Sustainable Development Through Service Learning: A Pedagogical Framework and Case Example in a...

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Sustainable DevelopmentThrough Service Learning:

A Pedagogical Framework andCase Example in a ThirdWorld Context

HOLLY H. BROWER

Wake Forest University

Because of changes in awareness, student values, and social responsibility, universities

have an increasing interest in developing meaningful courses on sustainable community

development and social enterprise. I suggest that the nature of these courses and thecomplexity of the issues are best addressed using a service-learning pedagogical

approach. Two faculty members and eight students spent 1 month studying and

experiencing poverty, malnutrition, education with dire lack of resources, and other

social dilemmas and explored how one brings sustainable change, owned by the

indigenous community. This case example of a business elective about sustainable

community development in a third world country serves to illustrate the framework for

delivering such content. The unique characteristics of sustainable community

development are integrated with the strengths of service learning into a framework that

may be used by others who might develop similar courses. Drawing on both literatures,

the framework provides a powerful opportunity to experience the context in which

development happens while learning the content.........................................................................................................................................................................

The essence of creating sustainable social

change lies in cultivating linkages between

ecology, economy and social systems to

facilitate community development such that

indigenous communities increase their

capacity to address their own issues.

Fowler, 2000

Interest in sustainable development, along withrelated topics such as microenterprise and social

enterprise development, is growing rapidly inbusiness schools responding to a generation veryinterested in social responsibility (Benn & Dunphy,

2009; Gloeckler, 2008). In fact, the millennial generation is more interested in making a difference in

their world in terms of social responsibility than

many previous generations. In business schoolsaround the country, clubs that focus on social en-

terprise are replacing finance and marketing clubs

as the most popular among students (Gloeckler2008). In addition, the pedagogical approach of ser

vice learning is growing in popularity across all

areas of education including business education

(Klink & Athaide, 2004; Tomkovick, Lester, Flunker& Wells, 2008).

There has been unprecedented growth in andpopularity of the field of sustainable developmen

since it was originally defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987

(Huesemann, 2003). It has been embraced by theinternational business community, including the

International Chamber of Commerce. In fact, sev-

eral governments, including the United Stateshave established organizations for sustainable de

I would like to especially acknowledge and thank my colleague

and dear friend, Jane Albrecht, for her partnership in develop-

ing and facilitating this adventure.

Special thanks also to Wake Forest Universitys Pro Humanitate

Center, funded by the Lilly Endowments Program for the Theo-

logical Exploration of Vocation for funding part of the costs of

the program described herein.

Academy of Management Learning & Education , 2011, Vol. 10, No. 1, 5876.

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velopment (i.e., Presidents Council on SustainableDevelopment).

I focus here on one aspect of sustainable devel-opment,social, or community development, whichis primarily the focus of nongovernmental organi-zations (NGOs) or nongovernmental developmentorganizations (NGDOs). The numbers of these or-ganizations registered in industrialized countries

has grown explosively in the last 2 decades, andthe money spent on them has more than doubledduring that time (Edwards & Hulme, 2002). In addi-tion to the unparalleled growth in numbers of or-ganizations that are engaged in developmentaround the world, some of these individual NGOshave experienced enormous growth, as well. Forinstance, Bangladesh Rural Advancement Com-mittee (BRAC) has over 12,000 employees andserves more than 3 million people (Edwards &Hulme, 2002). Business schools in particular, anduniversities generally, are adding courses on so-

cial entrepreneurship, microenterprise develop-ment, and sustainable development to meet theleadership need demanded by the growth in thissector and to address Generation Ys interest insocial responsibility (Eldridge, 2008; Gloeckler,2008).

This growing emphasis on including sustain-able community development projects and coursesin business curriculum begs the question of how toeffectively teach the principles of sustainable com-munity development (referred to as SCD hereafter).Despite the burgeoning growth and rapid develop-ment of offerings related to SCD, a model of effec-

tive pedagogy in the area is elusive. A searchacross disciplines for a model of how to effectivelyteach students the necessary principles and prac-tices spans community development, social work,management, psychology, engineering, and edu-cation. In fact, in recognition of the significance ofthe topic, the 2004 Engineering Education in Sus-tainable Development (EESD) conference initiatedthe Barcelona declaration, requiring that all engi-neering students must have skills in SCD (Schnei-der, Leydens, & Lucena, 2008). Still, even engineer-ing educators criticize themselves for lack of

effective pedagogy on the topic (Easterly, 2006).By comparison, business education on SCD is in

its infancy. Although the Journal of ManagementEducation has published two special issues onsustainability (2003 and 2009), the focus of both wasprimarily on environmental education and green-ing issues across management curricula. In addi-tion, the Academy of Management 2007 AnnualMeeting theme revolved on sustainability, and theAcademy of Management Learning & Education

has called for a special issue on sustainability in

2010, but again these focus on environmentasustainability.

My work here falls at the intersection of threeburgeoning fields: business education, SCD, andservice learning. Drawing on the literatures of SCDand social enterprise to uncover the key principlesand utilizing a service-learning orientation to bessustain student knowledge and commitment, I

present a framework that can be studied and rep-licated. Finally, I present a case example of acourse on sustainable social enterprise development in a third world country to illustrate theframework.

In doing so, my work contributes to the businesseducation literature by providing one model of effective pedagogy in SCD. It is unique in that itconsolidates the SCD literature into a comprehensive framework. In addition, it adds significantly tothe literature on service learning by integrating itwith the SCD literature, as both are increasingly

important to business education. Finally, I presentpedagogical and programmatic issues that arecritical to the success of such courses. In the fol-lowing I present key definitions and principles oSCD and social enterprise and use these to buildthe conceptual framework.

SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

(SCD)

Sustainable development, although a widely usedterm and idea, has multiple definitions and pro-vokes varied reactions (Hopwood, Mellor, &

OBrien, 2005; Porter & Cordoba, 2009). It is oftenconsidered to be related to environmental issuesand carries economic and political baggage frommultiple constituencies (Giddings, Hopwood, &OBrien, 2002). Rather than dive into such a morassI carefully limit the use of the term to includeinterventions that increase the capability of people, and the organizations instigating the interven-tions, to respond to community needs in a particularly agile and adaptive way that addressescurrent needs of the poor and does not endangerfuture capacity (Fowler, 2000; Schneider et al., 2008

Steinemann, 2003; World Commission on Environ-ment and Development, 1987).

Fowler calls this type of sustainable response toissues of poverty a virtuous spiral involvingthree dimensions: external impact, human and fi-nancial resources, and continuous regenerationthat keeps an organization healthy, relevant, andviable in a turbulent environment over a long period of time. A related concept that involves similarissues is social enterprise. It combines both socialand economic activity to achieve three key objec

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tives: economic viability, sustainability, and socialchange (Lucas & Vardanyan, 2005). In fact, manynonprofit organizations engage in social enter-prise strategies to expand their organizational ca-pacity and to ensure their financial sustainability.In these endeavors, they are not primarily inter-ested in generating individual profits but in pro-moting social change in underdeveloped areas

and promoting sustainability and job growth (Ers-ing, Loeffler, Tracy, & Onu, 2007; Lucas & Vardan-yan, 2005).

Limiting our focus to this definition of sustain-able development (SCD), I identify five principlesconsidered seminal to this type of work. Theseprinciples are the result of an extensive literaturereview of SCD. Some works focus on a subset ofthese principles, but in digging into the literature,I found these five encapsulate the overarchingprinciples investigated throughout. They are re-peatedly found, sometimes under different titles,

but they are used here as a unifying framework todraw the pertinent literature together in a compre-hensive way. They represent the keys that are sug-gested by various authors as critical to the effec-tiveness of the SCD effort. I was unable to locate asingle cohesive framework, so the first significantcontribution of this paper is identifying these fiveseminal principles that tie the recommendations inthis literature together.

Much of this work is accomplished by organiza-tions of varying sizes and scopes that enter a poor,traumatized, or at-risk area and work to bring re-lief or renewal. Examples include the poorest, un-

derdeveloped communities in countries, such asHaiti and Nicaragua, war-ravaged areas, such asUganda, or disaster stricken communities, suchas Sri Lanka. Nongovernmental development orga-nizations (NGDOs) are nonprofit organizationsdedicated to ending poverty and injustice in devel-oping countries (Fowler, 2000: xiii). These organi-zations are said to touch 1520% of the poor andmarginalized population of developing countries(Fowler, 2000) and often are responding to the hu-man need they have identified in impoverishedcommunities. They are vehicles for providing

healthcare, food, education, and basic provisionsas well as being vehicles for democratization andsocial reform (Edwards & Hulme, 2002). So, theseinterventionsprovide for immediate needs throughtraining and resources, the first of the five princi-ples. The literature used here presents the processby which these organizations drive change, recov-ery, and health.

However, to be sustainable, there is muchgreater complexity than merely providing re-sources to meet specific needs. Indigenous people

must be involved and ultimately take ownership osolutions (Ersing et al., 2007; Fowler, 2000; Schnei-der et al., 2008); awareness about all three dimensions of the virtuous spiral (impact, resourcesand regeneration) must be raised; and, finally, capacity and flexibility must be built so that whenthe NGDO pulls out of the area, the people areempowered to sustain the operations and pro

cesses. These issues that create sustainable solu-tions to community needs make up the next threeprinciples of SCD: trusting partnerships, commu-nity ownership and empowerment, and reflectivelearning organizations.

Sustainable community development (SCD) ini-tiatives involve tangible assistance such as foodhousing, and education that meets immediateneeds, and they enhance the capacity for people toact on their own behalf, as they have some degreeof ownership or control of the system. Moving beyond meeting immediate needs to a sustainable

community-owned solution necessarily takes considerable time, as successful organizations enter acommunity and establish trusting partnershipswith the population they intend to serve. Successful organizations enable indigenous people to setthe agenda and empower them to work cooperatively to develop solutions that enhance the capability of the people while not depleting resourcesfor the future (Schneider, Leydens, & Lucena, 2008)

The task is not simply to build the capability ofa community or group to manage or maintainthe benefits of a particular input or investment,

such as a school, clinic, credit fund . . . Makingchange endure means going beyond the capac-ity required for this type of immediate necessityand action. The challenge is to foster organiza-tional resilience founded on a link betweensustainable insight and resulting action(Fowler, 2000: 18).

Empowerment comes through the growth in aware-ness and the enabling of local people to take ac-tion on their own behalf. Nongovernmental development organizations do not bring a solution from

an industrialized nation to the people, but rathermake the indigenous people the critical force forchange in their situations.

Ultimately, the NGDO may move operations orleave the country, and indigenous people mushave the capacity to deal with issues independently. To accomplish this set of lofty goals requires an organization to adopt a flexiblelearningorientation (Taylor, 1998). According to Fowler(2000), sustainability in these unstable environments requires ongoing regeneration, that is

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learning. He suggests that a learning organizationis one that develops a spiraling process of action,reflection, awareness, and adaptation (new ac-tion). Reflection plays a critical role in this spiral-ing process, and knowledge must be translatedinto changes that increase adaptability.

The fifth principle found in this literature is theultimate effectiveness measure of development or-

ganizations: Is the increased capacity able to sus-tain itself and grow once the organization leaves orreduces its flow of resources? The mantra of manyorganizations is that their endgame is to workthemselves out of a job although they often be-come politically and financially entrenched andfail to enact their own rhetoric (Edwards, 1999; Ed-wards & Hulme, 2002). In international develop-ment, organizations originating from the devel-oped world are called North. They bringtremendous resources and theoretical knowledge,but the final measure of whether the work they

have achieved in facilitating capacity building inlocal communities is whether the citizens whocome to own the process and make critical deci-sions are actually autonomous and capable whenthe Northern organization withdraws or changesfocus (Fowler, 1995, 2000).

THE CASE FOR A SERVICE-LEARNING

PEDAGOGY

Now that I have established the presence of signif-icant and growing interest among students andfaculty in business schools to develop curricula in

SCD and have laid out its five critical principles, Ireturn to the issue of how to effectively teach theseprinciples to business students.

Although there is no widely accepted pedagog-ical model in the field, there are some commonarguments about how to effectively learn SCD. Thecore of the development movement focuses on ed-ucation as a tool for SCD. Educating the commu-nity about issues aids them in identifying prob-lems and potential solutions (Schwartz, 1978;Taylor, 2008). This tool is sometimes called trans-formational learning (McGonigal, 2005; Taylor,

2008; Van der Veen, 2003). One significant articleexamined three views of systems theories andtheir implications for sustainability education(Porter & Cordoba, 2009). Although they focused onenvironmental sustainability, the authors recom-mendations are applicable, to some degree, to SCDas well. Specifically, they recommend taking a sys-tems approach to sustainability education and de-fine the appropriate applications of three differentsystems approaches. For the types of changesinvolved in developing sustainable change in

poverty-stricken areas, they recommend an interpretative approach. The three key processes of thisapproach are awareness, appreciation, and ethicalaction, and they are evident in the framework presented below.

There is also some literature that addresses educating professionals in the development fieldThis work emphasizes the need to reflect on signif

icant development work experience to better understand how to mobilize and empower communities (Ersing, Loeffler, Tracy, & Onu, 2007). Authorssuggest that the nature of SCD requires direcparticipation of community members affected andnecessitates experience to understand capacitybuilding of poor and marginalized groups (AlvordBrown, & Letts, 2002; Ersing et al., 2007; Green &Haines, 2002).

The small amount of published work on teachingSCD to students who have not yet survived thenegative conditions and do not have significan

development work experience stresses the importance of seeking engagement from all stakeholders and understanding community needs andwants (Schneider et al., 2008). It also stresses use ofproblem-based learning and decision making in areal context rather than by theories and cases(Steinemann, 2003). In fact, some recognize thevalue in theory-based learning, but criticize its inability to equip students with the necessary skillsto maneuver the difficult and complex tasks oreconstruction, recovery, and reconciliation in developing countries (Chantrill & Spence, 2002)These authors emphasize the values of practicum

courses to give liberal arts students hands-on experience in difficult contexts where they can collect live information, analyze data, and makemeaningful recommendations for specific actions(Kotval, 2003). Similarly, business students need tobe exposed to the ambiguity, difficulty, and mess-iness of development work, especially in a thirdworld context. The efficiency king that often resides in business curriculum is difficult to find, oreven defend in this context. High-quality servicelearning addresses these needs because it facili-tates critical thinking development through expe

riential learning (Richardson, 2006). Through actual experience, students learn effective conceptsand strategies and understand the difficulties ofimplementation.

Todays college students are typically interestedin voluntary activity and community involvementService learning is an increasingly popular andpowerful pedagogical tool that pairs voluntarycommunity activity with course content, but service learning is far more than merely facultydirected volunteerism. Rather, it is carefully de

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signed, deliberate integration of course contentwith service to the community (Kenworthy-URen,2003). In fact, many who write about service learn-ing describe it as a type of experiential or actionlearning (e.g., Butin, 2006; Godfrey, Illes, & Berry,2005; Jacoby, 1996; Lester, Tomkovick, Wells,Flunker, & Kickul, 2005; Morgan & Streb, 2001). Busi-ness education is one of the disciplines that has

increasingly been using service learning as a ped-agogical means to enhance student learning invarious classes, including accounting, manage-ment, marketing, and finance (Klink & Athaide,2004; Tomkovick et al., 2008). In addition to thepopularity of service-learning practice, the litera-ture about service learning is burgeoning, as notedby a 2005 special issue in the Academy of Manage-ment Learning & Education.

Business education has been criticized by somefor falling far short of preparing graduates for life,particularly life as responsible citizens who con-

tribute in meaningful and thoughtful ways to en-hance society (e.g., Gordon & Howell, 1959; Pfeffer& Fong, 2002; Porter & McKibbin, 1988; Steiner &Watson, 2006). They have suggested that businesseducation has taken the heart out of education.In response, some have suggested that servicelearning isan, if not the most, effective tool avail-able to business schools (Bradfield, 2009; Godfreyet al., 2005; Papamarcos, 2002; Steiner & Watson,2006).

There are primarily two mechanisms that makeservice learning an effective business educationtool: process and outcomes. First, service learning

provokes a mental process that enhances learning.Biological research has demonstrated that thebrain retains facts and complex ideas most easilywhen knowledge is linked with experience (John-son, 2003; Steiner & Watson, 2006). Therefore, wheninstructors create a thoughtful service-learning en-vironment, we can expect that our students willunderstand complex material better and will re-tain it longer.

Second, service learning promotes developmentof important student outcomes of concern to busi-ness schools. More specifically, research has dem-

onstrated that service learning leads to enhancedcritical thinking and problem solving (Eyler &Giles, 1999; Lester et al., 2005); civic engagementand volunteerism (Dewey, 1938; Langseth & Plater,2004; Tomkovicket al., 2008); social responsibilityand values development (Eyler, Giles, Stenson, &Gray, 2000; Lester et al., 2005; Papamarcos, 2005);and self-efficacy and confidence (Giles & Eyler,1994; Papamarcos, 2005; Tucker & McCarthy, 2001).

Therefore, as a means for learning about SCD,service learning facilitates a process whereby stu-

dents are more apt to remember the five criticaprinciples. Pedagogical literature suggests thawhen students engage in providing resources tothe poor, and where they actually work in partner-ship with indigenous people and NGDOs, theycome to understand and to be more likely to remember these principles. Furthermore, experiencing empowerment, the value of reflecting on expe

riences, and searching for answers about the localownership and sustainability of interventions arepowerful learning tools as opposed to simply read-ing these principles or listening to lectures abouthem.

In addition to these issues of pedagogical process, through service learning, students learn tograpple with the complexity of problem solving ina real-world context (Salimbene, Buono, Lafarge, &Nurick, 2005; Papamarcos, 2005). The nonprofisetting adds complexity because of resource constraints, ambiguous ideals, and multiple stake

holder demands (Kenworthy-URen, 2003). Therefore, students values and attitudes toward peopleliving in poverty, for example, are changed forevethrough the experience. They are not likely to forget the material after the final exam because theservice-learning experience creates a level of engagement that changes students and gives them afoundation from which to act in the future. In sum-mary, business educators can expect that servicelearning is an effective tool for developing criticathinking skills, promoting learning and retainingcritical knowledge, and developing values thacontribute to civic engagement and corporate

citizenship.

SERVICE LEARNING FOR SCD: THE FIT

These two fields lead to a powerful learning experience when they are combined. The frameworkpresented here capitalizes on the content of SCD inthe context of a pedagogical approach that bringsenhanced learning as well as personal changeNote that the service-learning pedagogy is not onlyan effective transmitter of SCD knowledge, bualso its methodology models SCD to students. Ta

ble 1 summarizes the principles of SCD and showsthe corollaries between them and critical elementsof service learning.

The following arguments present critical elementsof effective service-learning courses gleaned fromthe burgeoning literature.

Integration

Service learning courses are those that emphasize academic rigor and the integration of real



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world course projects where students produce tan-gible, professional products for use in the localcommunity as they work with and learn from orga-nizations designed to serve community needs(Kenworthy-URen, 2000: 59). To be most effective inachieving the desired student outcomes, service-learning courses must integrate rigorous coursecontent with real work that is meaningful to both

students and members of the service organization(Cushman, 2002; Godfrey et al., 2005; Kenworthy-URen, 2003). This means that an effective service-learning course is not only serving the communitybut that students are actually learning importanttheoretical content to be able to identify commu-nity issues and to understand best how to createsustainable community change. This issue of ser-vice learning may be linked to several SCD prin-ciples, such as partnership, community ownership,and departure because these principles are part ofthe content of such a course. However, this issue of

service learning is most closely linked with thefirst principle, training and resources made acces-sible to the poor, because students actually ac-quire knowledge that enhances their understand-ing and ability to work effectively within thecommunity. They come to understand what tangi-ble resources and services are beneficial to impov-erished communities and individuals.

Student Voice and Ownership

Taking the meaningfulness of the work a step fur-

ther, Morgan and Streb (2001) note the necessity ofstudent voice and ownership of the experience.They demonstrated that when students are given ahigh degree of voice, rather than faculty overengi-neering the service portion of the course, they de-veloped self-esteem, political engagement, andtolerance toward different groups of people. Oth-ers have also stressed the significance of studentvoice in designing a project (Beyer, 1996; Dewey,1938). By voice they mean that students shouldhave real responsibilities, challenging tasks, andbe given latitude to help plan their project(s) and to

make important decisions (Morgan & Streb, 2001;Salimbene et al., 2005). This important dimensionof effective service-learning methodology bothmodels and teaches the principle of communityownership and empowerment. Students must haveownership of their learning experience to best re-tain the knowledge and acquire the desired char-acter traits. In addition, they learn the power ofgiving voice or ownership to community memberswhen experiencing the power of their own voicesin their project development.

Reciprocity

In addition to being integrated and realisticservice-learning courses must involve reciprocityreflection, and explicit attention to moral imperatives such as civic engagement.Reciprocitymeansthat both the student and the agents of the organi-zation benefit from the relationship. This recipro-

cal benefit is critical to the initial and sustainedsuccess of the experience (Cushman, 2002; Kenwor-thy-URen, 2003; Kenworthy-URen & Peterson2005). Faculty must be engaged with the organiza-tion and understand their needs and the appropri-ateness of student involvement in the organization. When the match is effective, faculty gain thetrust and understanding of the organization andcoach students to create a reciprocal arrangementhat benefits both (Cushman, 2002). This reciprocityin the academic relationship with NGOs and com-munities is most similar to the partnership princi-ple of SCD. In both situations the newcomer (eitherthe faculty and student or the NGDO) must developtrust and understanding so that the newcomer isnot misperceived as the outsider coming in withprescriptive, preconceived solutions that may nofit the context.

An example of the significance of reciprocitycomes from one of the NGDO directors in the Nic-aragua project described below. He told abouAmerican relief organizations spending millions ofdollars on solar-powered ovens and training fopoor refugees in disaster-worn Nicaraguan communities. The solar-powered ovens were highly

efficient, ecologically superior, and dramaticallyhealthier for the women who traditionally spenentire days gathering wood and cooking over openfires. These women often died early of lung dis-eases and were unable to devote time to morelucrative and sustainable entrepreneurial effortsThe relief workers saw solar-powered ovens as anobvious solution. However, as soon as relief workers left, the ovens returned to disuse and wereeventually completely discarded because relieworkers had failed to understand the culture of thewomen who saw significance in the relationships

they maintained with each other throughout thedays while visiting around the fires. They alsogained a sense of worth from providing for theirfamily and community by spending their entiredays preparing and cooking meals. The relieworkers did not understand the important princi-ples of community ownership and partnership. In asimilar way, students who are engaged in a trust-ing partnership with faculty who develop mean-ingful relationships with the NGDOs have a modelof reciprocity and engagement when both parties

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reach an agreement about meaningful work stu-dents can provide.

Reflection

Reflection is probably the most consistently dis-cussed element of effective service learning. Itseems to be universally agreed that reflection is a

critical part of the learning in these experiences(Cushman, 2002; Eyler, 2002; Eyler & Giles, 1999;Kenworthy-URen, 2003; Mabry, 1998; Steiner &Watson, 2006). In fact, Eyler (2002) goes on to saythat it is through reflection that academic study isattached to the deeper understanding of socialproblems. It is here that students develop the cog-nitive ability to identify, frame, and resolve un-structured social problems (Batchelder & Root,1994; Boss, 1994; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Eyler & Halte-man, 1981). Therefore, the opportunities for struc-tured reflection are critical to capturing the power

of service learning.The call to reflection and creating a learningorientation in a NGDO is strongly related to thesignificance of reflection in effective service-learning courses. In fact, both Fowler (2000) andTaylor (1998) develop a model of action, reflection,awareness, and adaptation in SCD, which drawson Deweys (1938) model of reflection and learningoften central in service-learning approaches.

Moral Values

Finally, many have talked about the significance

of service learning in developing studentsvalues,such as civic engagement, appreciation for diver-sity, and social engagement (i.e., Godfrey et al.,2005; Lester et al., 2005; Papamarcos, 2005), butSteiner and Watson (2006) found that service-learning courses fell short of this moral imperativeif the instructor failed to speak explicitly aboutcivic engagement or other values. Therefore, togain the most from the experience, faculty mustclearly communicate with students about the val-ues they hope to develop as students engage withthe community. The linkage here is to the sustain-

ability of the community capacity building whenthe NGO leaves or changes direction. The aim isthat the community members who have been em-powered will sustain and continue the develop-ment efforts. In the same way, when the service-learning course is over, an important measure ofeffectiveness is whether student values and under-standing have changed so that career choices andcommitment to SCD are sustained. Again, servicelearning is an experiential approach that creates astrong association with the material and enhances

memory and recall. Therefore, it models sustainability after the end of the course, or resources, aswell as teaches pertinent values.

In what follows I present a course taught in Nic-aragua titled Social Enterprise Leadership in aDeveloping Country. It is intended to illustrate theconnections between service learning and SCDprinciples and to evaluate the effectiveness of the

framework. The column on the far right in Table 1includes examples of student deliverables fromthe course that fit with the principles of SCD andelements of service learning.

CASE EXAMPLE

The image of La Chureca is ingrained inmy memory, an image that epitomizes thestark inequalities between the developed

and developing worlds. I was impassionedby my experience . . . [which] solidified my

interest in a career involving sustainabledevelopment and the advancement of

human rights.Junior student

What is drastically different across theworld is not essential humanity, butthe conditions under which we live.

Unbelievable disparities exist in theeconomic situationsit is this, more than

anything else, that has led me to form aphilosophy of charity.

Senior student

These quotes come from students who completed aservice-learning course, Social Enterprise Leadership in a Developing Country. They demonstratethe power of service learning for such a courseThe course looked at economic and human development issues in developing countries. Eight un-dergraduate students and I read theoretical workand studied cases of organizations involved inthese development efforts. The course was focusedon the work of NGDOs in impoverished communi

ties and the complexities of making such worksustainable. In addition to reading and discussingthe literature, we engaged in the developmencommunity in a third world country, Nicaraguawhere students worked in various NGDOs identifying and solving real problems, participated inclass discussions about readings and experiencesengaged with expert speakers in the field, andreflected on content and experiences to embedtheir learning.

The following case serves as an example fo



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illustrative and evaluative purposes of the frame-work presented above. The course was part of aprogram located in and focused on issues relevantto Nicaragua. Nicaragua is the second poorest na-tion in the Western Hemisphere, with an averageper capita annual income of $1023 (U.S. Depart-ment of State). Over 50% of Nicaraguans fall below

the poverty line (Library of Congress). One hun-dred NGOs are registered in Nicaragua with thou-sands of other international NGOs addressingissues of hunger, poverty, malnutrition, home-ownership, entrepreneurship and small businessdevelopment, child labor, ethical business prac-tices, community development, adoption andchild abandonment, and many others (http://app.cancilleria.gob.ni/sysong/ong/controlongs.aspx).

Many universities are developing programs andpartnerships abroad and are encouraging studentsto experience study and service learning in other

cultures. In fact, in Managua alone, we were awareof five other U.S. campuses that have developedstudy abroad or service-learning programs part-nered with NGOs in the area. Our university hasplaced priority on development of study abroadand significant learning experiences in other cul-tures. Figure 1 presents a flowchart depicting theprocess of developing such a program. This flow-chart may be replicated in numerous and diversesettings and is used here to illustrate the processof development in this particular case example.

To work most effectively, the course(s) must besupported by the university. At the beginning ofthe process, the college or university takes theleadership role to identify appropriate faculty aswell as the location and focus. Ideally, the university or college hires an in-country liaison, whomakes appropriate local connections and under

stands the culture and expectations of the areaThe flowchart depicts who takes the leadershiprole in each step of the development-and-deliveryprocess. Although some parts of the process occursequentially, the arrowheads also depict thoseparts of the process that occur simultaneously.

The university has received significant donosupport to develop service-learning programs inNicaragua. In just 2 short years, the university hasengaged business faculty and MBA students insmall business training and consulting in Man-agua through several short seminars. Also, Span

ish, biology, health and exercise science, and medical school faculty have visited to assess thepotential for developing courses and researchprojects in Nicaragua. As depicted in the flowchart,identifying the country and focus and appropriatefaculty is not necessarily a sequential process, butmay be recursive and evolutionary in collaboration with faculty and administrators and friends ofthe university. The focus of the universitys presence in Nicaragua is on service-learning opportu-nities rather than study abroad, and it offers a

TABLE 1

Corollaries Between Significant Issues of SCD and Service Learning and the Model Course

Sustainable Community Development Service Learning

Example from Model CourseIssue Community Result Issue Student Result

Training and

resources made

accessible to thepoor

Community understands

issues and learns to

solve problems

Rigorous course

content integrated

with real work

Student understands and

retains content

Initial research project

related to issue in

context and final project

Partnership Gains trust and builds

relationship for joint

intervention

Reciprocity Gains trust and

understanding of

organization and

students

Faculty developed

relationships with NGO

directors and set up

student involvement

Community

ownership/

Empowerment

Enhances self-esteem,

awareness, ability to

advocate for self

Student

voice/ownership

Develop self-esteem,

political engagement,

tolerance for

differences

Final projects identified and

designed by students

Reflection; learning

organization

Develops flexible, agile

organization to resolve

future problems in

unstructured

environment

Reflection Develops cognitive ability

to identify, frame, and

resolve unstructured

problems

Journals, reflection papers

Departure of NGDO Sustained change incommunity and

enhanced capacity to

address future issues

Explicitly state moralvalues to be gained

from experience

Sustained change instudent character

Student evaluations andsubsequent career and

volunteer plans

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great deal of support for the faculty developing theprograms, including staff support in country, fund-ing for an advance-planning trip, and some schol-arships for students choosing to participate.

A team of two faculty members developed andled the service-learning program, which consistedof two 3-credit courses delivered partially at a U.S.college campus and ending with 3 weeks on loca-

tion in Nicaragua. One faculty member from Ro-mance Languages taught a humanities course(The Writer and Society in Central America), andthe other, a business management faculty mem-ber, taught a management elective course (SocialEnterprise Leadership in a Third World Country).All students in the program were enrolled in bothcourses. The only prerequisite for applying to theprogram for course credit included passing an In-termediate Spanish course with at least a grade ofB.

What follows are descriptions of several issues

critical to the success of the program and lessonslearned. I end with links between the course andthe framework described above. The intention ofthe design was that every aspect of the experiencewould facilitate learning and reflection throughengagement. The lessons learned presented in thefollowing are captured in Appendix A.

Country Setup and Planning

The faculty traveled to Nicaragua 2 months beforethe program began to make arrangements. Neitherfaculty member had been to Nicaragua previously

and neither had relationships with indigenouspeople or local NGDOs. The staff person in Man-agua had developed relationships with severalNGDO directors. The students had not been se-lected for the program yet, so faculty met NGDOdirectors to build a catalog of potential opportu-nities and to discuss the goals of the program. Nopromises were made to organizations at this timebecause the fit between student abilities and in-terests and the needs of the organizations werecritical to the success of the program.

In addition to discussions with directors of vari-

ous organizations, the trip included visits to manypotential housing locations, viewing potentialsites for an opening dinner, locating various cul-tural opportunities for students, and exposure tothe culture and practices of the country (i.e., how toexchange money, safety, eating opportunities, cul-tural norms, transportation, etc.). Having the staffperson in the country familiar enough with the cityto provide ideas and guidance and set up appoint-ments was critical to success. The lessons learnedfrom this planning trip include the importance of

(1) identifying a local contact to help develop keypartnership relationships and provide options forhousing, restaurants, etc.; (2) getting to know asmuch as possible about the country and culturebefore taking students. This is helpful in answer-ing their questions and alleviating concerns oparents; and (3) establishing relationships withNGDOs that may serve as sites for the experience

as a first step in the reciprocal relationship essential to effective service learning. (See Appendix Bfor a checklist of important tasks to accomplish ona preplanning trip.)

Placements

As mentioned above, research has demonstratedthat successful service-learning programs involveautonomy and ownership for students (Beyer, 1996Morgan & Streb, 2001; Salimbene et al., 2005); there-fore, to maximize each students learning impact

and integration into the culture, no more than twostudents were placed at each organization. Wesought organizations that had a desire and needfor students and wanted them involved in meaningful, critical work. In many cases, finding short-term projects for students in service-learningcourses is more work than it is a value for nonprofitorganizations (Vernon & Foster, 2002). It was veryimportant to the successful learning environmenthat we create a mutually beneficial relationshipwith organizations where students would work for3 weeks. Therefore, during the planning trip, fac-ulty members told directors we dont simply want

students to come and do service here for 3 weekslike some short-term groups you have experiencedWe would like them to make a meaningful contribution through an independent project that identifies a significant need for the organization anddevelops an action plan to address it. What couldour students engage in here that would cause youto say at the end of their time Wow! We would nothave accomplished (blank) without them.

After developing a catalog of opportunities, weselected the students. The selection process foadmission to the experience included screening

students for fit, language ability, and commitmentto the ideals of the program. The application in-cluded a written essay about interest in the pro-gram and previous voluntary and cross-culturaexperiences and an interview with the two facultymembers.

We worked to match student interests and abilitieswith organizations missions and needs. For instance, one student owned horses and had volunteered in her community at a riding stable for underprivileged children. She was a natural fit for a cente



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that provided therapy for disabled Nicaraguan chil-dren, including equestrian therapy. Another studentwas not interested in being placed in a Christianorganization, so we were limited to nonsectarian or-ganizations. We found that while working on select-ing students, we were continuing to develop in-country relationships and logistics (see Fig. 1).

The matching process with students and organi-

zations continued until we found appropriateplacements for each. In addition, solidifying de-tails in the country alleviated concerns of studentsand their parents. Ultimately, we found five place-ments for eight students. Table 2 presents a sum-maryofthese.Thelessonslearnedintheplacement-matching process included the following: (1) It iscritical to have an open mind for potential opportu-nities and to be flexible in matching opportunitieswith student interests and skills; and (2) if possible,try to place students in different organizations,where they will have richer experiences because

they are in small groups and cannot hide.

Local Lodging

The criteria were safety (in many third world coun-tries, properties employ private guards), Internetaccess for students and faculty, meeting spaceavailable to conduct class, eating and entertain-ment options for students in the evenings, andproximity to student placements so that transpor-tation did not consume more than 1 hour per day. Inorder to diminish stress in a situation that could be

overwhelming to students, we wanted to have asmany modern conveniences (i.e., hot showers, electricity, clean drinking water) as possible, withoutliving extravagantly.

In addition, there was benefit to being in a smallfamily-run facility that offered interaction betweenstudents and employees and local residents. Theselected hotel was walled and had 24-hour guards

was located within safe walking distance of nu-merous restaurants and entertainment establish-ments, and was less than 30 minutes drive fromeach of the five placements. Two generations of afamily lived on the premises and managed thesmall hotel. They had been exiled to the UnitedStates during the civil war and had returned toNicaragua in the last 15 years, so they served asinteresting class speakers and resources for stu-dents in learning the history and culture of Nica-ragua. The lessons learned in selecting a facility toserve as home base included the facts that (1) lo

cation is critical to provide opportunities for students and faculty to both interact in the local cul-ture and live relatively stress free; and (2) alconstituents are also interested in safety andhealth, so take the measures necessary to assurefaculty, students, and parents that these issueshave been given significant care.

Transportation

This issue proved to be one our greatest challenges. There were options of renting a single

FIGURE 1

Flowchart of Course Development and Delivery Process

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TABLE 2

Final Student Projects at Their NGDO Placement in Nicaragua

NGDO Description of Organization Student Project Overview

Tesoros de Dios Provides physical therapy and rehabilitation to an

overlooked and underserved population of

children with disabilities, including equestrian

therapy. Provides some job training and support

for mothers.

1. Designed visual, interactive, educational display along

the equestrian trail to enhance patient cognitive and

social development.

2. Structured directors electronic file system to allow for

doctor and staff use and to begin a child sponsorshipprogram.

Utilizing my knowledge of working at a therapeutic riding center at home and the programs and mind and

body exercises they implement there, I noticed the environment around Tesoros de Dios . . . As a result, I

propose to do a driveway beautification project . . . Although a child may not be able to communicate or

recognize the objects, they will know that they are there and stimulate something in their mind . . . The more

active children will be more interested and engaged in their new interactive environment.

Nica HOPE Seeks to provide education and vocational

training to marginalized communities in

Nicaragua. Current projects focus on the

Managua City trash dump community of La

Chureca, where hundreds live off the piles of

waste of the capital city.

1. Developed a child sponsorship program for

participating children of La Chureca, including

pictures, profiles, sponsorship levels, and a website.

2. Decorated, designed, and opened a cyber cafe

(including market research).

A sponsorship program would allow individuals, through a very small contribution, to help a child from the

La Chureca community complete their computer education, which can serve them for their future job search,

and keep them out of working in the trash.

New Life

Orphanage

Originally a feeding program for children

abandoned at birth or given over to the Center

by parents or the government, they are now a

full-blown orphanage for over 60 children.

1. Designed a fund-raising program that would use a

package to facilitate small dinners in homes to share

the mission of the organizationincluded all necessary

materials as well as slide show.

2. Designed a diaper donation project for the 3600 diapers

needed each month.

After working at the New Life Orphanage, I realized how money is so essential for the orphanage to keep

running and how much money they actually go through each day to pay their daily expenses. Before . . . I

was aware that any nonprofit organizations biggest concern is money, however having firsthand experience

at a placement like the orphanage has given me the opportunity to really see how much money is spent and

what it is spent on.

Ola Verde

Restaurante

A socially responsible business that emphasizes

regional, seasonal, health-oriented andecologically sustainable agriculture. Raises

awareness of locally grown and organic foods

through education and serves meals using

locally grown, and often organic foods.

Promotes local artisans in the restaurant.

Researched and designed an educational table

centerpiece, including commissioning local artisan andpaper company.

Even before we arrived in Managua we recognized the deficiency of nutritional awareness and availability;

we researched the devastating effects of malnutrition through every stage of life and realized that even the

most fundamental efforts would make a substantial difference . . . However it became shockingly apparent

once we actually arrived in the country how widespread the problem actually waseven animals

demonstrated the appalling effects of hunger . . . These problems that have even the simplest of solutions are

the motivating factors behind health awareness programs in Nicaragua.

Nejapa Christian

School

Academy has over 225 students. First school in

Central America accredited by the Assoc. of

Christian Schools Intl (ACSI); has realized itsgoal of offering a comparable education for

Nicaraguas middle class (families earning

$400$1000 per month).

Remodeled school library (with few books and resources);

organized a book-and-money drive to supply library

with $3000, 1500 pounds of books.

When I walked into the library of NCA, the only reason I knew that I was even in a library was because one

of the teachers told me. The schools library consisted of two table areas and five bookshelves of a random

selection of donated books. My goal is to provide the school with the resources and supplies to fill the library

with books and educational materials so that the school can carry out its mission of educating its children

more effectively. By giving them reference books, novels, maps, and money to buy more materials in

Spanish, students will have a different resource to practice their reading skills in both languages and have a

different resource to research and learn . . . Educational materials are sustainable because they have no

limited number of uses and can provide education for an immeasurable number of students.



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large vehicle, a couple of smaller vehicles, or hir-ing a driver. Public transportation was not avail-able. The faculty chose to drive in two smallervehicles to facilitate quicker delivery and pickupof students and to allow for flexibility for othercultural and entertainment excursions. However,this choice limited the number of students whocould participate in the program. Lessons learned

from the transportation decision included that (1)transportation can be very difficult and stressful in adeveloping country; therefore, consider multiple op-tions and weigh the costs and benefits of each, and(2) pay attention to the option of living on site for thedevelopment work or near public transportationroutes, if available, because the time and stress in-volved in transportation may be significant.

Family Immersion

Although some programs might have students live

with local families and others have students livetogether in a dormitory-type setting for the entireprogram, we chose to include a family stay withlocal Nicaraguan families for two nights duringthe stay. The other options have significant valueand should be considered. Our choice helped pro-vide students with a valuable cultural immersionexperience while dealing with the reality of thepoverty and vulnerability of most Nicaraguan cit-izens and answered their desire to spend extendedtimes in environments with consistent running wa-ter, electricity, and pest control. The Managuanstaff person formed a partnership with a local lan-

guage school that regularly placed students withlocal families as part of their education programs.Therefore, the school recruited local families whohad already passed through their screeningprocess.

Students lived in these local homes for oneweekend. This dimension of the program allowedfor deep cultural and language immersion for eachstudent, but the students were quite intimidated bythe prospect once they had experienced the pov-erty in Nicaragua. Faculty members reassuredthem by calling each student on the first night to

check on their safety and the appropriateness ofeach setting. Although two families were ratherwealthy, six families were poor, more typical of theworking-class population. All students commentedafterward that it was a worthwhile part of theexperience. The lessons learned from the indige-nous family immersion part of the program in-cluded that (1) it is important to provide an oppor-tunity for deep cultural immersion. The manner inwhich this takes place may vary with location, butit presents a significant learning experience, and

(2) it is necessary to push students beyond theircomfort zones while simultaneously providing sup-port and encouragement.

Course Structure

Before leaving for Nicaragua, students attended 55hours of intensive classes in the United States over

10 days. In addition to attending class and expec-tations of 6 8 hours of preparation homework eachday, students developed a sense of companionshipand affiliation. The bonds between students andfaculty played a role in the success of the program

The purpose of this pre-immersion period wastwofold: to minimize costs associated with the pro-gram (each week in country was far more expensive for students than time spent on the U.S. cam-pus) and to provide a useful framework andintroduction for both courses before immersingstudents in the culture and organizations tha

were the focus of the courses. They then spent 3weeks in Nicaragua working in a NGDO and vis-iting cultural locations and performances in addi-tion to attending 112 hours of class 4 days eachweek.

In designing the two courses, faculty chose read-ings, videos, and speakers that were pertinent tothe area. During the session prior to leaving theUnited States, students were exposed to the politics, history, culture, and writings of Central Amer-ica in general, and of Nicaragua specifically. Inaddition, they built a foundation of knowledge ofthe principles of SCD. Although having both

classes enhanced the learning for students, thecase example for the framework is the Social En-terprise Leadership course, so it is the sole focusof the remainder of the article.

In addition to reading a text and selected arti-cles, during the intensive coursework in the UnitedStates, students researched and delivered presentations on the underlying societal issues related tothe mission their placements. For example, students who would work with residents of a munic-ipal dump researched poverty rates and causes inNicaragua and specific information about La

Chureca, the Managua city dump. Likewise, stu-dents who would work at an orphanage researched birth and adoption rates and the complicated adoption process in Nicaragua. The researchwas intended to prepare students to understandand think carefully about the purposes and complexities of their specific placements. These student research projects set the stage for them on thetheoretical, cultural, and practical issues theywould be exposed to in the country. In fact, 15% otheir course grade was reflective of their written

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and verbal presentation of their research on theirspecific issue and their ability to lead a class dis-cussion on it.

While in Nicaragua, students worked at theirplacements 67 hours, 5 days each week and at-tended this class approximately 112 hours 2 dayseach week. Their work and professionalism, asassessed by the directors of their organizations,

constituted another 15% of their grades.Students were also required to write four reflec-

tive papers that integrated reading material withtheir experiences at their placements for 15% oftheir grades. In addition, several speakers whowere local residents and directors of NGDOs work-ing in the area attended class to speak withstudents about their own methods of SCD andleadership. Student preparation for class and in-volvement in class discussions as well as discus-sions with speakers and faculty comprised another15% of their grades for the course.

Journals are also a powerful source of reflection,often noted as a critical vehicle in service-learningcourses of this type (Cushman, 2002; Eyler, 2002;Eyler & Giles, 1999; Kenworthy-URen, 2003; Mabry,1998; Steiner & Watson, 2006). Students kept jour-nals and turned them in three times during thecourse for feedback and coaching. Kolbs model ofreflective learning (1984) was used with questionsthat asked students to develop their depth of re-flection over the course of the 3 weeks. The jour-nals comprised 10% of their course grades.

Finally, students were required to identify ameaningful improvement project to offer the or-

ganization. They were told it could take the formof a problem that you identify with the organiza-tion or something that is lacking that you can de-sign (and potentially implement) that would en-hance their operations or fit to their mission. Theintent of the major project was to give students anopportunity to pull together their knowledge ofSCD and to inform the experience they had, whilemaking a lasting impact on the organization. Thisproject constituted the remaining 30% of the stu-dents course grade, and it addressed four of thefive critical factors for successful service learning.1

Support for Students

Because of the intensity of the coursework and theemotional and physical stress of the experience ofliving and working in a third world country, it wasimportant to provide support and community forstudents. Bonds were established during the 2

weeks on campus prior to leaving for Nicaragua. Inaddition, students ate breakfast together each dayenjoyed visiting each others placements, andwere encouraged to go out together in the eveningseveral times each week. In addition, faculty orga-nized excursions that were both cultural and funon two weekends (when students did not havethe home stays). One key lesson learned from the

course structure was to emphasize relationahealth and friendships in addition to academicdevelopment. Sustainable community development and living in a third world culture place deepemotional and stressful burdens on students whichcan have a positive, life-changing impact given asupportive community.

Support for Faculty

The amount of work and the stress of the situationare weighty for faculty, as well. Establishing a

supportive community and opportunities for resand release are critical. The burden of transportingstudents, partnering with five agencies, preparingteaching, grading, managing the program budgetand living with students is draining and stressfulIt is important to recruit faculty who understandand embrace the required commitment. The twofaculty members who were part of this programbonded well with each other, enjoyed lunches together on many days, worked through budget issues and problems with student performancejointly, and generally enjoyed each others com

panionship. The companionship was critical topreserving energy and mental health. Lessonslearned that are pertinent to faculty satisfactionand commitment included paying attention to theneed for faculty community and support, and effec-tively developing and facilitating such a service-learning experience requires deep commitmenand energy. Faculty should be sensitized to thelevel of commitment. Last, there is significant reward for faculty in being involved in such an ex-perience with students, and faculty should be re-cruited with that reward in mind.

Connections and Evaluations

Using the Framework

I feel like my internship gave me a crash

course in sustainable development in the

Third World. I was introduced to several

topics and themes of sustainability

throughout my internship. From strategic

planning (as my boss was putting the1 Contact the author for a copy of the course syllabus.



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finishing touches on theirs), to integration,

to resource mobilization . . .Junior student

The column on the far right in Table 1 illustratescourse requirements that link with each principleof SCD and the critical elements of service learn-ing. Overall, the course received positive feedback

from organizational partners, faculty, and stu-dents. Each NGDO director was asked to give feed-back on the program and on the student(s) whoworked at their site. One hundred percent gavehighly favorable reviews of the program and favor-able or highly favorable reviews of the student(s)who worked at their site. Faculty acknowledgedthe difficulty of the model and the extra effort re-quired for such a pedagogical approach but alsothe strong educational value it offers for students.Finally, students evaluated the program very pos-itively. Although it was a rigorous and intensive

experience, they generally had positive reactionsand evaluated the experience highly. Seventy-fivepercent of students said they agreed or stronglyagreed that this experience was a life-changingevent that they would definitely choose to doagain, given the opportunity. The only weakness ofthe program that students expressed was that theywanted more pretravel information and that thecoursework was very rigorous.

In evaluating the framework of service learningfor teaching SCD, we found this course gives goodexamples of implementation of the five criticalprinciples. Rigorous coursework was integrated

with real work. Students witnessed the difficul-ties of actual application of the theories and prin-ciples written about in texts and articles. In fact,they could learn far more by bringing the conceptsto life than studying the complexities of SCD in athird world country in a sterile classroom setting.One student wrote:

Before I came to Nicaragua I was sure that Iknew what I believed was the best way tosolve poverty and reach the under-reachedpopulations of the world. Now that I have

experienced it, I am much more confused. Inever dreamed that I would think we shouldjust feed the poor or bring a school into thedump, because I didnt think that was sus-tainable. Now that I am here everyday, it isntso cut and dry. My internship . . . has been animmeasurable learning experience. I ammore confused about the non-profit sectorthan before but my interest has not waneddue to this experience. I have encounteredexamples of every type of organization and

leadership that I studied in class. . . . The peo-ple I met through this organization put a hu-man face on this industry and the communitywhich it serves.

Students initial research project on a critical is-sues such as poverty, education, adoption, disabilities, and nutrition as well as reading theoretical

and practical articles on SCD gave them theoreti-cal content knowledgeabout issues they needed tounderstand to make the greatest impact in theareas they served. They also integrated theircoursework on SCD with their experience and hadto evaluate the sustainability of their final projecbased on theory.

In addition to meeting the service-learning principle of integrating course content and real work,students learned practical solutions to poverty andthe other issues addressed by their organizationsThey began to wrestle with the difficulties of inte

grating theories of SCD with the practical, dailydire needs of the people they served. Addressingthose needs appropriately was more complex andambiguous than when they merely read abouthem. Experiencing them (smelling the smell odire poverty, becoming emotionally attached tochildren and staff, having to decide how to spendlimited resources on sustainable efforts or meetingimmediate needs) caused the theories to comealive.

Regarding studentvoice and ownership, facultyworked with both partnering organizations andstudents to ensure that students were given o

initiated meaningful projects and had adequateindependence in identifying and developing theseThis ownership allowed students to develop theirown thinking about pertinent issues. One studenwrote I have found that the more time I am working on my projects . . . the more I am agreeing withand identifying with the main ideas that I amworking with. I have always known that organicfood is better to eat but I never knew the extent towhich organics are good for the entire world.

Student ownership and autonomy in these projects modeled the power of letting people solve

their own problems. They were not merely told thaallowing people to be involved and own their owncommunity solutions was more sustainable than aNorthern entity coming in with all the answersthey experienced that power. They understood thefrustration and the motivation that results fromhaving to come up with answers of their own thatwere not handed to them.

Students worked with the directors of their organizations to ensure the project they designedwould be useful and practical to the organization

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which met the reciprocity and partnership factors.One director and codirector commented that theyhad wanted to get a cyber cafe running for nearlya year, but didnt have the time to research anddevelop it. The students accomplished in threeweeks what we had been dreaming of for a year.Again, through this process, they not only learnedthe value of partnership, they experienced it.

The journals and reflection papers also providedopportunities for students to reflect on what theywere learning. Kolbs (1984) model of reflectiongave them specific questions to consider as theyworked through the four stages of reflection. Inaddition, reflective paper assignments asked themto integrate what they were reading with theirexperiences and special speakers.

Not only did the students learn more throughthinking and writing about their experiences andreactions, but they learned about adaptability.They learned that in taking the time to reflect, an

individual or an organization can change perspec-tive and adjust. Without reflection people andgroups are likely to merely react.

The final critical principle of service learning isan explicit statement of the moral values to begained from the experience. It is linked to the SCDprinciple of ensuring that the indigenous commu-nity is prepared to continue with the initiativesafter the NGDO departs. In this context, we exam-ine whether students understand sustainabilityand can evaluate whether their proposals and themissions of their organizations are sustainable.

Students evaluated the strength of their partner

organizations in the significant principles of SCD.They demonstrated that they understood the con-tent as well as the complexities of enacting SCDthrough their involvement with organizations thatwere succeeding at varying levels. Students wererequired to write a detailed, practical plan for im-plementing their project, but they were not re-quired, due to time constraints, to actually put it inplace. In some cases, students were able to imple-ment their projects, such as the one student whoconducted a book raising and received over 1500pounds of books for the school library where he

worked (the books were delivered to the schoolover the next 8 months after the student returned tothe United States). In other cases, the students hadto evaluate whether their plan was capable of be-ing implemented and sustained in their absence.Table 2 provides a list of the student projects ateach organization.

The second part of this principle refers towhether the experience has changed student val-ues and understanding in a sustainable way. Mea-suring the sustainability of the change in student

character is more difficult and was the weakestdimension in this course design. Faculty sharedwith each other some values they hoped studentswould acquire or, at a minimum, respond to, butdid not share these values explicitly with studentsThere was no specific deliverable connected tovalues development; therefore, the evaluation othe effectiveness on this dimension is not system

atic. Furthermore, whether the students who self-selected into such an experience already had thecommitment to justice and community outreachand development is unclear. In future courses onSCD, values should be explicitly stated and theirdevelopment measured. Data should be collectedpre- and postprogram to assess whether values aredeveloped and sustained.

Students were asked, however, toreflecton theirjourney in their final project assignment: How didyou come up with this particular project? Whatdoes it mean to you? Why do you have passion

about it in particular? What experiences, trainingskills, events brought you to this place?Postanalysis shows that all students repor

plans to remain involved in NGDOs in the futureTen months after the end of the program, one stu-dent accepted a Fulbright Fellowship to teach En-glish in Japan. Another student has applied for apostgraduate scholarship program in developmentin third world countries. In her application shestated, My belief in global justice, my humanitar-ian values along with my love of culture haveinspired me to follow a field of study concernedwith international relations and sustainable inter-

national development . . . My aspirations to work inthe field of international service and developmenwere solidified in my experience working in thethird world last summer. Another student has be-gun sitting as an ex-officio board member of alarge local nonprofit organization to gain under-standing of governance and leadership issuesTwo other students are doing summer internshipsin U.S. nonprofit organizations to further their un-derstanding of the field and to use their businesscourses to serve the nonprofit sector. One sophomore student reported, from boarding a plane for

the first time in many years, to visiting the shoresof Lake Managua, to reaching into the farthesdepths of poverty I can ever imagine, this will bean experience I will never forget.

DISCUSSION

This article makes two significant contributions tothe field of management education. First, it inte-grates the published work on SCD and servicelearning. To my knowledge, these literatures have



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not been systematically integrated before, and theframework presented here provides a powerful toolfor enhancing student learning of this increasinglydemanded topic. Second, the case provides a use-ful example of how to design and deliver a courseon SCD or social enterprise development in a chal-lenging environment (a third world country). Be-low I discuss each contribution briefly and then

present potential adaptations and extensions.The challenge set out at the beginning of this

paper was to address the increasing demand fromuniversity students and communities to teach so-cial enterprise or SCD courses. I have demon-strated that this content is particularly well suitedfor service-learning pedagogy. As a result of ex-amining the service learning and SCD literaturestogether, five important principles necessary toSCD map nicely onto key characteristics of effec-tive service-learning delivery. This integration re-sults in a framework useful in outlining how to

deliver the key principles of SCD in a way thatenhances learning, and potentially the sustain-able development in students of lifelong valuesand principles.

In the case example, the faculty designed acourse that met all the criteria for successful ser-vice learning, with the exception of explicitly shar-ing the values that they hoped students woulddevelop during the experience. Regarding devel-oping those values, the students show some anec-dotal evidence of sharing the commitment to socialengagement, appreciation of diverse populations,and appreciation of the privilege of being born in a

resource-rich country. The various assessmenttools used in the course indicate significant learn-ing about SCD and appropriate interventions in athird world country, but whether students valueswere affected in the long term remains to be seen.

Teaching a service-learning course in an inter-national location away from the sponsoring uni-versity and away from faculty homes presentsunique challenges compared to domestic service-learning courses. The vast majority of the service-learning literature regards domestic experiencesnear the university resources and the faculty con-

tacts. Thus, this article can serve as a resource tofaculty who intend to offer a similar experienceand want a model to follow.

The rewards outweighed the difficulty for thefaculty involved in this experience. Keys to makingit successful included partnering faculty who pro-vided encouragement and support for each other,developing local contacts to facilitate placementsand logistical arrangements, having at least onefaculty member fluent in the local language (Span-ish), doing a careful screening of students for fit,

and having a sense of flexibility and adventureThe specific lessons learned are captured in Ap-pendix B. Several adaptations may be necessaryand these are discussed below.

Adaptation and Future Directions

Theoretically, the framework presented here

makes sense as an effective way to teach SCD, butests of its effectiveness are limited to one example. Further evidence from international and do-mestic programs will shed light on its replicabilityMy university has continued to develop resourcesand educational opportunities in Nicaragua. Amultidisciplinary research team is collecting longitudinal data on development opportunities andefforts. I encourage faculty at other universities toreplicate this framework and to continue to studyand share findings on this important content area

To develop and deliver such a course requires

exceptional resources from the university and faculty involved, which are difficult to find in a devel-oping country. To sustain such programs, univer-sities need to develop financial resources as welas a pool of faculty willing to engage in suchprojects. Any single faculty member is unlikely towant to deliver this type of course consistently. Apool of faculty could be used to provide oversightand insight and to evaluate course proposals andprogram issues as well as support and mentorshipto faculty delivering courses at a given time. Uni-versities must also commit to in-country staff tomanage program logistics.

Transportation logistics combined with the ped-agogical choice to place students in variousNGDOs as individuals or pairs require that theclass be quite small. In some universities, coursesof less than 10 students are not financially viabletherefore, some constraints in this case examplewould need to be relaxed. If the class size grewlarger, faculty might place groups of students atthe same organization to facilitate transportation and coordination demands. Faculty need tobe cognizant of the tradeoffs resulting from thesedecisions.

A grant used to underwrite some costs of thiscase example facilitated reasonable costs to students, but other constraints in the example couldbe relaxed to make the experience more cost effective if grant money was not available to offseexpenses. For example, finding a location wherepublic transportation was readily available wouldreduce expenses and allow for more placemenopportunities. In addition, living in dormlike facil-ities could reduce costs, compared to those of thesmall, family-owned hotel used in this case. Finan-

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cial considerations may lead to changes in theoperationalization of a course, but the pedagogicalimplications can remain true to the model pre-sented here.

Risk assessment is critical for such programs.Theuniversitysexposureisincreasedbecausethird-world countries have volatile political and eco-nomic systems in addition to increased health and

welfare risks for students and faculty. Finally,placements that fit with students interest and ex-pertise and allow for meaningful work and auton-omy for students are critical (Morgan & Streb, 2001;Salimbene et al., 2005). Finding enough of thesetypes of placements that are also within transpor-tation and other logistical parameters is difficult.Developing a network with numerous organiza-tions over time is critical for success, and univer-sities may not have access to these relationships.

CONCLUSION

Universities have an increasing interest in devel-oping meaningful courses on topics such as SCDand social enterprise. The nature of these coursesand the complexity of the issues are best taughtwith a service-learning pedagogy. These topics donot have to be taught in a third world context. Theyare applicable to many contexts, including urbanand rural America. The framework of key princi-ples coupled with elements from service learningcan be utilized across contexts, and tests of theframework in a variety of contexts are welcome

and encouraged. The course presented here as acase example demonstrates the usefulness of theframework in a single context. The case can informfaculty about important considerations and ad-dress many of the issues that other faculty mem-bers would need to consider when developing sim-ilar programs.

APPENDIX A

Summary of Lessons Learned in Case Example

1. Identify a local contact in the host country to help develop

key partnership, relationships, and options for housing,

restaurants, etc.

2. Getting to know as much about the country and culture

before taking students is helpful in answering their ques-

tions and alleviating concerns of parents.

3. Establishing relationships with NGDOs that may serve

as sites for the experience is very important as a first step

in the reciprocal relationship essential to effective ser-

vice learning.

4. It is critical to have an open mind for potential placement

opportunities and to be flexible in matching opportuni-

ties with student interests and skills.

5. Try not to place all students in the same organization.

Students will have a richer experience if they are placed

individually or in very small groups in organizations so

they cannot hide.

6. The living location is critical to provide opportunities for

students and faculty to both interact in the local culture

and live relatively stress free.

7. All constituents are interested in safety and health so

take the measures necessary to assure faculty, stu-dents, and parents that these issues have been given

significant consideration.

8. Transportation can be very difficult and stressful in a

developing country; therefore, consider multiple options

and weigh the costs and benefits of each.

9. Pay attention to the option of living on site for the devel

opment work or near public transportation routes, be-

cause the time and stress involved in transportation may

be significant.

10. Emphasize relational health and friendships in addition

to academic development. Sustainable development and

living in a third world culture place deep emotional and

stressful burdens on students, which can have a positive,

life-changing impact, given a supportive community.

11. Pay attention to the need for faculty community and sup-

port.

12. Effectively developing and facilitating such a service-

learning experience requires deep commitment and en-

ergy. Faculty should be sensitized to the level of commit-

ment.

13. There is significant reward for faculty in being involved

in such an experience with students; faculty should be

recruited with that reward in mind.

APPENDIX B

Checklist for Trip Preparation

Meet with directors of NGDOs to develop catalog of placement

opportunities

Learn their mission, opportunities, and needs Express the learning focus of the experience and the

importance of meaningful work and student voiceand involvement in developing a worthwhile project

Develop partnerships where both student and orga-nization gain significantly from the experience

Assess other opportunities and connections in com-munity (build a network)

Explore housing opportunities and reserve housing venueDiscover cultural and entertainment opportunities

Determine most appropriate transportation and secure trans-

portation mode

Conduct safety and risk assessment (use university resources

for assistance)

Explore opportunities for opening dinners, group events, team

building, quiet study and reflection opportunities, fitness fa-

cilities, and Internet access

Locate important facilities

Bank or currency exchange locations Hospital



18/20

Pharmacy Grocery U.S. Embassy or police Post office Printing facility

Arrange for family stays

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