sustainable biodiversity

8/12/2019 sustainable biodiversity

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Introduction to Biodiversity And Its Extinction

The term BIODIVERSITY was first coined by the entomologist E.O. Wilson in 1986

A neologism from biology and diversity, it refers to the variety of life on the planet. There is no

single standard definition for biodiversity.

Biodiversity may be defined as the totality of different organisms, the genes they contain, and the

ecosystems they form.

The Convention on Biological Diversity defines biodiversity as the variability among living

organisms from all sources including, among other things, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic

ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within

species, between species and of ecosystems.

Biodiversity may be considered at three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity, and

ecosystem diversity

A species may be defined as a group of organisms which are able to interbreed freely under

natural conditions to produce viable offspring

Species diversity may be measured using the following characteristics:

Species richness - the number of species within a particular sample area.

Species evenness this refers to the evenness in number of individuals of each species in the area

Therefore, species diversity can be assessed in terms of the number of species or the range of

different types of species an area contains

Extinction

Inbiology andecology,extinctionis the end of anorganism or of a group of organisms (taxon),

normally aspecies.The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last

individual of the species, although thecapacity to breed and recover may have been lost before

this point.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology


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Types of extinction

Local extinction, or extirpation, is the condition of aspecies (or othertaxon)which ceases to

exist in the chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions

are contrasted with global extinctions. Most local extinctions involve losses of one or more

populations of species.

Ecological extinctionis defined as the reduction of a species to such low abundance that,

although it is still present in the community, it no longer interacts significantly with other

species.

Ecological extinction stands out because it is the interaction ecology of a species that is

important for conservation work. They state that unless the species interacts significantly with

other species in the community (e.g. it is an important predator, competitor, symbiont, mutualist,

or prey) its loss may result in little to no adjustment to the abundance and population structure ofother species

In biological extinction, a species is no longer found anywhere on the earth. Biological

extinction is forever and represents a loss of natural capital

Below a certain density threshold, flying

foxes are no longer effective seed disperserSalt water crocodile extinct from Java

Gone Forever: Extinct species
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Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms

Biologists classify species heading toward biological extinction as either endangered or

threatened.An endangered species has so few individual survivors that the species could soon

become extinct over all or most of its natural range (the area where it is normally found). A

threatened species (also known as a vulnerable species) is still abundant in its natural range but,

because of declining numbers, is likely to become endangered in the near future Some species

have characteristics that make them especially vulnerable to ecological and biological extinction

As biodiversity expert Edward O. Wilson puts it, The first animal species to go are the big, the

slow, the tasty, and those with valuable parts such as tusks and skins. Some species also have

behavioral characteristics that make them prone to extinction. The passenger pigeon and the

Carolina parakeet nested in large flocks that made them easy to kill. Key deer are nicotine

addicts that get killed by cars because they forage for cigarette butts along highways. According

to the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the current rate of species extinction is at least100 times the rate that existed before modern humans appeared about 150,000 years ago

In due time, all species will become extinct. Evidence indicates that before humans came on the

scene, the earths estimated natural or background extinction ratewas roughly one extinct

species per million species per year. This amounted to an extinction rate of about 0.0001% per

year. Using the methods just described, biologists conservatively estimate that the current rate of

extinction is at least 100 times the background extinction rate, or 0.01% a year. Conservation

biologists project that the extinction rate caused by habitat loss, global warming, and other

effects of human activities will increase to 1,00010,000 times the natural rate during this

century. This amounts to an annual extinction rate of 0.1% to 1% per year.

Endangered Plants and Animals


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WHY DO SPECIES HAVE TO BE PROTECTED

So what is all the fuss about? If all species eventually become extinct, why should we worry

about losing a few more because of our activities? Does it matter that the bird species, the

remaining orangutans, or some unknown plant or insect in a tropical forest becomes prematurely

extinct because of human activities? New species eventually evolve to take the places of those

lost through mass extinctions. So why should we care if we speed up the extinction rate over the

next 50100 years? The answer is: because it will take 510 million years for natural speciation

to rebuild the biodiversity we are likely to destroy during your lifetime. Conservation biologists

and ecologists say we should act now to prevent premature extinction of species because of their

instrumental valuetheir usefulness to us in the form of their economic and ecological services.

For example, some plant species provide economic value in the form of food crops, fuel woodand lumber, paper, and medicine. About one of every seven of the worlds plant species is in

danger of becoming extinct, and this percentage is expected to increase. Another instrumental

value is thegenetic informationthat allows species to adapt to changing environmental

conditions and to form genetically modified species. Genetic engineers use this information to

produce new types of crops and foods. Scientists warn of the alarming loss of genetic diversity in

the small number of crop plants that feed the world and from the premature extinction of wild

plants whose genes are used by genetic engineers to develop improved crop varieties. One of the

tragedies of the current extinction crisis is that we do not know what we are losing, because no

one has ever seen or named many of the species that are becoming extinct. To make matters

worse, we have no clue about their genetic makeup and their roles in sustaining ecosystems and

in improving human welfare.

Many people believe that each wild species has intrinsic or existence value based on its inherent

right to exist andplay its ecological roles, regardless of its usefulness tous. According to this

view, we have anethical responsibility to protect species from becomingprematurely extinct as a

result of human activities, andto prevent the degradation of the worlds ecosystemsand its

overall biodiversity.Each species in the encyclopedia of life is a masterpiece of evolution that

possesses a unique combinationof genetic traits that adapt it to its natural environment larger

organisms and recycle the nutrientsneeded by all life.


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How Do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction

Figure shows the basic and secondary causes of the endangerment and premature extinction of

wild species.Conservation biologists

summarize the most

important secondary

causes of premature

extinction using the

acronym

HIPPCO: Habitat

destruction, degradation,

and fragmentation;

Invasive (nonnative)

species; Population

growth (too many people consuming

too many resources); Pollution; Climate change; and Overexploitation According to biodiversity

researchers, the greatest threat to wild species is habitat, degradation, and fragmentation. The

bird species shown in are just a few of many species whose extinctions are being hastened by

loss and fragmentation of habitat from forest clearing and degradation. Deforestation in tropical

areas is the greatest eliminator of species, followed by the destruction and degradation of coral

reefs and wetlands, plowing of grasslands, and pollution of streams, lakes, and oceans. Globally,

temperate biomes have been affected more by habitat loss and degradation than have tropical

biomes because of widespread economic development in temperate countries over the past 200

years. Such development is now shifting to many tropical biomes. Island speciesmany of them

endemic species found nowhere else on earthare especially vulnerable to extinction when their

habitats are destroyed, degraded, or fragmented. This is why the collection of islands that makes

up the state of Hawaiiwith 63% of its species at riskis Americas extinction capital. Any

habitat surrounded by a different one can be viewed as a habitatisland for most of the species

that live there. Most national parks and other nature reserves are habitat islands, many of them

encircled by potentially damaging logging, mining, energy extraction, and industrial activities.


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Habitat fr agmentation-by roads, logging, agriculture, and urban developmentoccurs when a

large, continuous area of habitat is reduced in area and divided into smaller, more scattered, and

isolated patches or habitat islands (Figure 8-7, p. 156). This process can block migration routes

and divide populations of a species into smaller and more isolated groups that are more

vulnerable to predators, competitor species, disease, and catastrophic events such as storms and

fires. Also, it creates barriers that limit the abilities of some species to disperse and colonize new

areas, to get enough to eat, and to find mates.

Fragmentation and destruction of Great Ape habitat inCentral Africa

Bengal Tiger Habitat loss

Habitat fragmented by numerous roads


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Population Growth, Overconsumption, Pollution, and Climate Change Can

Cause Species Extinctions

Past and projected human population growth and excessive and wasteful consumption of

resources have caused premature extinction of some species. During the 1950s and 1960s,populations of fish eating birds such as ospreys, brown pelicans, and bald eagles plummeted. A

chemical derived from the pesticide DDT, when biologically magnified in food webs, made the

birds eggshells so fragile they could not reproduce successfully. Also hard hit were such

predatory birds as the prairie falcon, sparrow hawk, and peregrine falcon, which help control

rabbits, ground squirrels, and other crop eaters.

In the past, most natural climate changes have taken place over long periodsgiving species

more time to adapt, move, or evolve to cope with the change. Considerable evidence indicates

that human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation are likely to bring

about rapid climate change during this century.

A 2004 study by Conservation International predicted that climate change could drive more than

a quarter of all land animals and plants to extinction by the end of this century. Some scientific

studies indicate that polar bears and 10 of the worlds 17 penguin species are threatened b ecause

of higher temperatures and melting sea ice in their polar habitats.

Polar bear threatened because of higher temperaturesEffects of dumping

Effect of DDT


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Illegally Killing or Capturing and Selling Wild Species Can Threaten Them

Some protected species are illegally killed for their valuable parts or are sold live to collectors.

Suchpoaching endangers many larger animals and some rare plants. This illegal trade in wildlife

earns smugglers $610 billion a yearan average of $685,000 to $1.1 billion a minute.

Organized crime has moved into illegal wildlife smuggling because of the huge profitsinvolvedsurpassed only by the illegal international trade in drugs and weapons. At least two

thirds of all live animals smuggled around the world die in transit.

Poor people in areas rich with wildlife may kill or trap such species in an effort to make enough

money to survive and feed their families. Professional poachers also prey on these species. To

poachers, a live mountain gorilla is worth $150,000, a giant panda pelt $100,000, a chimpanzee

$50,000.

In 1950, an estimated 100,000 tigers roamed free in the world. Despite international protection,

only about 5,000 tigers remain in the wild, on an ever-shrinking range (Figure 9-8, top left).Today all five tiger subspecies are endangered. The Bengal or Indian tiger is at risk because a

coat made from its fur can sell for as much as $100,000 in Tokyo. Wealthy collectors have paid

$10,000 or more for a Bengal tiger rug. With the body parts of a single tiger worth as much as

$25,000, it is not surprising that illegal hunting has skyrocketed. According to a 2006 study by

tiger experts, without emergency action to curtail poaching and preserve their habitat, few if any

tigers may be left in the wild within 20 years.

The global legal and illegal trade in wild species for use as pets is also a huge and very profitable

business. Many owners of wild pets do not know that for every live animal captured and sold in

the pet market, an estimated 50 others are killed or die in transit. Most people are also unaware

that some imported exotic animals can carry dangerous infectious diseases.

Illegal Fur Trade Poaching Rhinos for horns


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PROTECTING WILD SPECIES FROM DEPLETION AND EXTINCTION:

THE LEGAL APPROACH

International Treaties Help Protect Endangered Species

Several international treaties and conventions help protect endangered or threatened wild

species. One of the most far reaching is the 1975 Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species (CITES). This treaty, now signed by 152 countries, lists (1) some 900

species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products because they

are in danger of extinction and (2) restricts international trade of 29,000 other species because

they are at risk of becoming threatened. CITES has helped reduce international trade in many

threatened animals, including elephants, crocodiles, and chimpanzees.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBO), ratified by 172 countries, legally binds signatory

governments to reversing the global decline of biological diversity.

National Laws Help Protect Endangered Species

In the Constitution of India it is clearly stated that it is the duty of the state to protect and

improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. The various

acts and laws implemented are:

The Wildlife Protection Act, Rules (1972)provides for the protection of birds and animals and

for all matters that are connected to it whether it be their habitat or the waterhole or the forests

that sustain them.

The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules (1981)provides for the protection of and the

conservation of the forests.

The Biological Diversity Act (2002) is an act to provide for the conservation of biological

diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising

out of the use of biological resources and knowledge associated with it


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THE SANCTUARY APPROACH

Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas Help Protect Endangered Species

A wildlife refuge, also called a wildlife sanctuary, is a naturally occurring sanctuary, such as

anisland,that provides protection forspecies fromhunting,predation or competition, it isaprotected area,a geographic territory within whichwildlife is protected. Such wildlife refuges

are generally officially designated territories.The Wildlife Refuge has as its objective protecting

natural environments where conditions are assured for the existence and reproduction of species

or communities of the local flora and the resident or migratory fauna. It can be constituted by

private areas, as long as it is possible to make compatible the objectives of the unit with the

utilization of the land of the natural resources of the location by the landowners.

Indiahas over 442animal sanctuaries,referred to as Wildlife sanctuaries. Among these, the

41Tiger Reserves are governed byProject Tiger,and are of special significance in the

conservation of thetiger.Some wildlife sanctuaries are specifically namedBird Sanctuary,e.g.Keoladeo National Parkbefore attaining National Park status. Many National Parks were

initially Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Wildlife sanctuaries are of national importance to conservation, usually due to some flagship

faunal species, is named National Wildlife Sanctuary, like the tri-stateNational Chambal

(Gharial) Wildlife Sanctuary for conserving thegharial.

Major Wildlife Sanctuaries in India
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Gene Banks Can Help Protect Endangered Species

Gene banks are a type ofbiorepository which preservegenetic material.Inplants,this could be

by freezing cuts from the plant, or stocking theseeds.In animals, this is the freezing

ofsperm andeggs inzoologicalfreezers until further need. With corals, fragments are taken

which are stored in water tanks under controlled conditions.In plants, it is possible to unfreeze the material and propagate it, however, in animals, a living

female is required forartificial insemination.While it is often difficult to utilize frozen animal

sperm and eggs, there are many examples of it being done successfully.

In an effort to conserveagricultural biodiversity,gene banks are used to store and conserve the

plant genetic resources of major crop plants and theircrop wild relatives.There are many gene

banks all over the world, with theSvalbard Global Seed Vaultbeing probably the most famous

one.

Types of Gene Banks

The seed bankpreserves dried seeds by storing them at a very low temperature. Spores andpteridophytes are conserved in seed banks.

In tissue bankbuds, protocorm and meristematic cells are conserved through particular light and

temperature arrangements in a nutrient medium.

In Cryobank, a seed or embryo is preserved at very low temperatures. It is usually preserved in

liquid nitrogen at -196C.

In pollen bankspollen grains are stored. We can make plants which are facing extinction in the

present world

The Government of India has established National Gene Banks for Microbes, Blue Green Algae,

Marine Cyanobacteria, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Drosophila, Filarial parasites, Seeds for

food and agricultural crops etc.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorepositoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_inseminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_wild_relativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vaulthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vaulthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_wild_relativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_inseminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorepository


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Botanical Gardens and Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Endangered Species

The conservation of plant diversity is critical for sustainable development and botanic gardens

are playing a key role as centers of conservation action. Gardens maintain a wide range of

species as living plants,in seed banks and tissue culture; we estimate that there are probably over

80,000 species in cultivation in botanic gardens of the current estimate of 270,000 known plant

species in the world.

Botanic gardens also have important conservation collections particularly of rare and threatened

plants. According to the IUCN Red List of threatened plants 34,000 taxa are considered globally

threatened with extinction. Currently, over 10,000 threatened species, approximately a third, are

in botanic garden cultivation. These plants contribute to species recovery programmes and

provide long-term backup collections.

Botanic gardens also manage protected areas within andoutside their garden to promote

biodiversity. These ecosystems such as forests, bush land, catchment areas, and coastal areasprovide essential services from the generation of water, cycling of nutrients and replenishment of

soil fertility and prevention of erosion which are vital to the livelihoods of all people.

Botanic gardens work with their local communities and visitors oneducationand environmental

conservation programmes which promote environmental awareness and sustainable living.

Globally, botanic gardens receive more than 200 million visitors a year.

Wildlife farming refers to the raising of non-domesticated animals in an agricultural setting to

produce whole living animals (to keep aspets)and commodities such as food, traditional

medicine and fiber.

Crocodile Farming: Unregulated hunting of crocodiles, mainly for their skins but also for meat,led to major declines in the populations of all the three species on the African continent and theintroduction of trade controls under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Ostrich Farming: Ostriches are farmed in many areas in southern Africa for their skin which isused in making luxury, high fashion leather goods and also for their high quality low fat and lowcholesterol red meat

Attempts at wild animal domestication have not been restricted to vertebrate species; invertebrate

species including snails and caterpillars have also been the subject of domestication.
http://www.bgci.org/ourwork/Ecosystems/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pethttp://www.bgci.org/ourwork/Ecosystems/


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Wildlife Farming

Botanical Gardens


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Zoos and Aquariums Can Help Protect Some Species

Zoos, aquariums, game parks, and animal research centers are being used to preserve some

individuals of critically endangered animal species, with the long-term goal of reintroducing the

species into protected wild habitats.

Two techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species are egg pulling and captive

breeding.Eggpulling involves collecting wild eggs laid by critically endangered bird species and

then hatching them in zoos or research centers. In captive breeding, some or all of the wild

individuals of a critically endangered species are captured for breeding in captivity, with the aim

of reintroducing the offspring into the wild.Captive breedinghas been used to save the peregrine

falcon and the California condor.

Lack of space and money limits efforts to maintain breeding populations of endangered animalspecies in zoos and research centers. The captive population of each species must number 100500 individuals to avoid extinction through accidents, disease, or loss of genetic diversity

through inbreeding. Recent genetic research indicates that 10,000 or more individuals are neededfor an endangered species to maintain its capacity for biological evolution.

Public aquariums that exhibit unusual and attractive fishes and some marine animals such as

seals and dolphins also help educate the public about the need to protect such species. But public

aquariums have not served as effective gene banks for endangered marine species, especially

marine mammals that need large volumes of water.

Zoo Aquarium


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