Summers, Ashley Final Research Paper

Running head: JOB SATISFACTION FOR MOTHERS

Job Satisfaction for Mothers:

The Influences of Maternal Depression and Child Delinquency

Ashley A. Summers

West Virginia University

1

JOB SATISFACTION FOR MOTHERS 2

Abstract

The goal of this study was to discover how the two independent variables: maternal depression

and child delinquency, can affect the mother’s level of satisfaction while at her job.

Approximately 855 mothers and 855 children who were under the age of 12-14 years of age

participated in the study for the 1986 and 1994 waves of the National Longitudinal Survey of

Youth-1979 (NLSY-79, 47.6% female, 52.4% male, 24.1% Hispanic, 36.6% Black). Consistent

with the literature, mothers and children were observed by gender and age. As predicted, young

children of various age categories and their mothers did participate in the study. During the

bivariate analyses, high levels of maternal depression were very weakly positively correlated to

the mother’s satisfaction experienced while at her job. There was also a very weak positive

correlation found to support high levels of child delinquency to a mother’s job satisfaction. In a

multivariate model, only mother’s level of depression was linked to a mother’s job satisfaction,

but the link appeared to be non-significant. Scientists are continuing to study the effects

depression can have on the mother’s satisfaction experienced in the workplace. The discussion

focused on how the mother can manage her depression and help her child who demonstrated

delinquent behaviors. The result of exploring these two variables was to help a mother achieve a

higher level of job satisfaction.


Job Satisfaction for Mothers:

The Influences of Maternal Depression and Child Delinquency

In the year 2015, 70.8% of mothers who had children under the age of 18 were employed

(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016). The purpose of this paper was to provide evidence that the

independent variables of maternal depression and child delinquency effect the dependent

variable, mother’s job satisfaction. Researchers have found that mothers were more likely to feel

satisfied at work when they could rely on their motherhood role to deal with work-related

stressors (Miner, et al., 2014). The child strengthened the mother’s satisfaction towards work by

providing a boost to the mother’s energy abundance (Miner, et al., 2014).

The first stressor examined was how the mother’s high level of depression effected her

job satisfaction. Fox & Borelli (2005) found that depression causes mothers to withdraw from

demanding cognitive tasks at work. Depression experienced in the workplace caused the mother

to feel like “giving up” (Coyne & Thompson, 2011, p. 875). Psychologists have discovered

mothers who battle depression also face other mood disorders, which can cause difficulties

socializing with others on the job (Silk, Shaw, Skuban, Oland, & Kovacs, 2006). In order to

improve the mother’s level of satisfaction at work, researchers suggest that the mother undergo

therapy sessions (Fox & Borelli, 2005). Taken together, studies have found that mothers who

make the decision to seek treatment, such as participating in psychotherapy, will allow them to

improve in regulating the levels of depression experienced at work (Swartz, et al., 2016). The

outcome of seeking treatment for depression was the mother felt more satisfied during any tasks

assigned of her while at her job (Swartz, et al., 2016).

In addition, child delinquency was examined as a second factor that can affect the

mother’s job satisfaction. Currently, there is very limited evidence found concerning the linkage


between child delinquency and maternal job satisfaction. However, researchers have developed

studies to identify whether the child exhibited delinquent behaviors. Vander, Cullen, Carrozza, &

Wright (2001) found the more hours the mother was required to spend at work away from her

child, the greater chance her child would express delinquent behaviors.

Taken together, this work suggested that if the mother was willing to seek treatment for

her depression and provide assistance to her child demonstrating delinquent behaviors, the more

satisfaction she would experience at work. Scientists uncovered that through treatment, the

mother will gain a higher level of job satisfaction by using a variety of coping mechanisms. The

mechanisms included breathing techniques, walking away from a situation when it gets too hard

and adjusting to a postive mindset (Coyne & Thompson, 2011). All of these coping mechanisms

will increase the mother’s job satisfaction, therefore, she will feel more at ease in the work

environment.

Literature Review

Maternal depression. The first factor examined was depression will affect the mother’s

satisfaction experienced at the work place. Researchers have found when the mother is feeling

depressed, she will avoid interactions, become less responsive and form passive assumptions

about people and all work assigned (Coyne & Thompson, 2011). Studies also report that mothers

who are showing signs of depression are more likely to model passive regulation, causing them

not to contribute to solving problems (Coyne & Thompson, 2011). Current research also

demonstrated depression as an influence to an individual’s motivation to work, as depression

caused the mother to reject both participation and support during employment (Chen, et al.,

2016).


Child delinquency. The hypothesis for the second variable was when a child exhibits

higher levels of delinquency, then the mother will experience lower levels of satisfaction at her

job. For instance, if the parent receives a phone call from the school informing them that their

child just threw a desk across the room, the parent will be less satisfied in the work setting. The

research provided found that child delinquency leads to long-term consequences for the overall

well-being of the mother (Nes, et al., 2014). In addition, the child’s delinquent acts will cause the

mother to make time-consuming visits to outside services, such as the hospital, thus, taking away

from the time she can devote to her job (Coley, et al., 2011). Taken together, studies have found

the child’s high levels of delinquency exhibited will most likely cause the mother to either

struggle, or resign from her place of employment (Nes, et al., 2014). Researchers suggest that the

mother acknowledge child delinquency by remaining flexible and helping her child find a cure,

which, in turn, will lead to her experiencing greater job satisfaction (Nes, et al., 2014).

The Current Study

The main purpose for the investigation was to identify how maternal depression and the

child’s delinquent behaviors can effect the mother’s job satisfaction. To better understand how to

help the struggling mother and her child, two concise hypotheses were developed. The first

hypothesis states that if the mother is experiencing depression, the less likely she is to remain

satisfied at work. The second hypothesis states that when a child is making unlawful choices, the

mother will spend less time feeling satisfied while at work. In effort to make the hypotheses

measureable for the research, participants were assessed using the National Longitudinal Survey

of Youth, (NLSY-79), along with the Children and Young Adults National Longitudinal Survey,

(CNLSY-79), testing strategies (Zagorsky & White, 1999).

Method


Participants & Procedures

Data for this study has been taken from the NLSY-79 and CNLSY-79 datasets (Zagorsky

& White, 1999). The NLSY-79 sample relied on the probability sampling method to collect data

from 12, 686 participants (Zagorsky & White, 1999). In order to qualify as a participant for the

NLSY-79 study, the citizen had to be 14-21 years of age and fall into the racial category of

Black, Hispanic, non-Hispanic or White (Raffaelli & Crockett, 2003). When recruiting

participants, the researchers implemented surveys on an annual basis, later adding females and a

cohort of 4-5 year olds to the study in the year 1986 (Raffaelli & Crockett, 2003). For the

CNLSY-79 portion of the study, a sample size of 855 children and approximately 855 mothers

were used to gather the data (Raffaelli & Crockett, 2003). When concerned with child gender,

448 of the participants were males, (or 52.4%), and 407 of the participants were females, (or

47.6%). Data was collected from 206 Hispanic participants (24.1%), 313 of the participants were

Black (36.6%) and 336 were Non-Hispanic, or Non-Black (39.3%). In 1994, maternal age was

29-37 years, with the standard deviation of 2.07. In the same year, children were 12-14 years old

and the standard deviation ranked at 6.99. The CNLSY-79 also assessed family structure in 1994

and found that 297 (36.8%) children live in two-parent homes and 31 (3.8%) of children reside in

other living situations (Rafaelli & Crockett, 2003).

For the first survey wave, adolescents were encouraged to be completely candid as they

rank themselves on nine separate items. Once scored, the first survey wave measured the level of

child delinquency. The second survey wave measured how depressed the mother had felt

recently by asking her to report on emotions experienced in the past few days. During the third

survey wave, mothers were asked to rank their feelings about their current or most recently taken

job. Each of the survey waves included in this study were performed in 1994.


Measures

Delinquency. In the first measure, children are asked to answer a total of nine items and

will only be scored if seven questions are attempted (Crockett, Moilanen, Raffaelli & Randall,

2006). To determine their answer, participants responded on a four-point scale, which included

Never, Once, Twice, or More Than Twice (Crockett, Moilanen, Raffaelli & Randall, 2006). One

of the questions on the report asked participants, “In the last year, how many times have you hurt

someone badly enough to need bandages or a doctor?” (Crockett, Moilanen, Raffaelli & Randall,

2006). The 1994 scale demonstrated a Cronbach’s of 0.74.

Depression. Mothers completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression

Scale, CES-D, in 1994 (Radloff, 1977). The depression scale consisted of seven items and asked

the respondent to rank themselves on how often they felt this way during the past week (sample

item: “During the past week, I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing”). Mothers

responded to each of the seven questions using the four-point scale, ranging from 0 (rarely, or

none of the time) to 3 (Most, all of the time, 5-7 days). Once the response items were averaged, 5

or more of the higher scores indicated high levels of depression. The Epidemiological Studies

Depression Scale, CES-D, had a Cronbach’s of 0.82 (Radloff, 1977).

Job satisfaction. To measure job satisfaction, researchers developed a one-item scale,

which asked mothers “How do you feel about the job you have now/your most recent job?”

(Zagorky & White, 1994). The response scale for this maternal report ranked from 1 (Like it very

much) to 4 (Dislike it very much). Results were calculated by the single item the mother

responded to “as is” (Zagorky & White, 1994). There was no Cronbach’s for this study

because there was only one item measured.

Results


Preliminary Analyses

There were two variables tested in the study, which included maternal depression and

child delinquency. Descriptive statistics for each of the variables are presented in Table 1.

Hypothesis One: Link Between Maternal Depression and Mothers’ Job Satisfaction

The first hypothesis was that the mother’s high levels of depression would affect how

satisfied mothers felt while at her job. The hypothesis was tested by examining the bivariate

correlation between the two independent variables involved. Maternal depression was very

weakly positively correlated with lower maternal job satisfaction and this correlation was non-

significant, r(524) = 0.05, p = .291.

Hypothesis Two: Link Between Child Delinquency and Mother’s Job Satisfaction

The second hypothesis was that when the child is making unlawful choices, the mother

will feel less satisfied while at her job. The hypothesis was tested by examining the bivariate

correlation between the independent variable of child delinquency and maternal job satisfaction,

r(409) = 0.004, p = .933. This analysis found that there was a very weakly positive correlation

between these two variables, however, it was non-significant.

Discussion

The goal of the current study was to explore the associations between maternal

depression, child delinquency and a mother’s job satisfaction. The first hypothesis predicted that

the mother’s high levels of depression experienced would lead her to feeling less satisfied at her

work site. Surprisingly, studies did not support the hypothesis, as there was a very weak positive

correlation between maternal depression and a mother’s job satisfaction. The second hypothesis

predicted that the child’s delinquent behaviors would cause the mother to feel less satisfied while

at her job. The findings for the second hypothesis were not supported, as there was a very weak


positive correlation between child delinquency and a mother’s job satisfaction. The associations

between the variables involved in the study were not consistent with predictions. Hypotheses

were partially supported in statistical analyses of data that was taken from the NLSY-79. When

all study constructs were considered simultaneously through testing process of bivariate

correlations, maternal depression and child delinquency were found to be associated with

mother’s job satisfaction. However, when relating each of the variables to a mother’s job

satisfaction, both independent variables were found to be non-significant. The findings for each

hypothesis are stated in full below.

Overview of Findings

Maternal depression. That there would be a positive correlation between maternal

depression and a mother’s satisfaction experienced while at her job. During the bivariate

correlation analysis, this prediction resulted in a positive correlation, but it was found to be very

weak. The first hypothesis explored in this study included mothers who either scored above or

below the clinical cut off for depression, or who had a history of mental breakdowns while at

work (Coyne & Thompson, 2011). The bivariate correlation suggested that there was no found

relationship between a mother’s depression and job satisfaction. There was however a possibility

found that a mother can experience depression while at her job, but there was no significance

related to her feelings of satisfaction while at work. Coyne & Thompson (2011) further explored

if avoidance and internalizing problems that are commonly associated with maternal depression

had any type of effect on the mother’s job satisfaction. The results from their research still

revealed no significant correlation between the two variables being tested. Perhaps maternal

depression can be prevented if the mother is able to rely on her motherhood role when stresses

come up in the workplace (Marks, 1977). Overall, the mother is more likely to report lower rates


of depression if she feels highly satisfied and accepted within her workplace (Marks, 1977). The

possible link between maternal depression and the mother’s job satisfaction is still being tested

by many researchers today.

Child delinquency. That there would be a positive correlation between child delinquency

and a mother’s satisfaction experienced while at her job. During the bivariate correlation

analysis, this prediction resulted in a non-significant, weak correlation between the two

variables. The second hypothesis in this study included mothers who claimed they had

considered leaving their place of employment after their child demonstrated severe, delinquent

behaviors (Nes, et al., 2013). The bivariate association between the variables reported that a

majority of mothers did not make the decision to leave their place of employment for their child

demonstrating delinquent behaviors, as only 5% of mothers at risk felt more satisfied when

leaving their job to be with their child in distress (Nes, et al., 2013). While there is a possibility

that a mother will feel less satisfied at her job when her child misbehaves, the findings do not

reveal a correlational relation between the two variables. Researchers are still in the process of

finding what factors are highly likely to contribute to a mother feeling a higher level of

satisfaction while at her job.

Study Contributions

At the conclusion of this study, several inferences can be drawn when concerned with the

development of a mother’s job satisfaction. First, how the mother copes with her emotions

brought on from her depression can affect her level of satisfaction experienced while at her job

(Fox & Borelli, 2015). Second, this study calls into question whether the child’s delinquent

behaviors would cause the mother to feel less satisfied while at her job and therefore, decide to

leave employment altogether (Nes, et al., 2013). Finally, the study revealed new information as


researchers found that a mother’s level of satisfaction can be increased at her job when she seeks

treatment for emotional imbalance and remains committed to producing the best work she can

(Miner, et al., 2014). Ultimately, the present study has found that a mother’s depression and a

child who demonstrates delinquent behaviors can have minor impact on a mother’s satisfaction

experienced while at her job, but this might not always be the case. While it has been confirmed

that maternal depression and child delinquency have no connections to how satisfied a mother

feels at her job, the mother should still be supported as she works through her unique situation

(Miner, et al., 2014). The NLSY-79 found that mothers who were of middle-age, including ages

29-37 years, and family living conditions left an impression on how satisfied she was within her

job. Confidence in these findings was reinforced by a diversity of U.S. mothers and their children

who participated in the NLSY-79 study. The measures were well-validated and provided support

and reliance for the study data collected.

Study Limitations & Future Directions

The NLSY-79 study advanced the understanding of maternal depression and child

delinquency, but it also brought some notable constraints. The present findings available appear

to be conclusive, in that findings are consistent and focus on how each independent variable can

affect the mother’s job satisfaction. This study was limited in the area of child delinquency, as

researchers used the GHQ12 to measure the respondent’s level of psychological distress

experienced recently, such as levels of depression or anxiety (Hamilton, et al., 2012). While the

test was a reliable strategy to help citizens receive their diagnosis and gain emotional assistance,

it was a less detailed measure for distinguishing how child delinquency can effect a mother’s job

satisfaction. In order to further support these findings, psychologists are urged to test how a

child’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems might lead to a mother leaving her


place of paid employment (Nes, et al., 2014). Scientists should continue using the Parental Locus

of Control Scale self-report model, as it gathered accurate data on the mother’s high level of

depression experienced (Radloff, 1977).

Although the use of U.S. National data set increased the generalizability of the findings to

mothers, children and researchers alike, the NLSY-79 sample is still limited in some areas. The

NLSY-79 subsample consisted of close percentages of White, Black and Hispanic participants,

which leaves it reasonable for scientists to assume that the findings generalize to a wide diversity

of mothers. Due to the limitations of mothers who decided not to participate, it is not possible to

report on the generalizability of these findings to mothers of other ethnic backgrounds, such as

Asian American or Native American ethnicities. Mothers who self-identified themselves as

Black or Hispanic and were living in poverty conditions were highly likely to experience

depression, which caused them to feel less satisfied at their job location (Coyne & Thompson,

2011). Thus, a future approach for researchers to take might be to encourage Asian American

and Native American mothers and their families living in these conditions to participate.

Perhaps, researchers could recruit this group of individuals through surveys, online emails, or

placing advertisements closer to their residential location. By developing a further understanding

of how to decrease the factors that negatively affect the mother’s feelings of satisfaction, the

greater her chance will be for reaching her full potential during work hours.


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Table 1

Study Variable Descriptive Statistics

Variable N M (SD) % Median Mode Range

Maternal Depression 524 47 (.291) .73 .00 3

Child Delinquency 409 217 (.933) .46 .00 3.00

Maternal Job Dissatisfaction 552 1.73 (0) 2.00 2 3.00

Summers, Ashley Final Research Paper

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