SUSTAINABLE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

Subject materials for “Paradigm of sustainable Subject materials for “Paradigm of sustainable development”development”

1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Meeting human needs forms the Meeting human needs forms the bedrock of sustainable development.bedrock of sustainable development.

Sustainable development means Sustainable development means achieving a quality of life that can be achieving a quality of life that can be maintained for many generations.maintained for many generations.

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

Sustainable Development, a term Sustainable Development, a term commonly defined as commonly defined as

““economic and social development that economic and social development that meets the needs of the current generation meets the needs of the current generation without undermining the ability of future without undermining the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. generations to meet their own needs”.

This almost universally quoted definition This almost universally quoted definition was produced in 1987 by the World was produced in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), otherwise known as Development (WCED), otherwise known as the Brundtland Commission (after its the Brundtland Commission (after its Chairwoman, Gro Harlem Brundtland, Chairwoman, Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway).Prime Minister of Norway).

Brundtland, Gro HarlemBrundtland, Gro Harlem Bruntland,Bruntland, Gro Harlem (1939- ), Norwegian doctor Gro Harlem (1939- ), Norwegian doctor

and politician, Prime Minister of Norway (1981, and politician, Prime Minister of Norway (1981, 1986-1989, 1990-1996). Brundtland is the 1986-1989, 1990-1996). Brundtland is the youngest person and first woman ever to have youngest person and first woman ever to have held the position of prime minister in her country. held the position of prime minister in her country. Born in Oslo, she took a degree in medicine from Born in Oslo, she took a degree in medicine from Oslo University in 1963, and a Master’s degree Oslo University in 1963, and a Master’s degree from Harvard University in Public Health in 1965. from Harvard University in Public Health in 1965. She was elected to the Norwegian parliament in She was elected to the Norwegian parliament in 1977 and served as assistant senior medical 1977 and served as assistant senior medical officer at the Oslo Board of Health (1969-1974), officer at the Oslo Board of Health (1969-1974), and as Minister of the Environment from 1974 to and as Minister of the Environment from 1974 to 1979. She served as Prime Minister in a Labour 1979. She served as Prime Minister in a Labour government from February to October 1981, and government from February to October 1981, and again from 1986 to 1989 and from 1990 to 1996. again from 1986 to 1989 and from 1990 to 1996.

She was parliamentary leader of the She was parliamentary leader of the Labour Party from 1981 to 1986, and was Labour Party from 1981 to 1986, and was its chair from 1981 until 1992, when she its chair from 1981 until 1992, when she stepped down after her son’s suicide. She stepped down after her son’s suicide. She submitted Norway’s application to join the submitted Norway’s application to join the European Union and strongly advocated European Union and strongly advocated membership, but the Norwegian membership, but the Norwegian population rejected this in a referendum population rejected this in a referendum held in November 1994. held in November 1994.

She also headed the United Nations World She also headed the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development. In Commission on Environment and Development. In October 1996 she unexpectedly resigned as Prime October 1996 she unexpectedly resigned as Prime Minister, prompting speculation that she was seeking Minister, prompting speculation that she was seeking the post of Secretary-General of the United Nations, the post of Secretary-General of the United Nations, but in the event the Ghanaian Kofi Annan was elected but in the event the Ghanaian Kofi Annan was elected instead. She handed over her office to her successor instead. She handed over her office to her successor as Labour Party leader, Thorbjoern Jagland.as Labour Party leader, Thorbjoern Jagland.

Brundtland is known for her principled stand on Brundtland is known for her principled stand on issues ranging from the environment to women’s issues ranging from the environment to women’s rights, and has lent her name to several widely rights, and has lent her name to several widely publicized reports. In July 1998 she was elected publicized reports. In July 1998 she was elected Director-General of the World Health Organization, Director-General of the World Health Organization, the first woman to hold the postthe first woman to hold the post..

II BUILDING HIGH-LEVEL COMMITMENT II BUILDING HIGH-LEVEL COMMITMENT

Since the mid 1970s, sustainable Since the mid 1970s, sustainable development has emerged as the preferred development has emerged as the preferred way of dealing with the rapid degradation of way of dealing with the rapid degradation of the natural environment.the natural environment.

The first global meeting on this issue, the The first global meeting on this issue, the U.N. Conference on the Human U.N. Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, focused mainly on the Environment in 1972, focused mainly on the environmental issues, such as pollution and environmental issues, such as pollution and waste, that were most evident in the waste, that were most evident in the wealthy nations, and associated with wealthy nations, and associated with industrial development and a rapid growth industrial development and a rapid growth in consumption. in consumption.

Much less attention was given to the needs Much less attention was given to the needs of lower income countries of the developing of lower income countries of the developing world (commonly referred to as the South, world (commonly referred to as the South, because of their geographical position) for because of their geographical position) for stronger and more stable economies, as stronger and more stable economies, as well as environmental improvement.well as environmental improvement.

Although the need to combine Although the need to combine development and environment goals was development and environment goals was becoming evident, more emphasis was becoming evident, more emphasis was placed on the “limits to growth” arising placed on the “limits to growth” arising from shortages in resources such as metals from shortages in resources such as metals and fossil fuels.and fossil fuels.

The new concern for what later became The new concern for what later became labelled “sustainable development” is evident labelled “sustainable development” is evident in the Cocoyoc Declaration of 1974, which in the Cocoyoc Declaration of 1974, which addressed the issue of how to respect the addressed the issue of how to respect the “inner limit” of satisfying fundamental human “inner limit” of satisfying fundamental human needs within the “outer limits” of the Earth’s needs within the “outer limits” of the Earth’s carrying capacity.carrying capacity.

But it was the World Conservation Strategy But it was the World Conservation Strategy of 1980 that launched sustainable of 1980 that launched sustainable development into the international policy development into the international policy arena, stressing the importance of integrating arena, stressing the importance of integrating environmental protection and conservation environmental protection and conservation values into the development processvalues into the development process

The Brundtland Commission then paved the way for The Brundtland Commission then paved the way for the UN Conference on Environment and Development the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), otherwise known as the Earth Summit, in (UNCED), otherwise known as the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. This conference approved a Rio de Janeiro in 1992. This conference approved a set of five agreements:set of five agreements:

1) Agenda 21—a global plan of action for sustainable 1) Agenda 21—a global plan of action for sustainable development, containing over 100 programme areas, development, containing over 100 programme areas, ranging from trade and environment, through ranging from trade and environment, through agriculture and desertification, to capacity building agriculture and desertification, to capacity building and technology transfer.and technology transfer.

2) The Rio Declaration on Environment and 2) The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development—a statement of 27 key principles to Development—a statement of 27 key principles to guide the integration of environment and guide the integration of environment and development policies (including the polluter pays, development policies (including the polluter pays, prevention, and precautionary and participation prevention, and precautionary and participation principles).principles).

3) The Statement of Principles on Forests—the first 3) The Statement of Principles on Forests—the first global consensus on the management, global consensus on the management, conservation, and sustainable development of the conservation, and sustainable development of the world’s forests.world’s forests.

4) The Framework Convention on Climate Change4) The Framework Convention on Climate Change—a legally binding agreement to stabilize —a legally binding agreement to stabilize greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at levels that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at levels that will not upset the global climate.will not upset the global climate.

5) The Convention on Biological Diversity—a legally 5) The Convention on Biological Diversity—a legally binding agreement to conserve the world’s genetic, binding agreement to conserve the world’s genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity and share the species, and ecosystem diversity and share the benefits of its use in a fair and equitable way.benefits of its use in a fair and equitable way.

III IMPLEMENTING THE IDEA III IMPLEMENTING THE IDEA

Now that high-level legal and political Now that high-level legal and political commitments have been made to commitments have been made to sustainable development, attention is sustainable development, attention is focusing on what the concept actually focusing on what the concept actually means and how to put it into practice, means and how to put it into practice, for example, by preparing policies for for example, by preparing policies for sustainable agriculture, directing sustainable agriculture, directing support at sustainable forestry, or support at sustainable forestry, or developing national sustainability developing national sustainability strategies. strategies.

The Brundtland Commission’s definition, The Brundtland Commission’s definition, while widely used, provides little guidance while widely used, provides little guidance of how to implement sustainable of how to implement sustainable development. The absence of a clear development. The absence of a clear definition has allowed some to claim that definition has allowed some to claim that they are practising sustainable they are practising sustainable development, while essentially retaining development, while essentially retaining their earlier approaches.their earlier approaches.

Part of the problem lies in the confusion Part of the problem lies in the confusion that surrounds what is actually that surrounds what is actually “sustained” by “sustainable “sustained” by “sustainable development”. development”.

Although the term “sustainable” is most Although the term “sustainable” is most widely used to refer to the maintenance widely used to refer to the maintenance of ecological systems and resources, it of ecological systems and resources, it has also been applied to the economic, has also been applied to the economic, social, and even cultural spheres.social, and even cultural spheres.

This broad application of “sustainability” is This broad application of “sustainability” is perhaps not surprising, since sustainable perhaps not surprising, since sustainable development is by nature an development is by nature an interdisciplinary concept, drawing on the interdisciplinary concept, drawing on the social and physical sciences as well as law, social and physical sciences as well as law, management, and politics. management, and politics.

It is also a dynamic approach which, It is also a dynamic approach which, according to the Brundtland Commission, according to the Brundtland Commission, is “a process of change in which the is “a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of investments, the orientation of technological development, and technological development, and institutional change are all in harmony and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations”.to meet human needs and aspirations”.

What the Earth Summit did make clear is What the Earth Summit did make clear is that meeting human needs forms the that meeting human needs forms the bedrock of sustainable development. bedrock of sustainable development.

Thus, according to the World Health Thus, according to the World Health Organization, “the most immediate Organization, “the most immediate environmental problems in the world are environmental problems in the world are the ill-health and premature death caused the ill-health and premature death caused by biological agents in the human by biological agents in the human environment in water, food, air or soil”.environment in water, food, air or soil”.

IV MEETING THE GOALS OF SUSTAINABLE IV MEETING THE GOALS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

A commitment to meet the needs of A commitment to meet the needs of present and future generations has present and future generations has various implications. “Meeting the needs various implications. “Meeting the needs of the present” means satisfying:of the present” means satisfying:

1) Economic needs—including access to an 1) Economic needs—including access to an adequate livelihood or productive assets; adequate livelihood or productive assets; also economic security when unemployed, also economic security when unemployed, ill, disabled or otherwise unable to secure ill, disabled or otherwise unable to secure a livelihood.a livelihood.

2) Social, cultural, and health needs—2) Social, cultural, and health needs—including a shelter which is healthy, safe, including a shelter which is healthy, safe, affordable, and secure, within a affordable, and secure, within a neighbourhood with provision for piped neighbourhood with provision for piped water, drainage, transport, health care, water, drainage, transport, health care, education, child development, and protection education, child development, and protection from environmental hazards. Services must from environmental hazards. Services must meet the specific needs of children and of meet the specific needs of children and of adults responsible for children (mostly adults responsible for children (mostly women). Achieving this implies a more women). Achieving this implies a more equitable distribution of income between equitable distribution of income between nations and, in most cases, within nationsnations and, in most cases, within nations

3) Political needs—including freedom to 3) Political needs—including freedom to participate in national and local politics participate in national and local politics and in decisions regarding the and in decisions regarding the management and development of one’s management and development of one’s home and neighbourhood, within a home and neighbourhood, within a broader framework that ensures respect broader framework that ensures respect for civil and political rights and the for civil and political rights and the implementation of environmental implementation of environmental legislationlegislation

Meeting such needs “without undermining Meeting such needs “without undermining the ability of future generations to meet the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” means:their own needs” means:

1) Minimizing use or waste of non-1) Minimizing use or waste of non-renewable resources—including renewable resources—including minimizing the consumption of fossil fuels minimizing the consumption of fossil fuels and substituting with renewable sources and substituting with renewable sources where feasible. Also, minimizing the waste where feasible. Also, minimizing the waste of scarce mineral resources (by reducing of scarce mineral resources (by reducing use, reusing, recycling, and reclaiming).use, reusing, recycling, and reclaiming).

2) Sustainable use of renewable resources—2) Sustainable use of renewable resources—including using freshwater, soils, and forests including using freshwater, soils, and forests in ways that ensure a natural rate of in ways that ensure a natural rate of recharge.recharge.

3) Keeping within the absorptive capacity of 3) Keeping within the absorptive capacity of local and global sinks for wastes—including local and global sinks for wastes—including the capacity of rivers to break down the capacity of rivers to break down biodegradable wastes as well as the biodegradable wastes as well as the capacity of global environmental systems, capacity of global environmental systems, such as climate, to absorb greenhouse such as climate, to absorb greenhouse gases.gases.

V DRIFTING TOWARDS UNSUSTAINABILITY V DRIFTING TOWARDS UNSUSTAINABILITY

At present, these “preconditions” are rarely At present, these “preconditions” are rarely being met. As a result, the world appears to being met. As a result, the world appears to be locked into a number of downward be locked into a number of downward trends, which are moving away from, rather trends, which are moving away from, rather than towards, sustainability. The roots of than towards, sustainability. The roots of this decline are many, but can be clustered this decline are many, but can be clustered into two broad groups: market failures, into two broad groups: market failures, where economic transactions fail to take where economic transactions fail to take account of social or environmental costs; account of social or environmental costs;

and policy failures, where governments and policy failures, where governments inadvertently encourage environmental inadvertently encourage environmental degradation, for example by subsidizing degradation, for example by subsidizing energy and water use. The issue is energy and water use. The issue is therefore not one of whether governments therefore not one of whether governments should intervene to steer development should intervene to steer development towards sustainability, but how.towards sustainability, but how.

VI BALANCING OBJECTIVES VI BALANCING OBJECTIVES

Sustainable development aims to reverse these Sustainable development aims to reverse these downward trends. There is a growing consensus downward trends. There is a growing consensus that sustainable development means achieving a that sustainable development means achieving a quality of life that can be maintained for many quality of life that can be maintained for many generations because it is:generations because it is:

1) Socially desirable—fulfilling people’s cultural, 1) Socially desirable—fulfilling people’s cultural, material, and spiritual needs in equitable ways.material, and spiritual needs in equitable ways.

2) Economically viable—paying for itself, with 2) Economically viable—paying for itself, with costs not exceeding income.costs not exceeding income.

3) Ecologically sustainable—maintaining the long-3) Ecologically sustainable—maintaining the long-term viability of supporting ecosystems.term viability of supporting ecosystems.

Sustainable development will entail Sustainable development will entail integration of these three objectives where integration of these three objectives where possible, and making hard choices and possible, and making hard choices and negotiating trade-offs between objectives negotiating trade-offs between objectives where integration is not possible. These where integration is not possible. These negotiations will be greatly influenced by negotiations will be greatly influenced by factors such as peace and security, factors such as peace and security, prevailing economic interests, political prevailing economic interests, political systems, institutional arrangements, and systems, institutional arrangements, and cultural norms. cultural norms.

For example, the role of women in shaping For example, the role of women in shaping policies and actions may be more restricted policies and actions may be more restricted in Islamic countries, and the ability of the in Islamic countries, and the ability of the public to participate in this process may be public to participate in this process may be more limited under authoritarian systems. more limited under authoritarian systems. There is no blueprint for sustainable There is no blueprint for sustainable development. It needs to be defined to development. It needs to be defined to meet and respect the particular needs and meet and respect the particular needs and circumstances of individual countries, circumstances of individual countries, societies, and cultures.societies, and cultures.

Traditionally, societies have attempted to Traditionally, societies have attempted to set social, economic, and environmental set social, economic, and environmental goals, but often in isolation from one goals, but often in isolation from one another. Thus, for instance, nature another. Thus, for instance, nature conservation targets have been set conservation targets have been set without regard to the goals for economic without regard to the goals for economic growth or poverty reduction. growth or poverty reduction.

The result has been the creation of short-The result has been the creation of short-lived “green islands” in a sea of lived “green islands” in a sea of unsustainability. Decision-makers are now unsustainability. Decision-makers are now becoming aware that environmental goals becoming aware that environmental goals can only be achieved by integrating them can only be achieved by integrating them into mainstream social and economic into mainstream social and economic policy-making.policy-making.

VII MAKING TRADE-OFFS VII MAKING TRADE-OFFS

A pragmatic way of tackling the question A pragmatic way of tackling the question “how best to achieve sustainable “how best to achieve sustainable development?” is to start with the premise development?” is to start with the premise that development intrinsically involves that development intrinsically involves trade-offs between potentially opposing trade-offs between potentially opposing goals, such as between economic growth goals, such as between economic growth and resource conservation, or between and resource conservation, or between modern technology and indigenous modern technology and indigenous practices. These conflicts are often real, but practices. These conflicts are often real, but vary according to circumstances. vary according to circumstances.

Poverty is frequently cited as a cause of Poverty is frequently cited as a cause of environmental degradation, but there are environmental degradation, but there are many examples of poor societies many examples of poor societies improving their environment. For example, improving their environment. For example, in Karachi, Pakistan, a group of some in Karachi, Pakistan, a group of some 1,000 households known as the Welfare 1,000 households known as the Welfare Colony has installed its own sanitation Colony has installed its own sanitation system. system.

Similarly, it is often stated that Similarly, it is often stated that population growth in developing population growth in developing countries is inevitably on a collision countries is inevitably on a collision course with the resource base. course with the resource base. However, there are cases where However, there are cases where population growth has been population growth has been associated with better management associated with better management of existing levels of resources (e.g. in of existing levels of resources (e.g. in the Machakos area in Kenya). the Machakos area in Kenya).

Equally, there is no necessary link Equally, there is no necessary link between economic growth and between economic growth and environmental damage: the policy environmental damage: the policy challenge is to drive a wedge between challenge is to drive a wedge between rising incomes on the one hand, and rising incomes on the one hand, and resource use and pollution on the other, a resource use and pollution on the other, a task that has proved hard to realize in task that has proved hard to realize in practice.practice.

The aim of sustainable development is The aim of sustainable development is thus to optimize the realization of a thus to optimize the realization of a society’s many different social, society’s many different social, environmental, and economic objectives at environmental, and economic objectives at one and the same time. Preferably, this one and the same time. Preferably, this should be achieved through an adaptive should be achieved through an adaptive process of integration, but more usually it process of integration, but more usually it will require bargains (trade-offs) struck will require bargains (trade-offs) struck amongst the different interest groups amongst the different interest groups concerned. concerned.

Critical to this process is the recognition Critical to this process is the recognition that different perspectives on environment that different perspectives on environment and development are both inevitable and and development are both inevitable and legitimate. There could be, for example, legitimate. There could be, for example, very different environmental priorities very different environmental priorities between aid donors, recipient between aid donors, recipient governments, and the poor of developing governments, and the poor of developing countries.countries.

One way of looking at these trade-offs is to One way of looking at these trade-offs is to take an economic approach and identify take an economic approach and identify the human and natural “capital stocks” the human and natural “capital stocks” that are needed for development. Explicit that are needed for development. Explicit policies are required to maintain and policies are required to maintain and enhance our natural capital and the enhance our natural capital and the services it provides for development, such services it provides for development, such as raw materials, fresh water, and a stable as raw materials, fresh water, and a stable climate. climate.

Within natural capital, distinctions will Within natural capital, distinctions will need to be made between critical stocks, need to be made between critical stocks, which are irreplaceable and which should which are irreplaceable and which should not be traded off against social and not be traded off against social and economic goals, and those which can be economic goals, and those which can be exchanged in return for building up exchanged in return for building up technological capital, therefore technological capital, therefore maintaining constant levels of overall maintaining constant levels of overall capital stocks.capital stocks.

VIII THE PARTICIPATION PRINCIPLEVIII THE PARTICIPATION PRINCIPLE

The question then arises, “who should make The question then arises, “who should make the decisions on trade-offs?” Here, Agenda the decisions on trade-offs?” Here, Agenda 21 calls for the widest possible participation 21 calls for the widest possible participation in international negotiations, such as in international negotiations, such as UNCED, in national and local sustainable UNCED, in national and local sustainable development strategy-making exercises and development strategy-making exercises and in project design and implementation. in project design and implementation. Participation is crucial not only for the Participation is crucial not only for the effectiveness and legitimacy of actions, but effectiveness and legitimacy of actions, but also because of the relative lack of also because of the relative lack of “scientific” tools and indicators which can “scientific” tools and indicators which can give policy makers instant answers. give policy makers instant answers.

Developing and using consensus-building and Developing and using consensus-building and conflict-resolution techniques will therefore conflict-resolution techniques will therefore be an important element of sustainable be an important element of sustainable development. Much effort is being put into development. Much effort is being put into defining indicators of sustainability, but it is defining indicators of sustainability, but it is very difficult to say what is sustainable; it is very difficult to say what is sustainable; it is far easier to say what is unsustainable. New far easier to say what is unsustainable. New performance indicators are needed, such as performance indicators are needed, such as improved “rates of change” environmental improved “rates of change” environmental indicators, as well as “barometric” indicators indicators, as well as “barometric” indicators of progress towards or away from sustainable of progress towards or away from sustainable development.development.

National governments are responsible for providing National governments are responsible for providing the conditions which both permit and facilitate the the conditions which both permit and facilitate the necessary dialogue and negotiation between all necessary dialogue and negotiation between all sectors and interest groups in society. The sectors and interest groups in society. The development of national strategies for sustainable development of national strategies for sustainable development, called for in Agenda 21, could lead to development, called for in Agenda 21, could lead to greater democracy, encourage an overhaul of greater democracy, encourage an overhaul of institutional arrangements, administrative institutional arrangements, administrative procedures, and legislative frameworks, as well as procedures, and legislative frameworks, as well as fostering consensus among different strata and fostering consensus among different strata and groupings in society. Aid donors can support such groupings in society. Aid donors can support such home-driven processes in recipient countries by home-driven processes in recipient countries by coordinating their activities, by not imposing coordinating their activities, by not imposing external models, and by refocusing existing external models, and by refocusing existing investments to bring them in line with national goals investments to bring them in line with national goals for sustainable development.for sustainable development.

ReadingReading Conway, Gordon R., and Pretty, Jules N. Conway, Gordon R., and Pretty, Jules N.

Unwelcome Harvest. Agriculture and Unwelcome Harvest. Agriculture and Pollution. London: Earthscan, 1991. Effects Pollution. London: Earthscan, 1991. Effects of pesticides, fertilisers, farm wastes, air of pesticides, fertilisers, farm wastes, air pollution, agrochemicals. pollution, agrochemicals.

Pretty, J. N. Regenerating Agriculture: Pretty, J. N. Regenerating Agriculture: Policies and Practice for Sustainability and Policies and Practice for Sustainability and Self-Reliance. London: Earthscan, 1995. Self-Reliance. London: Earthscan, 1995. Extensive practical strategy. Extensive practical strategy.

World Commission on Environmental and World Commission on Environmental and Development. Our Common Future. Oxford Development. Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, 1987. Major reportUniversity Press, 1987. Major report