Sustainable Approaches:Industrial Ecology and Pollution Prevention

Chapter 21

1. Industrial EcologyOverview

• Industrial ecology refers to a multidisciplinary, systems approach to the flow of energy and materials between production and the environment

• Main objectives– To promote ways to use recycled waste from one

production process as inputs in another process– To optimize material flows (i.e., achieve an efficient

use of materials and energy in production)

• Since flow of materials is integral to industrial ecology, the materials balance model should be revisited

2

Materials Balance Model Revisited

At issue is whether the flow of materials from nature through the economy is linear, (i.e., operating in only one direction), and open OR cyclical and closed 3

Conventional Linear (or Open) Materials Flow

This “cradle-to-grave” open flow assumes materials run in ONE direction, entering as resources and leaving as wastes or residuals. Policy focus would have to be aimed at abating contaminants ONLY at the end of the flow.

4

Linear (or Open) Materials Flow

• Policy based on a linear flow assumption does not fully address the long-run implications of pollution– Nature’s capacity to convert matter to energy is

limited– End-of-pipe policy controls take the form of

abatement after the damage has been done

• Solution should consider a cyclical flow approach

5

Cyclical (or Closed) Materials Flow

• A cyclical flow assumes that…– productive activity can be altered throughout the

cycle to reduce environmental effects• e.g., product design, manufacturing processes,

energy use– residuals (i.e., wastes or pollution) can be brought

back into useful production

• Implies that policy can be aimed anywhere in the cycle of production and consumption rather than only at “end-of-pipe”

6

A Closed System of Materials Flow

A “cradle-to-cradle” flow that assumes materials run in a circular pattern in a closed system that allows residuals (or wastes) to be brought back into the production process.

7

Using a Cyclical Flow in Practicea. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) • Examines the environmental impact of a product or process at all

stages from resource use to disposal• 4 components

– Goal definition and scoping: describes the product and environmental effects to be assessed

– Inventory analysis: analyzes resource usage and environmental releases

– Impact analysis: determines human & environmental effects– Interpretation: evaluates results and selects product/process

• Addressed by ISO 14000 International Standards– Voluntary standards in environmental management aimed at

giving countries a common approach to environmental issues

8

b. Industrial Ecosystems A Real-World Closed System

• Wastes from one production process are used as inputs in another

• Usually implemented through a collaborative of several firms, an eco-industrial park

• Real-world examples include systems in– Kalundborg, Denmark– Choctaw, MS

9

10

11

• An industrial ecosystem has been established which involves an oil refinery, a wallboard plant, a pharmaceutical plant, fish farms, and a coal-fired power plant, among others.

Industrial Ecosystem at Kalundborg, Denmark

• Steam and various raw materials such as sulfur, fly ash and sludge are exchanged in what is the world's most elaborate industrial ecosystem. Participating firms each benefit economically from reduce costs for waste disposal, improved efficiencies of resource use and improved environmental performance. For example, gas captured from the oil refinery which had previously been flared off is now sent to the electrical power station which expects to save the equivalent of 30,000 tonnes of coal a year.

12

Industrial Ecosystem at Kalundborg, Denmark

2. Pollution Prevention (P2)Overview

• Pollution prevention is a long-term, front-end strategy aimed at reducing or eliminating the toxicity or the amount of residuals at their source

• Preventive objectives –Source reduction: reducing pollutants at point of generation–Toxic chemical use substitution: substituting less harmful chemicals for toxic ones

13

How P2 Differs from Industrial Ecology

• P2 promotes risk reduction by eliminating or minimizing wastes, while industrial ecology uses wastes as inputs– P2 solutions are aimed at a single firm, while

industrial ecology is used by a collaborative of firms

• P2 does not view recycling as preventive, while industrial ecology views recycling as the solution

• P2 generally requires government oversight, while industrial ecology does not

14

P2 Techniques

• Source segregation– Keep hazardous waste from mingling with

nonhazardous waste

• Raw materials substitution– Use inputs that result in little or no hazardous waste

• Changes in manufacturing processes– Use methods that generate fewer hazardous by-

products

• Product Substitution– Use relative safe goods instead of polluting products

15

P2 Legislation• National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

– Encourages efforts to prevent environmental damage – Integrates pollution prevention into U.S.

environmental legislation

• Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 – P2 is the primary objective: “pollution should be

prevented or reduced at the source, whenever feasible”

– The secondary objective is management of residuals through recycling, treatment, and disposal – in that order

• Similar legislation exists in other nations: EU, Canada, Australia 16

Pollution Prevention Hierarchy

17

SOURCE REDUCTION

RECYCLING

TREATMENT

DISPOSAL

Selected Corporation Examples of P2 Initiatives

18

Dell, Inc. In 2008, reduced packaging by 5,440 tons; recycled and reused over 95 percent of nonhazardous wastes from manufacturing operations; recovered 116 million kilograms of discards. Offers free recycling of its products to customers worldwide. Committed to reducing its carbon intensity by 15 percent by 2012 relative to 2006.

Anheuser-Busch Companies, Inc.

Between 2003 to 2007, reduced hazardous waste by 15.8 percent and solid waste by 23.8 percent, with some of the latter accomplished through “light-weighting,” i.e., changes in packaging design. Reduced GHG emissions by 4.3 percent over the same period.

Eastman Kodak

Between 1999 and 2005, achieved a 44 percent emissions reduction of 30 priority chemicals and a 17 percent reduction in CO2 emissions; reduced energy use by 19 percent, water usage by 36 percent, and manufacturing waste by 47 percent.

Economics and P2

• Cost-effectiveness as a criterion – Whether a firm adopts P2 will depend in part on its

cost relative to other options, like treatment or abatement

– If P2 is chosen, cost-effectiveness can guide the selection of the appropriate strategy

• Efficiency as a criterion– Benefit-cost analysis can be used to determine the

extent to which a P2 strategy is implemented

19

3. Sustainable Initiatives and Programs(1) Extended Product Responsibility (EPR)

• Refers to efforts aimed at identifying and reducing life-cycle environmental effects of products – Sometimes called Product Stewardship

• Underlying premise is that all participants in the product chain—designers, manufacturers, distributors, consumers, recyclers, remanufacturers, and disposers—are responsible for a product’s effect on the environment– Involves raw materials selection, production impacts,

product use, products at end-of-life (i.e., take-back programs to achieve recycling or remanufacturing)

20

(2) Design for the Environment (DfE)

• Promotes using environmental considerations with cost and performance in product development and design

• Directly uses a cyclical flow of materials

• Used by BMW, Dell Computer, 3M, and others

21

(3) Green Chemistry Program

• Promotes development and use of chemical technologies that achieve pollution prevention– Sometimes known as benign chemistry or

sustainable chemistry programs

• Recognizes the importance of a product’s life cycle in pollution prevention– Seeks safer alternatives to hazardous chemicals,

resulting in lower risks, safer production processes, and final products that pose less of a threat at the end of their economic lives

22

4. Global Information SharingTechnology Transfer• Refers to the advancement and application of

technologies and strategies on a global scale

• Is considered critical to consistent progress toward sustainable development

• Relies on interdependent factors that include research, physical capital investment, communication, financial resources, education

23

Achieving Environmental Literacy• Refers to an awareness of the risks of pollution

and natural resource depletion

• Promoting environmental education worldwide has grown and was an important theme at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio– Agenda 21 specifically refers to the

importance of education, public awareness, and training to implement the global agenda

24