etc. Furthermore, it is considered as an integral part of community management somewhere between the rational utilization of natural resources and housekeeping in its largest sense.The majority of activities focus on women and children possessing the appropriate skills. In 2006 an analysis was attempted to determine the current situation of female employment and to identify job opportunities. Women working at home are able to supervise their children and their education. Children who do not receive this attention tend not to receive adequate care.Keeping this in mind, small-scale carpet production was introduced for women and practiced at home in front of family members – also to demonstrate their skills to the wider community. The small-scale carpets are in great demand from local and foreign tourists and can replace the huge market of large-scale carpets in the tourist markets. After initial work we selected two pilot sites for this activity – one in a densely populated area and the other in a remote area. The active members underwent professional training before beginning their activities. This activity can also solve the many problems associated with the marketing of wool. For many years this particular product provided an additional income but as the quality diminished it lost its value and market share.Due to the on-going environmental conditions wool from karakul sheep has a lower spinning quality and hence the need to clean the wool. Moreover, cleaning provides us with an extra product – lanoline – a valuable product in the cosmetic industry. In an attempt to improve its quality, several organic compounds were dissolved into the wool to render it softer and suitable for carpeting. Several detergents were tested as a solvent with different organic compounds including gasoline, dishwashing liquid and oily hair shampoo. During this work we were able to isolate and purify several organic compounds for pharmaceutical purposes and the perfume industry while making the wool softer and gentler for spinning. The amount of organic compounds isolated from each kg of wool was small and varied between 0.25–0.45 g. Yet this product still provided an extra income to the family and can be obtained using simple traditional techniques, and is therefore inexpensive. People felt a sense of pride in undertaking this work and there is hope that several young attendees will continue processing agricultural by-products. Another income generating activity consists of soap production. It also has the potential to increase the family income by producing attractive tourist gifts. Several types of soap made from local ingredients were tested both in terms of simplicity of production and labor costs. It is fortunate that many species of medicinal and essential plants can be found in the region, which can be optimal utilized as they are considered essential ingredients for soap production.The most important component of soap production is the alcohol/alkaline solvent, which is used at a rate of 0.5L per 0.5 kg of end product. The remaining component (fat, oil, ash) is widely available. Essential oils from arid plants possess both a perfume and pharmaceutical effect. In order to attract tourists the soap was fashioned into shapes depicting different historical monuments. Different colored and shaped soap bars were set up as a small exhibition and displayed at the entrance of a tourist hotel in Samarkand.Special attention was given to describe the current status of the wildlife in the region. This is very important from an environmental, agricultural and economic point of view. The biodiversity can be considered as an important part of the area’s total wealth and a potential source for ecological tourism. They may include predators of livestock or wild herbivores that compete for forage resources.The distribution of the different species such as birds, mammals, rodents and insects were identified and used for the preparation of the electronic atlas of the region. During data collection it was noted that the rodent, Rhombomis opimus, was widely distributed in the remote grazing areas. Colonies of these rodents destroy the root systems of dominant plant species resulting in stages of degradation. In addition to the land degradation caused, it is also known to transmit diseases to humans via mosquitoes. It is very important to continue to monitor its range so as to gain a

123

better understanding of their environmental distribution and relationships with other species and domestic animals particularly as this rodent decreases plant productivity, which has a direct effect on income.

V. Potential for ecotourism

Karnab Chul is an area rich in natural beauty and geological wonders and is home to a wealth of plants and wildlife and historical sites. The area is also a site of underground hot springs that provide health benefits and attracts thousands of tourists, and therefore an important source of income. However, it must be carefully controlled as over-development can degrade the environment. Nature-oriented tourism is not new in Uzbekistan. However, if ecotourism is defined as ‘tourism structured to facilitate the conservation and/or sustainable development objectives’ then there is no history of ecotourism as such in Uzbekistan. Hunting licenses attributed to foreign tourists provide hard currency and are organized by private and government organizations including the State Nature Protection Committee and the State Forest Committee employees, illustrating the tone of nature tourism in Uzbekistan today. A special website on the natural and historic monuments in Uzbekistan was prepared. An initial database for tourist sites was prepared as a part of the Archeological Information System (AIS). Two important properties i.e. a 1000 year old Juniperus zaravshanica tree and the Samonides mausoleum were included in this system.The region has a solid potential for ecotourism, which could be earned from: rangelands in spring, domestic animals of rangelands, delicious meals and health beverages from the rangelands, horse and camel riding, handicrafts etc. These thematic and individual trips could potentially be of great interest to local and foreign tourists.

VI. Conclusion

Digital database for GIS was created (different maps on vegetation cover, soil, climate).•CENTURY model was used to analyze long-term data on biomass production.•Good correlation between field measured biomass data and simulation was obtained.•In conjunction with the seasonal forecast (meteorological) model, estimates can be made of the total amount •

of forage that is expected to be produced in a given area during the next season.All information will be used to prepare an ‘Electronic atlas of rangelands’. In this atlas, the basic resources for •

livestock production will be described and quantified in a GIS. A GIS model of forage production in the principal rangelands of Karnab Chul will be based on continuous •

measurement of CO2 fluxes. The special fenced area where there is no grazing or other type of disturbance over the last ten years could be •

a good example of a dryland biosphere reserve.

125

Part IV

Presentation of a Dryland Research Project

127

Bioassay of the Sowbugs’ Burrowed Material Using Barley and Wildrye

Gholamreza Rahbar, Sayyed Ahang Kowsar & Ladan Jowkar, Fars Research Centre for Natural Resources and Animal Husbandry, Shiraz, Islamic Republic of Iran

Abstract

The appearance of sowbugs (Hemilepistus shirazi Schuttz) in the sedimentation basins of the artificial recharge of groundwater (ARG) systems in the Gareh Bygone Plain (GBP) in southern Iran is considered an ecological breakthrough in desertification control. This crustacean drills 7–8 mm diameter tunnels (see p. 68 of this volume) to a depth of 1.8 m in freshly-laid sediment and sand thereby facilitating the preferential flow of water towards the aquifers. Were it not for this species, the ARG systems would have lost their efficiency over a short time period. Moreover, by bringing up the excavated material sowbugs affect the surface soil composition over a long time period. Therefore, the presence of sowbugs may be considered a valuable indicator of land suitability for the ARG activities. The main function expected of the sowbug is its ability to puncture the hard crust thus facilitating rapid percolation of the recharge water. Moreover, as it was a welcome addition to our research site we hypothesized that it could start a completely new life cycle in the adjoining area. A species of this genus has been shown in Central Asia to excavate up to 1.5 tons per ha during its active period of about 3 months. The excavated soil had a better structure and more organic matter and was therefore more resistant to erosion than the original soil from where it was extracted (this was revealed by chemical analysis). Analysis of variance of this greenhouse study assumed an experimental split plot arrangement with three growth media as the main plots: (100% burrowed material; 50% (by weight) burrowed material and 50% freshly-laid sediment (newly-laid deposits); and 100% freshly-laid sediment). Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and a native species of wild rye (Elymus pertenius) formed the subplots. Four replications were used for all treatments. Each replication consisted of four pots whose mean was represented as a single figure in the statistical analysis. Five viable seeds of each of the grass species were grown in a small pot filled with the designated soil and uniformly irrigated as required. The tallest seedling in each pot was kept and the rest were discarded. The height of each plant was measured 45 days after the plant was thinned. The above ground part of each plant was dried for 24 hours at 70° C, and weighed after cooling. Duncan’s multiple range test (MRT) was used to compare the mean at p<0.01 probability level. The MRT was also used to compare the height and dry weight of the two plant species. The MSTAT-C program and a personal computer were utilized to perform these analyses. Results present the mean of both height and dry weight of the two grasses with different treatments at the 1% level of significance. It was observed that both height and dry weight are significantly higher for the 100% burrowed material compared with the 50% mixture or the 100% freshly-laid sediment. The highest value was always achieved in plants growing in the 100% burrowed material. The second and third ranking was attributed to the 50% reached and the freshly laid sediment respectively. The burrowed material contains a higher concentration of macro- and micronutrients that confer a more fertile growth medium. As barley and wild rye are prized as livestock feed in the area, we expect to see their higher yields in the years to come. The higher concentration of soil organic carbon (SOC) in the burrowed material, compared to the original soil and the freshly-laid sediment, represents a potential for carbon sequestration viewed as a long-term management system.

I. Introduction

The role of the diverse community of micro- and macro-decomposers in agricultural systems has been thoroughly studied. Most of these endeavours were concerned with nutrient cycling and soil structure processes as they form the basis of biological activities, mediation of water flow and the maintenance of environmental quality (Linden et al., 1994). The appearance of sowbugs (Hemilepistus shirazi Schuttz) in the sedimentation basins of the artificial recharge of groundwater (ARG) systems in the Gareh Bygone Plain (GBP) in southern Iran is considered an ecological breakthrough in desertification control. This crustacean drills 7–8 mm tunnels to a depth of 1.8 m in the freshly-laid sediment and sand, which facilitates the preferential flow of water towards the aquifers. Were it not for this fauna, the ARG systems would have lost their efficiency over a rather short time period. Moreover, by bringing up the excavated material sowbugs affect the surface soil composition over a long time period. Therefore, the presence of sowbugs may be considered a valuable indicator of land suitability for ARG activities.

128

The importance of fauna as indicators of soil quality must be assessed in terms of the specific functions they perform (Larson and Pierce, 1994). Its main expected function is its ability to puncture the hard crust that facilitates the rapid percolation of the recharge water. Moreover, as this fauna was a welcome addition to our research site we hypothesized that it could establish a completely new life cycle in the adjoining area. A species of this genus has been shown in Central Asia to excavate up to 1.5 tons per ha (assuming one million sowbugs per ha) during its active period of about 3 months. The excavated soil has a better structure and contains more organic matter and was thus more resistant to erosion than the original soil (Saleh-Rasteen, 1978). A serendipitous discovery revealed that the lining of the burrows prevented the collapse of fine sand, which encouraged us to study as many different aspects of the sowbugs’ life as possible. We reasoned that the body fluid, which dries instantly and forms a strong tube that functions as the entrance to the sowbugs’ semi spherical, 5–10cm diameter nests, affects the composition of the parallelepiped-shaped burrowed material, revealed by chemical analysis (see p. 68 of this volume). The next step involved the study of the possible effects of this crustacean on the fertility, and therefore productivity and ecology, of the area. Thus a series of investigations were planned and implemented. The effect of sowbugs on infiltration has been published (Rahbar, Kowsar, 1997). The main occupation of the inhabitants of the GBP is mixed farming and the provision of fodder and feed grain is of utmost importance. Consequently wild rye and barley were chosen as test plants. The objectives of this project were to: (i) assess the fertility status of the burrowed material using barley and wild rye, and (ii) establish a baseline for a new soil building process where biological weathering is assisted by macro fauna.

II. A brief description of the sowbug This blackish grey crustacean, which belongs to the isopoda order, is the only genus in the oniscoidae suborder that is non-aquatic (Robert, 1980). The male is 20–22 mm long and 7–8 mm wide; the female is 22–25 mm long and 7–8mm wide. It lacks a carapace and is dorsoventrally flattened. The last 7 thoracic segments are distinct and bear leg-like appendages. The abdominal segments are more or less fused and hence the thoracic segment, with their 7 pairs of legs, makes up the body length (Fig.1.). Unlike the pillbug, it is incapable of rolling up into a ball.

Figure 1. A dorsal view of a female Hemilepistus shirazi Schuttz. Figure 2. Hemilepistus shirazi Schuttz

This viviparous organism lives for about one year. The white brood pouch under the abdomen of the female swells in March. The eggs form larvae in the pouch, and 60–70 sowbugs, similar to their parents, are released from the pouch in May. They are very active in spring and autumn. They come out of their burrows in the cool air of early morning and late afternoon. It appears that they dig deep into the soil in order to ensure a humid surrounding. Apparently, humidity is essential for this crustacean to copulate (personal communication, Dr. Rudy Herman, Senior Scientist, Ministry of Flanders, Science and Policy Administration, Brussels, Belgium). As sowbug remains are found in scorpion burrows it appears to be eaten by this arachnid.

III. Materials and methods

The original soil of the study site is loamy sand [coarse-loamy over skeletal, carbonatic, (hyper) thermic, Typic

129

Haplocalcids]. Analysis of variance of this greenhouse study assumed a split plot experimental arrangement with three growth media as the main plots: (100% burrowed material; 50% (by weight) burrowed material and 50% freshly-laid sediment; and 100% freshly-laid sediment). Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and a native species of wild rye, (Elymus pertenius (C.A. Mei) Assadi, 1996) formed the subplots. Four replications were used for all the treatments. Each replication consisted of four pots whose mean was used as a single figure in the statistical analysis. Five viable seeds of each of the grass species were grown in a small pot filled with the designated soil and uniformly irrigated as required. The tallest seedling in each pot was kept and the rest were discarded. The height of each plant was measured 45 days after thinning. The above ground part of each plant was dried for 24 hours at 70° C, and weighed after cooling. Duncan’s multiple range test (MRT) was used to compare the means at p<0.01 probability level. The MRT was also used to compare the height and dry weight of the two plant species. The MSTAT-C (1991) program and a personal computer were utilized in performing these analyses.

IV. Results and discussion

The variance analysis table for barley and wild rye show that treatments have significant difference at the 1 % level (p<0.01). Table 1 and 2 show that the height of barley and wild rye for all treatments are significant at 1 % level (p<0.01). The mean of height and dry weight of barley and wild rye for all treatments and for individual treatments at the 1% level of significance are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Tables 1 and 3 presents the mean height and dry weight of the two grasses with different treatments at the 1% level of significance. Table 2 presents the mean squares and the level of significance for both species and three treatments. Compound analysis shows that dry weight of barley and wild rye have no significant difference but the dry weight of barley is greater than wild rye. The mean comparison of the three treatments reveal that treatment 1 has the least dry weight while treatment 2 has the most, and all treatments have significant difference at 1% level. It is observed that both height and dry weight are highly significant in the burrowed material compared with the 50% mixture with freshly-laid sediment and the 100% freshly-laid sediment. The highest value is consistently attributed to the plants growing in the 100% burrowed material. The second and third rankings are attributed to the burrowed material mixture and the freshly-laid sediment, respectively. A high concentration of macro- and micronutrients in the burrowed material provide a more fertile growth medium. As barley and wild rye are prized as livestock feed in the area we would expect to see higher yields in the years to come. The higher soil organic carbon (SOC) in the burrowed material, compared to the original soil and the freshly-laid sediment, represents a potential for carbon sequestration when viewed as a long-term management system.

Weight of wildrye

Weight of barley

Height of wildrye

Height of barley

Degrees of freedom

_0.848 _0.216 _98.687 _65.38 2 treatment

0.042 0.041 1.877 2.434 9 error

2.92 % 8.11 % 7.85 % 6.45 % ----- CV

Table 1: mean of squares and significant percent in Barley and wildrye separately

_ significance difference at 1% level

Mean of treatments wildrye barley species treatment

16.250 C ± 4.373 12.188 c ± 0.240 20.313 c ± 0.7471 1

25.220 A ± 3.872 22.063 a ± 1.360 28.375 a ± 2.563 2

20.940 B ± 3.335 18.063 b ± 1.930 23.813 b ± 0.427 3

17.438B ± 4.413 24.167 A ± 3.725 Species mean

Table 2: Mean comparison of interaction effects of grasses and different treatment, also effects of treatment and grasses in concerning height

with Dancan test at the 5% level

1- standard deviation

130

Mean of treatments wildrye barley species treatment

2.177 C ± 0.094 2.106 b ± 0.027 2.248 b ± 0.080 1

2.711 A ± 0.235 2.716 a ± 0.113 2.706 a ± 0.342 2

2.378 B ± 0.177 2.213 b ± 0.023 2.543 ab ± 0.005 3

2.345 a ± 0.280 2.499 a ± 0.270 Species mean

Table 3: Mean comparison of interaction effects of grasses and different treatment, also effects of treatment and grasses in concerning dry

weight with Dancan test at the 5% level

V. The formation of a new life cycle?

The long-term formation of new soil should theoretically initiate a new life cycle. The formation of one centimeter of growth medium (soil) is a very lengthy process that can take millions of years. This produces soil with its own characteristics, thereby influencing the plant type growing on it. Sowbugs are changing the quality of our soil; transforming the original soil. Therefore, the newly-formed soil presents a transformed medium for the growth of specific plant species. This occurred with plant forage species with a higher water demand; e.g. Artemisia sieberi Besser does not grow at our sandy site yet it has invaded the sedimentation basins that contain finer soil, and thus a greater water holding capacity. The natural invasion of new herbivores is an inevitable result of the arrival of new plant species, as occurred with the sowbugs, which appeared 10 years after the start of water spreading in the Gareh Bygone Plain and the introduction of Atriplex lentiformis (Torr.) Wats. Carnivores consequently follow herbivores; snakes began to appear 12 years into the project and controlled the rat population. This was followed by foxes, owls, and eagles. Only time shall prove or disprove this hypothesis.

References

Larson, W.E. and Pierce, F.J. 1994. The dynamics of soil quality as a measure of sustainable development. In: Defining Soil Quality for a Sustainable Development”. Bingham, J.M. (ed.). SSSA (Soil Science Society of America) Special Publication No.33. SSSA, ASA, Madison, WI, pp. 37–51.

Linden, D.R., Hendrix, P.F. Coleman, D.C. and van Vliet, P. C. J. 1994. Faunal indicators of soil quality. In: Defining Soil Quality for a Sustainable Development” Bingham, J.M. (ed.). SSSA (Soil Science Society of America) Special Publication No.33. SSSA, ASA, Madison, WI, pp. 91–106.

MSTAT-C. 1991. User’s Guide to MSTAT-C. Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.Rahbar, Gh. and Kowsar, A. Infiltration ability enhancement in sedimentation basins by sowbug. The 8th international

conference on rainwater catchment system, pp. 25–27, 1997. Tehran, Iran. Rahbar, G.R., Kowsar, S.A., Khalili, D. and Rowshandel, L. Sowbug (Hemilepistus shirazi Schuttz): An enhancer of

infiltrability and soil fertility in a desertification control project (in preparation). Robert, D.B. 1980. Invertebrate zoology. Sanders College Publishing, Philadelphia. Saleh-Rastin, N. 1978. Soil Biology: Soil Inhabiting Organisms and Their Role in Distribution of Elements. Tehran

University, Publication. No. 1666. 482 pp. (In Farsi.)

131

Part V

Workshop Report

133

Fifth Workshop Report, Aleppo (Syria)

Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands report by Caroline King, UNU-INWEH, Hamilton, Canada

I. Introduction

The fifth international workshop of the joint UNESCO-UNU-ICARDA-Flanders Project on “Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands (SUMAMAD)” was held in Aleppo (Syria) from 12-17 November, 2006. The workshop was organized by the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) and UNESCO Headquarters within the context of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme and the UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (IHP), and in collaboration with the United Nations University – International Network on Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH).

Workshop objectives

The workshop brought together the designated project coordinators and the members of the Core Management Group of the SUMAMAD project. The main objectives of the workshop were to:

Review the implementation of the SUMAMAD Project in 2006•Discuss ongoing implementation of SUMAMAD activities under the current phase of the project 2006• –7Consider the development of a future phase of the SUMAMAD project, 2007•

Summary of workshop content

The workshop began with a day of presentations and discussion by the SUMAMAD Country Team Leaders on the achievements that they had made during 2006. On the second day of the workshop, a field visit was undertaken to the Khanasser Valley, including visits to the Syrian study site of the SUMAMAD project. On the third day of the workshop, following a discussion of the field visit, country presentations continued. Discussions of the collective achievements of the project and proposals for their publication were conducted. The fourth day of the workshop began with an expert presentation by ICARDA, before proceeding to the discussion of the future phase of the SUMAMAD project.

List of participants

The following participants attended the workshop:

a) Team LeadersDr. Jiang Gaoming (China: Hunshandak Sandland /Xilin Gol Biosphere Reserve sub-project)•Dr. Boshra Salem (Egypt: Omayed Biosphere Reserve sub-project)•Dr. Mehrdad Mohammadnia (Islamic Republic of Iran: Gareh Bygone Plain subproject)•Mr. Mohammad Al-Qawabah (Jordan: Dana Biosphere Reserve sub-project)•Dr. Richard Thomas (Syria: Khanasser Valley sub-project)•Mr. Mohamed Ouessar (Tunisia: Zeuss-Koutine Watershed Area sub-project)•Dr. Muhtor Nasyrov (Uzbekistan: Karnab Chul sub-project)•Dr. Sun Qingwei on behalf of Dr. Wang Tao (China: Heihe River sub-project)•

Note: Dr. Muhammad Akram Kahlown (Pakistan: Lal Suhanra Biosphere Reserve subproject) was unable to attend for visa reasons.

b) Additional participants from SUMAMAD study sitesMs Marwa Waseem (Egypt: Omayed Biosphere Reserve sub-project)•Mr. Gholamreza Rahbar (Islamic Republic of Iran: Gareh Bygone Plain subproject)•Mr. Ma’en Al-Smadi (Jordan: Dana Biosphere Reserve sub-project)•Dr. Halmumin Narmuratov (Uzbekistan: Karnab Chul sub-project)•

c) Project Core Management GroupDr. Richard Thomas (ICARDA Headquarters, Aleppo)•Dr. Thomas Schaaf (UNESCO Headquarters, Paris)•Ms Helene Gille (UNESCO Headquarters, Paris)•Ms Caroline King (UNU-INWEH, Hamilton)•

Note: the following members of the Management Group were unable to attend due to conflicting schedules and commitments:

Dr. Rudy Herman (Flemish Government of Belgium, Brussels)•Dr. Zafar Adeel (UNU-INWEH)•

Note: the following experts from Belgium were also unable to attend due to prior commitments:

Prof. Donald Gabriels (Ghent University)•Prof. Dirk Raes (K.U. Leuven)•

d) Participants from ICARDADr. William Erskine•Dr. Adriana Bruggeman•Dr. Ashraf Tubeleih•Dr. Hanadi El-Desougi•Dr. Zuhair Masri•

e) Other participants from international institutionsProf. Iwao Kobori (UNU Headquarters, Tokyo)•Dr. Shimako Takahashi (UNU Headquarters, Tokyo)•Dr. Mohan C. Saxena (Arid Land researcher Center, Tottori University)•

II. Opening session

Participants were welcomed to the workshop by Dr William Erskine (ICARDA); Dr. Richard Thomas (ICARDA); Ms Caroline King (UNU-INWEH) and Dr Thomas Schaaf (UNESCO-MAB).

III. Presentation of SUMAMAD country reports, 2006

Country reports were presented from the SUMAMAD study sites in China, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Syria, Tunisia, Uzbekistan. Notable achievements were reported from each of the study sites concerning the exploration and promotion of traditional and innovative practices for dryland management. Research methods used to explore the merits of management practices involved a mixture of scientific research and participatory activities with local communities. A broad range of water management issues featured in the discussions and presentations made this year including water quality issues, flooding and rising groundwater tables, as well as water scarcity. Water quality monitoring activities in Dana Biosphere Reserve, Jordan, were described, and it was observed that the effects of a disused mine on spring-water quality had still to be determined. In the Omayed Biosphere Reserve, Egypt, water quality monitoring had been carried out at Moghra Oasis and a socioeconomic survey on the prevalence of waterborne diseases was carried out at Burg el Arab. From the Gareh Bygone Plain, Iran, a study of the effects of artificial recharge activities on water quality and nitrate contamination was presented. Evaluations of water management techniques presented in the country reports included a survey of structures for water harvesting in the Zeuss Koutine Watershed, Tunisia. Structures were evaluated for their environmental sustainability, as well as for socioeconomic benefits associated with their construction. Floodwater spreading activities at the Kowsar Station, Iran, were evaluated for both the quantity and quality of water harvested, as well as the socioeconomic value of the stored resource for local agricultural production. Techniques to improve water and nutrient management in an area of intensifying agricultural production around Jabboul Salt Lake, Syria, were evaluated through a Participatory Learning Action Research approach with local communities. The evaluation of techniques involved scientific analyses of soil and water resources, combined with socioeconomic work on farmer perceptions and decision-making. Water-saving land-use patterns and irrigation were investigated at the Heihe River Basin, China, through modeling techniques and calculation of ecological footprint, as well as valuation of ecosystem services. Implementation of water-saving improvements to the traditional irrigation system at the Dana Biosphere Reserve, Jordan, were also reported, although the effects of these improvements have not yet been evaluated.Evaluation of rangeland rehabilitation was conducted on steppe ecosystems in the Jeffara region, Tunisia, including

134

135

comparative studies of vegetation cover and biodiversity from a series of areas under different management regimes, including a nature reserve. Proposals to alleviate grazing pressures on rangelands in Karnab Chul, Uzbekistan are being prepared for evaluation through a study of the current status of biodiversity and plant cover in the rangelands. The presentation of environmental surveys from this location was complemented by population studies in the grazing areas. An evaluation of land-use scenarios in the seasonal rangelands of Omayed Biosphere Reserve, Egypt, was presented through a decision support tool based on soil, water and plant survey data. Evaluation of the environmental value of restored steppe was presented from Hunshandak Sandland, China, through the calculation of Rainfall Use Efficiency of the steppe vegetation for comparison to other ecosystems. During the discussions amongst Team Leaders and other workshop participants, considerable interest was expressed for more work addressing the valuation of environmental services, such as carbon sequestration. Presentations included information on alternative income generation for local communities through a range of different activities. In the case of Hunshandak Sandland, China, an evaluation of the income generated on a household level was presented. Presentations and subsequent discussions gave attention to issues in the marketing of produce and products for alternative income generation, which is one of the challenges faced by Team Leaders in the SUMAMAD project. Market-related factors were also discussed with interest as an important factor driving changes in livestock populations, as described in the presentation of trends in the ratio of goats: karakul sheep at Karnab Chul, Uzbekistan. A number of presentations also included reflections on the study teams’ experiences in working with local communities at their study sites. Risk averse attitudes of local communities, slow uptake of technologies and skepticism were reported from a number of sites. On the other hand, many successes in local participation and uptake were also reported. Insights into successful methods for working with local communities were provided in some presentations, for example, in the Gareh Bygone Plain, Iran, more than 20 local meetings were reported to have been held, and local facilitators appointed for the project activities.

IV. Ongoing implementation of SUMAMAD activities 2006-2007

Production of the workshop proceedings book

The proceedings book for the workshop will be produced by UNESCO, and distributed to workshop participants.

SUMAMAD Workplans for 2007

The budget for SUMAMAD project activities during 2007 is anticipated to be the same as for 2006. Team Leaders should continue to develop their workplans on this basis. Should additional funds become available these will be inserted to supplement the project activity budgets. UNU-INWEH will circulate instructions to Team Leaders for the finalization of the workplans for 2007, including a sample budget table. The transfer of funds to the project sites is anticipated to take place in March 2007, depending on the timing of arrival of funds from the project donor.

Sixth SUMAMAD project meeting, 2007

Offers to host the next SUMAMAD workshop were proposed by the project study teams from China, Jordan and Uzbekistan. These study sites have not yet hosted the project workshop, and all confirmed their interest to do so in the near future. The Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute supported the offer from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which would be a partner in its organization. In light of this, the offer from China was accepted to host the workshop in 2007. The Team Leaders from Jordan and Uzbekistan indicated their support for this decision, and affirmed that they would like to host the workshop in subsequent years under the proposed future phase of the project.In light of the climactic conditions at the Chinese study site in Hunshandak Sandland, Inner Mongolia, a tentative date for the workshop was set for the first week of September, 2007. This date is to be confirmed by the Chinese partners. A later date during September would not be possible, due to the likely timing of Ramadan. In order to avoid scheduling clashes (as occurred for a number of project members during 2006), the date for the workshop should be confirmed as early as possible.Regarding participation in the workshop, it was deemed important that all Team Leaders be present at the meeting. In addition, it was observed that participation by study team members in addition to Team Leaders is extremely useful for workshop discussions and the continuity of the project, as well as for the team members and Team Leaders themselves. However, the cost of travel to China will be higher than it has been other locations. Team Leaders expressed their concern that the SUMAMAD project budget should be used to support research activities at the study sites, rather than being spent on the travel of additional participants to attend the annual workshop. For this reason, it

was concluded that participation of additional Team members in the workshop in China could not be supported by the SUMAMAD project budget, unless partners in the organization of the workshop could mobilize additional funds.The presentations to be made during this workshop are intended to capture the achievements at each study site over the entire duration of the SUMAMAD project so far, rather than only including the achievements over one year. Depending on the time available within the workshop programme, additional opportunities for more detailed presentations of activities undertaken during 2007 may also be included separately.

Design of a final publication

Two alternative outlines for a final publication were presented and discussed by participants. One proposal consisted of chapters on each country in the SUMAMAD project, as well as an introductory chapter and an executive summary. The second proposal outlined thematic syntheses of the findings of the SUMAMAD project across all participating countries. Both proposals were found to have attractions. There is a need to coherently capture the achievements at each of the study sites. This has not yet been achieved in the proceedings books that are produced on an annual basis. On the other hand, the synthesis approach offers a product that might be of interest to a wider audience and would draw out comparisons between the different country experiences. A third option was proposed, which would incorporate both suggestions into a single publication, with two sections. In addition to these three book outlines, the production of both a book and a succinct policy-oriented synthesis for fundraising purposes was proposed. These four proposals may be discussed further with the project donor in order to clarify timing constraints that are likely to affect the scope for the publication(s), as well as the quality and production method, whether by a publishing house or through in-house production.The required date for submission of country papers to be included in the final publication will be set for June 2007. The country papers will include a description of all achievements during the current phase of the project. Further guidance on the preparation of these papers will be provided by the Core Management Group.

Other proposals for publication and dissemination

UNESCO is currently finalizing an educational kit on desertification that is targeted for schoolchildren. SUMAMAD participants considered this a particularly attractive tool and observed that it would be of use in a number of the study sites. The development of further similar tools will be considered by the project in the future as part of its dissemination strategy.

V. Field visits and expert presentations from ICARDA

Overview of the visits and presentations

On the second day of the workshop, a field visit was made to the Khanasser Valley region. Participants in the field visit were given the opportunity to visit a range of sites where ICARDA is engaged in activities, including those supported by the SUMAMAD project. The visit began with a stop at Jabbul Salt Lake conservation area, which is a habitat for migratory birds. ICARDA’s work in facilitating the management of this area by local groups was presented to participants by a representative from the local Chamber of Industry. This was followed by a visit to Shallallah Seghira, an oasis village, where the ancient qanat system has been re-habilitated by local people working with international experts from ICARDA. This village is now involved in ecotourism activities and the inhabitants welcomed the visitors with tea. The visit proceeded to view various agricultural interventions and alternative crops, and reserve areas developed by local authorities. A visit was also made to the Khanasser Open Air Museum. Lunch was provided at the ICARDA site office and shared with local farmers. Local farmers and ICARDA staff presented their experiences in Participatory Learning Action Research on nutrient management.On the third day of the workshop, an expert presentation was provided by Dr. Adriana Bruggeman, ICARDA on Expert commentaries were provided on these topics by ICARDA staff, and complemented by an expert presentation on groundwater balance calculations and modelling simulation. Further visits were then arranged for workshop participants to the ICARDA station. These included a rehabilitated under-ground water gallery, a workshop for manufacturing feed-blocks, a dairy facility, and a demonstration area for water harvesting techniques.

Discussion points raised by participants

Participants emphasized their interest to see study site activities with local women because the SUMAMAD •project members are keen to see gender issues addressed in project-work. Although ICARDA had planned a visit to a local lady farmer, a bereavement in her family had prevented this visit from taking place. However, gender

136

137

issues featured prominently in the discussions at the ICARDA dairy facility.Workshop participants from rangelands in other regions expressed interest in the classification of the •

rangeland conservation area visited as a steppe ecosystem. The shrub vegetation observed at this location was contrasted with the grasses that characterise the steppe of Hunshandak Sandland, Inner Mongolia.

The local implementation of exclusion areas was examined during discussions, and noted to have had mixed •success due to lack of involvement of people. ICARDA drew comparisons with work undertaken in Tunisia on restoring traditional rangeland boundaries, which enabled the movement of people.

Participants were impressed by the work that ICARDA has been undertaking at the site visit location with local •farmers in relation to their crop selection strategies, and discussed with interest the risk averse nature of local peoples decision-making.

The contribution of poultry to local livelihoods at the site visit locations was observed with renewed interest, •following a presentation on this issue from the SUMAMAD study site in China;

Groundwater management issues highlighted during the site visit and expert presentation were explored with •interest by the workshop participants, including problems of both rising and falling groundwater levels.

VI. Development of a new phase for SUMAMAD 2007

Dr. Thomas Schaaf informed SUMAMAD participants that the Flemish Government of Belgium has indicated its interest in funding a future phase of the SUMAMAD project. This funding will be subject to an overarching review of all of the Flemish Government Trust Funds for Science and Technology, within which the SUMAMAD project is currently funded. The SUMAMAD project will formulate a tentative plan for future development, to be submitted for the consideration of the Flemish Government. This document will be developed by the Core Management Group and current Team Leaders.

Preparation for the development of the proposed new phase

All SUMAMAD Team Leaders took part in three preparatory consultation exercises for the preparation of the new phase:

pre-workshop email consultation•priority-setting exercise on research themes•SWOT analysis•

The initial consultation indicated that the broad focus that had been developed during the initial phase should lead to a more tightly focused second phase. In order to prepare for the narrowing in of the project focus, a priority-setting exercise was undertaken during the workshop. This was complimented by a SWOT analysis to ensure that lessons from the first phase could be extracted and used in the development of the plan for the second phase. Detailed descriptions of these activities are annexed to this report. Based on the findings of these activities, the Core Management Group will develop a project document for the new phase. This document will be circulated to project members for feedback and improvement.As Flanders is interested in widening the geographic scope of the project (by also adding a project site in Bolivia, and possibly sites in India and sub-Saharan Africa), a stronger focus on priority project themes will be necessary for consistency and comparative reasons. In essence, workshop participants agreed to focus on the following themes: Scientific studies will address (1) the restoration/rehabilitation of degraded drylands, and (2) improvement of dryland agriculture (crop and livestock production). Policy-relevant work will be concerned with preparing different scenarios for land use changes, both for local communities and decision-makers. To a lesser degree, environmental education/outreach, and hybrid knowledge systems (traditional knowledge and modern technologies) will also be addressed. Income-generating activities will be promoted by each field project in a site-specific context so as to diversity the income basis of the local communities. These can include handicraft production, ecotourism, cultivation of medicinal plants etc.In preparation for the initial development of the project proposal, if there are specific training needs that Team Leaders would like to be addressed in the new phase, these requests should be forwarded to the Management Group.All Team Leaders present at the workshop affirmed their interest to participate in a future phase. Participants also discussed a proposal put forward by the Flemish Government to consider enlargement of the geographical scope of project and the addition of new study teams. It was agreed that enlargement should be subject to the availability of sufficient additional resources to increase funding to all participating locations.

138

Funding issues

Following the development of the project document, the Core Management Group and Team Leaders will discuss the funding needed to support the development of the new phase. In order to promote the project to potential additional donors, as well as the Flemish Government, a series of flyers may also be produced by the project. Fundraising opportunities to be pursued by the Management Group will include presentation of the SUMAMAD project at the next UNCCD COP. Both direct contributions of funds for the new phase and also connections to complementary activities that are separately financed will be sought, in order to maximise co-financing opportunities. One such complementary activity may be the Global Environment Facility’s initiative on development of a global indicator system for the measurement of impacts in the GEF Land Degradation Focal Area. The Management Group will consider the potential for connections to this activity, eg through collaboration on training activities. Another complementary linkage may be made to the Oasis network of the CGIAR.

VII. Closing session

Closing remarks were made by Dr. Mahmoud Solh (ICARDA); Dr. Richard Thomas (ICARDA); Ms Caroline King (UNU-INWEH) and Dr. Thomas Schaaf (UNESCO-MAB). Participants were congratulated on the successful completion of the workshop, and thanks extended to the organizers and staff at ICARDA.

ANNEX 1: Team Leaders suggestions for next phase of SUMAMAD

General comments

Some common recommendations for the future phase of SUMAMAD can be identified from comments received. In many cases, suggestions were made as to how these should be addressed. 1) Narrow the focus of project workplans (Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Tunisia, Uzbekistan) Suggestions:

each site focus on one or two activities (Egypt)•project as a whole select a theme to focus on from suggestions included below (Syria)•project as a whole focus on one theme each year, with a progression and continuity between years (Jordan)•

2) Increase participation by local people (Egypt, Jordan, Pakistan) Suggestions:

conduct needs assessment with local people to determine one or two activities to focus on (Egypt)•each year, present findings from the previous year to local communities to have their feedback (Jordan)•involve more local people in participatory research on income generating activities by making them partners •

on a cost-sharing basis (Pakistan)

3) Increase exchanges between project sites (Egypt, Tunisia, Pakistan) Suggestions:

select most successful intervention from each site and train other teams on it (Egypt)•encourage information exchange between sites via web interface (Egypt)•provide more resources for exchanges between teams/sites (Tunisia)•

4) Communicate project findings to policy-makers (Syria, China) Suggestions:

book publication (China)•package Sustainable Land Management for policy-makers (Syria)•

Ongoing research themes suggested for project as a whole

Two broad interrelated themes recur in suggestions for ongoing research activities:Income generation:

focus on one or two income generating activities at each site (Jordan, Syria, Pakistan)•expand research on income generating activities to include farmer-market linkages (Syria)•

Local community coping strategies:study links between perception of land degradation and land users coping strategies especially informal •

139

institutions, include gender dis-aggregation of data (Syria)study local community ways and means of coping with environmental problems and add improvements if any •

(Egypt)study livelihood strategies including farm and non-farm activities and how these relate to decisions on land •

use and investments in SLM (Syria)identify dynamic resourceful and resilient components of the village using socio-economic data in GIS •

(Uzbekistan)

Note: A third theme suggested to be explored at all sites: ecosystem valuation (Egypt)

Research interests of individual project sites (see full details listed below by country)

Many suggestions were listed for research themes of interest to individual sites. These included the following:

Plant production, biodiversity and carbon sequestration (China)•Studies on individual plant species used in floodwater spreading system – eg for phytoremediation of brackish •

water, nitrogen fixation, forage value, propagation, planting methods, use for carpentry (Iran)Studies on insects: collection and propagation of wild honey bees, study of sowbug burrows (Iran)•Study land use change and degradation by remote sensing and GIS (Uzbekistan)•Income generation possibilities in areas dominated by saline water and sandy soils - saline fishery, vegetables, •

livestock etc. (Pakistan)

Suggestions for dissemination:Publish 3 scientific articles per year (China)•Publish electronic drylands atlas (Uzbekistan)•Focus on policy-makers: publish a book to influence officials(China), package Sustainable Land Management •

packages (Syria)Include schools and youth education (Syria)•Increase internet dissemination (Egypt)•Dissemination material for farmers of dryland areas (Pakistan)•

ANNEX 2: Priority-setting exercise on research themes for the second phase

A series of research themes were defined for the SUMAMAD project

Scientific studies:Restoration/rehabilitation of degraded drylands•water conservation/water harvesting•improvement of dryland agriculture•improvement of dryland husbandry/livestock•

Policy studies/schemes:scenarios for land use changes•economic valuation of dryland services•environmental education/outreach•hybrid knowledge system•

Alternative income-generating activities:ecotourism•handicraft production•medicinal plants•Diversification options•

Workshop participants were requested to select one priority from each of the above lists, and were also given the opportunity to hightlight one ‘wild card’.

Participant selections were grouped and compared, in order to determine the most popular choices. These were as follows:Scientific – Improvement of dryland agriculture including rangelands and livestock, with biodiversity and use of natural resources as a minor component. Also featuring prominently was restoration/rehabilitation of degraded drylands including water conservation/harvesting.

Policy – Scenarios for land use change including the assessment of trade offs, economic valuation of dryland services, environmental education and outreach.

Alternative income generating activities – diversification of options including ecotourism, handicraft, medicinals, forages

Wild card special: human well-being in drylands

ANNEX 3: SWOT Analysis

November 16, 2006

The participants reviewed the strengths, weaknesses opportunities and threats to the SUMAMAD project and its continuation. This exercise will be used to help formulate the second phase project document where appropriate.

In summary:

Strengths

1. Participants believe that the flexibility given to the national teams in terms of activities that they could undertake was positive.2. The project has received some positive exposure in meetings and via publications.3. The project has catalyzed a very positive and rewarding collaboration amongst the participating institutes.4. The project attempts to address the wide scope and complexity of dryland issues involving inter-disciplinary

teams.5. Benefit was achieved through the diversity of the teams and project sites.6. The project outputs include peer-reviewed articles, other publications and involves training of students.7. The annual meeting is viewed as a positive learning experience.8. Good team work and collegiality has been fostered through the project.9. The involvement of experts in various fields was positive and enriching.10. The diffusion of information through the project teams and annual meetings was viewed as positive but could be expanded.11. The involvement of local people and the focus of the project on real problems and demands was positive.12. The use of multi-stakeholder meetings by the project teams was useful.13. The up-scaling strategy while limited was viewed positively.14. The use of a holistic approach was positive.

Weaknesses

1. Insufficient funding per site.2. Lack of coordination among the sites.3. Lack of linkages with other projects and institutions.4. Too many activities and outputs expected in the project document with scarce resources.5. The project’s profile/visibility needs improving at the institutional, governmental level.6. There were too many themes to do each year.7. The timing/lateness of fund disbursement is a problem.8. There are insufficient time/resources spent on training in specific topics.9. Lack of use of common approaches.10. The information/knowledge sharing is insufficient.11. The linkages with other projects/institutional programs needs strengthening.12. The project has raised local expectations too high.13. Annual project management and reporting is viewed as a burden and excessive for the resources available.

140

141

Opportunities

1. Possibility of geographic expansion to Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa and India.2. Linkages with other projects such as LADA, oasis, KM-GEF.3. Long-term possibilities viewed as very positive.4. Increased interest of donors in co-funded projects. 5. Link with UN conventions6. Other major projects such as ADB on policy, Ford Foundation in China and other private sector initiatives.7. Project can result in new knowledge creation on the management of drylands.8. Brochure can be updated with results and targeted at different audiences.9. The web-site could be made interactive with results database.10. Funding opportunities include EC, OPEC.11. SUMAMAD’s initial success can be used as leverage to obtain more new funding.

Threats

1. No or shortage of funding for second phase.2. Competing projects and how we approach them (competition or collaboration?).3. Could be seen as duplication of other efforts/projects.4. The objectives may be seen as too diffuse.

The SUMAMAD Project is funded by the Flemish Government of Belgium

Sustainable Management of Marginal Drylands

SUMAMAD

Su

stain

ab

le M

an

ag

em

en

t of M

arg

ina

l Dryla

nd

s SU

MA

MA

D

Fifth Project Workshop Aleppo (Syria) 12—17 November 2006

UNU-INWEH