Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging...

40
Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This research is sponsored by the Department of Defense

Transcript of Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging...

Page 1: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

Summer Research Final Report

Medical Imaging

By

Shale Olagbegi

Under the d irect ion of Prof . Y. Yao

May 2005 – August 2005

This research i s sponsored by the Department of Defense

Page 2: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2

T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s

S u m m a r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I n t r u d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 A p p l i c a t i o n s T o M e d i c a l I m a g i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 M o d e r n I m a g i n g T e c h n o l o g y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 R a d i o g r a p h y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 X - R a y s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 C a t S c a n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 M R I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 U l t r a s o u n d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 M a m m o g r a p h y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 M i c r o w a v e I m a g i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 C o n c l u s i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 R e f e r e n c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 A p p e n d i x : W e e k l y R e p o r t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 W e e k 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 W e e k 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 W e e k 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 W e e k 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 W e e k 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 W e e k 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 W e e k 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7 W e e k 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7 W e e k 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8 W e e k 1 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8 W e e k 1 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 9 W e e k 1 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 9

Page 3: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3

S u m m a r y

T h i s p a p e r i s i n t e n d e d t o p r e s e n t t h e f i n d i n g s o f a t w e l v e w e e k r e s e a r c h , f o c u s e d m a i n l y o n m e d i c a l i m a g i n g . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n t o m e d i c a l i m a g i n g i s s u p p o s e t o b e b r o a d l y u n d e r s t o o d a s w e l l a s t h e m o d e r n i m a g i n g t e c h n o l o g y . M o d e r n i m a g i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s a r e t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o c e d u r e s i n v o l v e d a n d w i d e l y u s e d i n m e d i c a l i m a g i n g . W i t h t h i s r e s e a r c h , w e s h o u l d b e a b l e t o k n o w w h a t p r o c e d u r e i s w h a t a n d w h a t i t s h o u l d a n d c a n b e u s e d f o r . W e a l s o g e t t o k n o w t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d d r a w b a c k s o f e a c h p r o c e d u r e .

Page 4: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

4

I n t r o d u c t i o n

M e d i c a l i m a g i n g i s t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h p h y s i c i a n s e v a l u a t e a n a r e a o f t h e s u b j e c t ' s b o d y t h a t i s n o t n o r m a l l y v i s i b l e . M e d i c a l i m a g i n g m a y b e " c l i n i c a l " , s e e k i n g t o d i a g n o s e a n d e x a m i n e d i s e a s e s i n s p e c i f i c h u m a n p a t i e n t s ( s e e p a t h o l o g y ) . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , i t m a y b e r e s e a r c h - m o t i v a t e d , a t t e m p t i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d p r o c e s s e s i n h u m a n s o r a n i m a l m o d e l s . M a n y o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s d e v e l o p e d f o r m e d i c a l i m a g i n g a l s o h a v e s c i e n t i f i c a n d i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s .

Page 5: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

5

A p p l i c a t i o n s t o M e d i c a l I m a g i n g M e d i c a l i m a g i n g d e t e c t s c r i t i c a l i l l n e s s e s a t t h e i r m o s t c u r a b l e s t a g e – a n d , i n m a n y c a s e s , w h e n t h e y a r e l e a s t c o s t l y t o t r e a t . M e d i c a l i m a g i n g i s c e n t e r - s t a g e i n A m e r i c a ' s e f f o r t s a t p r e v e n t i o n a n d e a r l y d e t e c t i o n " . M e d i c a l i m a g i n g e n a b l e s a r a n g e o f l e s s - i n v a s i v e , h i g h l y t a r g e t e d m e d i c a l t h e r a p i e s t h a t t r a n s l a t e i n t o b e t t e r a n d m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e c a r e f o r p a t i e n t s . B e c a u s e t h e y a r e l e s s i n v a s i v e , t h e s e t r e a t m e n t s m e a n f e w e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s , s h o r t e r h o s p i t a l s t a y s , a n d , i n m a n y c a s e s , n o i n c i s i o n s o r s u r g e r y . M e d i c a l i m a g i n g i s w i d e l y a c c l a i m e d a s a h a l l m a r k o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e b y p h y s i c i a n s p e c i a l t y g r o u p s , i n d e p e n d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d p e e r - r e v i e w e d j o u r n a l s . M e d i c a l e x p e r t s c a u t i o n t h a t , w i t h o u t i m a g i n g t o g u i d e d i a g n o s i s a n d t r e a t m e n t , p a t i e n t s a f e t y w o u l d b e c o m p r o m i s e d a n d q u a l i t y o f c a r e d i m i n i s h e d . M e d i c a l i m a g i n g h e l p s k e e p w o r k e r s h e a l t h y a n d o n t h e j o b – o f t e n a v o i d i n g s u r g e r y , l o n g r e c u p e r a t i o n , a n d d i s a b i l i t y . I t a l s o s e r v e s a s a b a r o m e t e r f o r q u a l i t y i n v a l u e - b a s e d p u r c h a s i n g . A n d w h e n t e a m e d w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , m e d i c a l i m a g i n g b e c o m e s a n a c t i v e p a r t n e r i n e f f o r t s t o r e d u c e e r r o r s a n d i n e f f i c i e n c i e s .

Page 6: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

6

M o d e r n I m a g i n g T e c h n o l o g y

1 . R a d i o g r a p h y 2 . C a t s c a n 3 . M R I 4 . M i c r o w a v e I m a g i n g 5 . U l t r a s o u n d 6 . M a m m o g r a p h y

Page 7: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

7

R a d i o g r a p h y

R a d i o g r a p h y i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f r a d i o g r a p h s , p h o t o g r a p h s m a d e b y e x p o s i n g a p h o t o g r a p h i c f i l m o r o t h e r i m a g e r e c e p t o r t o X -r a y s . S i n c e X - r a y s p e n e t r a t e s o l i d o b j e c t s , b u t a r e s l i g h t l y a t t e n u a t e d b y t h e m , t h e p i c t u r e r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e e x p o s u r e r e v e a l s t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e o b j e c t . T h e m o s t c o m m o n u s e o f r a d i o g r a p h y i s i n t h e m e d i c a l f i e l d ( w h e r e i t i s k n o w n a s m e d i c a l i m a g i n g ) .

T h e o r y

T h e t y p e o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n o f m o s t i n t e r e s t t o r a d i o g r a p h y i s x - r a y a n d g a m m a r a d i a t i o n . T h i s r a d i a t i o n i s m u c h m o r e e n e r g e t i c t h a n t h e m o r e f a m i l i a r t y p e s s u c h a s r a d i o w a v e s a n d v i s i b l e l i g h t . I t i s t h i s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e n e r g y , w h i c h m a k e s g a m m a r a y s u s e f u l i n r a d i o g r a p h y b u t p o t e n t i a l l y h a z a r d o u s t o l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s .

T h e y a r e p r o d u c e d b y X - r a y t u b e s , h i g h e n e r g y X - r a y e q u i p m e n t o r n a t u r a l r a d i o a c t i v e e l e m e n t s , s u c h a s R a d i u m a n d R a d o n , a n d a r t i f i c i a l l y p r o d u c e d r a d i o a c t i v e i s o t o p e s o f e l e m e n t s , s u c h a s C o b a l t 6 0 a n d I r i d i u m 1 9 2 . E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f o s c i l l a t i n g e l e c t r i c a n d m a g n e t i c f i e l d s . I t i s g e n e r a l l y p i c t u r e d a s a s i n g l e s i n u s o i d a l w a v e .

I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y i t s w a v e l e n g t h ( t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m a p o i n t o n o n e c y c l e t o t h e p o i n t o n t h e n e x t c y c l e ) o r i t s f r e q u e n c y ( t h e n u m b e r o f o s c i l l a t i o n s p e r s e c o n d ) . A l l e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s t r a v e l a t t h e s a m e s p e e d , t h e s p e e d o f l i g h t ( c ) . T h e w a v e l e n g t h ( W ) a n d t h e f r e q u e n c y ( ν ) a r e a l l r e l a t e d b y t h e e q u a t i o n :

W ν = c

T h i s i s t r u e f o r a l l e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n .

E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n i s k n o w n b y v a r i o u s n a m e s , d e p e n d i n g o n i t s e n e r g y . T h e e n e r g y o f t h e s e w a v e s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e f r e q u e n c y a n d t h e w a v e l e n g t h b y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p :

E = h ν = h c / W

W h e r e h i s a c o n s t a n t k n o w n a s P l a n c k ' s c o n s t a n t .

Page 8: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

8

G a m m a r a y s a r e i n d i r e c t l y i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n . A g a m m a r a y p a s s e s t h r o u g h m a t t e r u n t i l i t u n d e r g o e s a n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h a n a t o m i c p a r t i c l e , u s u a l l y a n e l e c t r o n . D u r i n g t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n , e n e r g y i s t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e g a m m a r a y t o t h e e l e c t r o n , w h i c h i s a d i r e c t l y i o n i z i n g p a r t i c l e . A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s e n e r g y t r a n s f e r , t h e e l e c t r o n i s l i b e r a t e d f r o m t h e a t o m a n d p r o c e e d s t o i o n i z e m a t t e r b y c o l l i d i n g w i t h o t h e r e l e c t r o n s a l o n g i t s p a t h .

F o r t h e r a n g e o f e n e r g i e s c o m m o n l y u s e d i n r a d i o g r a p h y , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n g a m m a r a y s a n d e l e c t r o n s o c c u r s i n t w o w a y s . O n e e f f e c t t a k e s p l a c e w h e r e a l l t h e g a m m a r a y ' s e n e r g y i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o a n e n t i r e a t o m . T h e g a m m a r a y n o l o n g e r e x i s t s a n d a n e l e c t r o n e m e r g e s f r o m t h e a t o m w i t h k i n e t i c ( m o t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o f o r c e ) e n e r g y a l m o s t e q u a l t o t h e g a m m a e n e r g y . T h i s e f f e c t i s p r e d o m i n a n t a t l o w g a m m a e n e r g i e s a n d i s k n o w n a s t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c e f f e c t . T h e o t h e r m a j o r e f f e c t o c c u r s w h e n a g a m m a r a y i n t e r a c t s w i t h a n a t o m i c e l e c t r o n , f r e e i n g i t f r o m t h e a t o m a n d i m p a r t i n g t o i t o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e g a m m a r a y ' s k i n e t i c e n e r g y . A s e c o n d a r y g a m m a r a y w i t h l e s s e n e r g y ( h e n c e l o w e r f r e q u e n c y ) a l s o e m e r g e s f r o m t h e i n t e r a c t i o n . T h i s e f f e c t p r e d o m i n a t e s a t h i g h e r g a m m a e n e r g i e s a n d i s k n o w n a s t h e C o m p t o n E f f e c t .

I n b o t h o f t h e s e e f f e c t s t h e e m e r g e n t e l e c t r o n s l o s e t h e i r k i n e t i c e n e r g y b y i o n i z i n g s u r r o u n d i n g a t o m s . T h e d e n s i t y o f i o n s s o g e n e r a t e d i s a m e a s u r e o f t h e e n e r g y d e l i v e r e d t o t h e m a t e r i a l b y t h e g a m m a r a y s .

T h e m o s t c o m m o n m e a n s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n a b e a m o f r a d i a t i o n i s b y u t i l i z i n g i t s e f f e c t s o n t o a p h o t o g r a p h i c f i l m . T h i s e f f e c t i s t h e s a m e a s t h a t o f l i g h t , a n d t h e m o r e i n t e n s e t h e r a d i a t i o n i s , i t w i l l p r o d u c e a d a r k e r f i l m , o r a m o r e e x p o s e d f i l m . O t h e r m e t h o d s a r e i n u s e , s u c h a s t h e i o n i z i n g e f f e c t m e a s u r e d e l e c t r o n i c a l l y , i t s a b i l i t y t o d i s c h a r g e a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c a l l y c h a r g e d p l a t e o r t o c a u s e c e r t a i n c h e m i c a l s t o f l u o r e s c e a s i n f l u o r o s c o p y .

Page 9: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

9

X - R A Y S

X r a y s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d i n 1 8 9 5 b y W . C . R o e n t g e n , w h o c a l l e d t h e m X r a y s b e c a u s e t h e i r n a t u r e w a s a t f i r s t u n k n o w n ; t h e y a r e s o m e t i m e s a l s o c a l l e d R o e n t g e n , o r R ö n t g e n , r a y s . X - r a y l i n e s p e c t r a w e r e u s e d b y H . G . J . M o s e l e y i n h i s i m p o r t a n t w o r k o n a t o m i c n u m b e r s ( 1 9 1 3 ) a n d a l s o p r o v i d e d f u r t h e r c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e q u a n t u m t h e o r y o f a t o m i c s t r u c t u r e . A l s o i m p o r t a n t h i s t o r i c a l l y i s t h e d i s c o v e r y o f X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n b y M a x v o n L a u e ( 1 9 1 2 ) a n d i t s s u b s e q u e n t a p p l i c a t i o n b y W . H . a n d W . L . B r a g g t o t h e s t u d y o f c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e .

X r a y , i n v i s i b l e , h i g h l y p e n e t r a t i n g e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n o f m u c h s h o r t e r w a v e l e n g t h ( h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y ) t h a n v i s i b l e l i g h t . T h e w a v e l e n g t h r a n g e f o r X r a y s i s f r o m a b o u t 1 0 − 8 m t o a b o u t 1 0 − 1 1 m , o r f r o m l e s s t h a n a b i l l i o n t h o f a n i n c h t o l e s s t h a n a t r i l l i o n t h o f a n i n c h ; t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f r e q u e n c y r a n g e i s f r o m a b o u t 3 × 1 0 1 6 H z t o a b o u t 3 × 1 0 1 9 H z ( 1 H z = 1 c p s ) .

P r o d u c t i o n o f X - R a y s

A n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f X r a y s i s s y n c h r o t r o n r a d i a t i o n . X r a y s a r e a l s o p r o d u c e d i n a h i g h l y e v a c u a t e d g l a s s b u l b , c a l l e d a n X - r a y t u b e , t h a t c o n t a i n s e s s e n t i a l l y t w o e l e c t r o d e s — a n a n o d e m a d e o f p l a t i n u m , t u n g s t e n , o r a n o t h e r h e a v y m e t a l o f h i g h m e l t i n g p o i n t , a n d a c a t h o d e . W h e n a h i g h v o l t a g e i s a p p l i e d b e t w e e n t h e e l e c t r o d e s , s t r e a m s o f e l e c t r o n s ( c a t h o d e r a y s ) a r e a c c e l e r a t e d f r o m t h e c a t h o d e t o t h e a n o d e a n d p r o d u c e X r a y s a s t h e y s t r i k e t h e a n o d e .

T w o d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s e s g i v e r i s e t o r a d i a t i o n o f X - r a y f r e q u e n c y . I n o n e p r o c e s s r a d i a t i o n i s e m i t t e d b y t h e h i g h -s p e e d e l e c t r o n s t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e y a r e s l o w e d o r e v e n s t o p p e d i n p a s s i n g n e a r t h e p o s i t i v e l y c h a r g e d n u c l e i o f t h e a n o d e m a t e r i a l . T h i s r a d i a t i o n i s o f t e n c a l l e d b r e h m s s t r a h l u n g [ G e r . , = b r a k i n g r a d i a t i o n ] . I n a s e c o n d p r o c e s s r a d i a t i o n i s e m i t t e d b y t h e e l e c t r o n s o f t h e a n o d e a t o m s w h e n i n c o m i n g e l e c t r o n s f r o m t h e c a t h o d e k n o c k e l e c t r o n s n e a r t h e n u c l e i o u t o f o r b i t a n d t h e y a r e r e p l a c e d b y o t h e r e l e c t r o n s f r o m o u t e r o r b i t s . T h e s p e c t r u m o f f r e q u e n c i e s g i v e n o f f w i t h a n y p a r t i c u l a r a n o d e m a t e r i a l t h u s c o n s i s t s o f a c o n t i n u o u s r a n g e o f f r e q u e n c i e s e m i t t e d i n t h e f i r s t p r o c e s s , a n d s u p e r i m p o s e d o n i t a n u m b e r o f s h a r p p e a k s o f i n t e n s i t y c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o d i s c r e t e f r e q u e n c i e s a t w h i c h X r a y s a r e e m i t t e d i n t h e s e c o n d p r o c e s s .

Page 10: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 0

T h e s h a r p p e a k s c o n s t i t u t e t h e X - r a y l i n e s p e c t r u m f o r t h e a n o d e m a t e r i a l a n d w i l l d i f f e r f o r d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s .

A p p l i c a t i o n s o f X - R a y s

M o s t a p p l i c a t i o n s o f X - r a y s a r e b a s e d o n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p a s s t h r o u g h m a t t e r . T h i s a b i l i t y v a r i e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t s u b s t a n c e s ; e . g . , w o o d a n d f l e s h a r e e a s i l y p e n e t r a t e d , b u t d e n s e r s u b s t a n c e s s u c h a s l e a d a n d b o n e a r e m o r e o p a q u e . T h e p e n e t r a t i n g p o w e r o f X - r a y s a l s o d e p e n d s o n t h e i r e n e r g y . T h e m o r e p e n e t r a t i n g X - r a y s , k n o w n a s h a r d X - r a y s , a r e o f h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y a n d a r e t h u s m o r e e n e r g e t i c , w h i l e t h e l e s s p e n e t r a t i n g X - r a y s , c a l l e d s o f t X - r a y s , h a v e l o w e r e n e r g i e s . X -r a y s t h a t h a v e p a s s e d t h r o u g h a b o d y p r o v i d e a v i s u a l i m a g e o f i t s i n t e r i o r s t r u c t u r e w h e n t h e y s t r i k e a p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e o r a f l u o r e s c e n t s c r e e n ; t h e d a r k n e s s o f t h e s h a d o w s p r o d u c e d o n t h e p l a t e o r s c r e e n d e p e n d s o n t h e r e l a t i v e o p a c i t y o f d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e b o d y .

P h o t o g r a p h s m a d e w i t h X - r a y s a r e k n o w n a s r a d i o g r a p h s o r s k i g r a p h s . R a d i o g r a p h y h a s a p p l i c a t i o n s i n b o t h m e d i c i n e a n d i n d u s t r y , w h e r e i t i s v a l u a b l e f o r d i a g n o s i s a n d n o n d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g o f p r o d u c t s f o r d e f e c t s . F l u o r o s c o p y i s b a s e d o n t h e s a m e t e c h n i q u e s , w i t h t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e r e p l a c e d b y a f l u o r e s c e n t s c r e e n ( s e e f l u o r e s c e n c e ; f l u o r o s c o p e ) ; i t s a d v a n t a g e s o v e r r a d i o g r a p h y i n t i m e a n d c o s t a r e b a l a n c e d b y s o m e l o s s i n s h a r p n e s s o f t h e i m a g e . X - r a y s a r e a l s o u s e d w i t h c o m p u t e r s i n C A T ( c o m p u t e r i z e d a x i a l t o m o g r a p h y ) s c a n s t o p r o d u c e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l i m a g e s o f t h e i n s i d e o f t h e b o d y .

A n o t h e r u s e o f r a d i o g r a p h y i s i n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s o f p a i n t i n g s , w h e r e s t u d i e s c a n r e v e a l s u c h d e t a i l s a s t h e a g e o f a p a i n t i n g a n d u n d e r l y i n g b r u s h s t r o k e t e c h n i q u e s t h a t h e l p t o i d e n t i f y o r v e r i f y t h e a r t i s t . X - r a y s a r e u s e d i n s e v e r a l t e c h n i q u e s t h a t c a n p r o v i d e e n l a r g e d i m a g e s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f o p a q u e o b j e c t s . T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s c o l l e c t i v e l y r e f e r r e d t o a s X -r a y m i c r o s c o p y o r m i c r o - r a d i o g r a p h y c a n a l s o b e u s e d i n t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f m a n y m a t e r i a l s . O n e o f t h e d a n g e r s i n t h e u s e o f X - r a y s i s t h a t t h e y c a n d e s t r o y l i v i n g t i s s u e a n d c a n c a u s e s e v e r e s k i n b u r n s o n h u m a n f l e s h e x p o s e d f o r t o o l o n g a t i m e . T h i s d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r i s u s e d i n X - r a y t h e r a p y t o d e s t r o y d i s e a s e d c e l l s .

Page 11: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 1

C a t S c a n

A c o m p u t e r i z e d a x i a l t o m o g r a p h y s c a n i s m o r e c o m m o n l y k n o w n b y i t s a b b r e v i a t e d n a m e , C A T s c a n o r C T s c a n . I t i s a n x - r a y p r o c e d u r e w h i c h c o m b i n e s m a n y x - r a y i m a g e s w i t h t h e a i d o f a c o m p u t e r t o g e n e r a t e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l v i e w s a n d , i f n e e d e d , t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l i m a g e s o f t h e i n t e r n a l o r g a n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e b o d y . A C A T s c a n i s u s e d t o d e f i n e n o r m a l a n d a b n o r m a l s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e b o d y a n d / o r a s s i s t i n p r o c e d u r e s b y h e l p i n g t o a c c u r a t e l y g u i d e t h e p l a c e m e n t o f i n s t r u m e n t s o r t r e a t m e n t s . A l a r g e d o n u t - s h a p e d x - r a y m a c h i n e t a k e s x - r a y i m a g e s a t m a n y d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s a r o u n d t h e b o d y . T h e s e i m a g e s a r e p r o c e s s e d b y a c o m p u t e r t o p r o d u c e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l p i c t u r e s o f t h e b o d y . I n e a c h o f t h e s e p i c t u r e s t h e b o d y i s s e e n a s a n x -r a y " s l i c e " o f t h e b o d y , w h i c h i s r e c o r d e d o n a f i l m . T h i s r e c o r d e d i m a g e i s c a l l e d a t o m o g r a m . " C o m p u t e r i z e d A x i a l T o m o g r a p h y " r e f e r s t o t h e r e c o r d e d t o m o g r a m " s e c t i o n s " a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f t h e b o d y .

I m a g i n e t h e b o d y a s a l o a f o f b r e a d a n d y o u a r e l o o k i n g a t o n e e n d o f t h e l o a f . A s y o u r e m o v e e a c h s l i c e o f b r e a d , y o u c a n s e e t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e o f t h a t s l i c e f r o m t h e c r u s t t o t h e c e n t e r . T h e b o d y i s s e e n o n C A T s c a n s l i c e s i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n f r o m t h e s k i n t o t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e b o d y b e i n g e x a m i n e d . W h e n t h e s e l e v e l s a r e f u r t h e r " a d d e d " t o g e t h e r , a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p i c t u r e o f a n o r g a n o r a b n o r m a l b o d y s t r u c t u r e c a n b e o b t a i n e d .

H i s t o r y

T h e C T s y s t e m w a s i n v e n t e d i n 1 9 7 2 b y G o d f r e y N e w b o l d H o u n s f i e l d u s i n g X - r a y s . A l l a n M c L e o C o r m a c k o f T u f t s U n i v e r s i t y i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n v e n t e d t h e s a m e p r o c e s s a n d t h e y s h a r e d a N o b e l P r i z e i n m e d i c i n e i n 1 9 7 9 . T h e f i r s t s c a n n e r t o o k s e v e r a l h o u r s t o a c q u i r e t h e r a w d a t a a n d s e v e r a l d a y s t o p r o d u c e t h e i m a g e s . M o d e r n m u l t i - d e t e c t o r C T s y s t e m s c a n c o m p l e t e a s c a n o f t h e c h e s t i n l e s s t i m e t h a n i t t a k e s f o r a s i n g l e b r e a t h a n d d i s p l a y t h e c o m p u t e d i m a g e s i n a f e w s e c o n d s .

Page 12: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 2

W h y a r e C A T s c a n s p e r f o r m e d ?

S i n c e i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s , C T h a s b e c o m e a n i m p o r t a n t t o o l i n m e d i c a l i m a g i n g t o s u p p l e m e n t X - r a y s a n d m e d i c a l u l t r a s o n o g r a p h y . A l t h o u g h i t i s s t i l l q u i t e e x p e n s i v e , i t i s t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d i n t h e d i a g n o s i s o f a l a r g e n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t d i s e a s e e n t i t i e s .

C A T s c a n s a r e p e r f o r m e d t o a n a l y z e t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e b o d y . T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e h e a d , w h e r e t r a u m a t i c i n j u r i e s , ( s u c h a s b l o o d c l o t s o r s k u l l f r a c t u r e s ) , t u m o r s , a n d i n f e c t i o n s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d . I n t h e s p i n e , t h e b o n y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e v e r t e b r a e c a n b e a c c u r a t e l y d e f i n e d , a s c a n t h e a n a t o m y o f t h e i n t e r - v e r t e b r a l d i s c s a n d s p i n a l c o r d . I n f a c t , C A T s c a n m e t h o d s c a n b e u s e d t o a c c u r a t e l y m e a s u r e t h e d e n s i t y o f b o n e i n e v a l u a t i n g o s t e o p o r o s i s .

O c c a s i o n a l l y , c o n t r a s t m a t e r i a l ( a n x - r a y d y e ) i s p l a c e d i n t o t h e s p i n a l f l u i d t o f u r t h e r e n h a n c e t h e s c a n a n d t h e v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e s p i n e , t h e s p i n a l c o r d , a n d i t s n e r v e s . C A T s c a n s a r e a l s o u s e d i n t h e c h e s t t o i d e n t i f y t u m o r s , c y s t s , o r i n f e c t i o n s t h a t m a y b e s u s p e c t e d o n a c h e s t x -r a y . C A T s c a n s o f t h e a b d o m e n a r e e x t r e m e l y h e l p f u l i n d e f i n i n g b o d y o r g a n a n a t o m y , i n c l u d i n g v i s u a l i z i n g t h e l i v e r , g a l l b l a d d e r , p a n c r e a s , s p l e e n , a o r t a , k i d n e y s , u t e r u s , a n d o v a r i e s . C A T s c a n s i n t h i s a r e a a r e u s e d t o v e r i f y t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f t u m o r s , i n f e c t i o n , a b n o r m a l a n a t o m y , o r c h a n g e s o f t h e b o d y f r o m t r a u m a .

T h e t e c h n i q u e i s p a i n l e s s a n d c a n p r o v i d e e x t r e m e l y a c c u r a t e i m a g e s o f b o d y s t r u c t u r e s i n a d d i t i o n t o g u i d i n g t h e r a d i o l o g i s t i n p e r f o r m i n g c e r t a i n p r o c e d u r e s , s u c h a s b i o p s i e s o f s u s p e c t e d c a n c e r s , r e m o v a l o f i n t e r n a l b o d y f l u i d s f o r v a r i o u s t e s t s , a n d t h e d r a i n i n g o f a b s c e s s e s w h i c h a r e d e e p i n t h e b o d y . M a n y o f t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s a r e m i n i m a l l y i n v a s i v e a n d h a v e m a r k e d l y d e c r e a s e d t h e n e e d t o p e r f o r m s u r g e r y t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e s a m e g o a l .

Page 13: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 3

R i s k s t h a t m i g h t b e i n v o l v e d i n p e r f o r m i n g C A T s c a n ? A C A T s c a n i s a v e r y l o w - r i s k p r o c e d u r e . T h e m o s t c o m m o n p r o b l e m i s a n a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n t o i n t r a v e n o u s c o n t r a s t m a t e r i a l . I n t r a v e n o u s c o n t r a s t i s u s u a l l y a n i o d i n e - b a s e d l i q u i d g i v e n i n t h e v e i n , w h i c h m a k e s m a n y o r g a n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s , s u c h a s t h e k i d n e y s a n d b l o o d v e s s e l s m u c h m o r e v i s i b l e o n t h e C A T s c a n . T h e r e m a y b e r e s u l t i n g i t c h i n g , a r a s h , h i v e s , o r a f e e l i n g o f w a r m t h t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o d y . T h e s e a r e u s u a l l y s e l f -l i m i t i n g r e a c t i o n s a n d g o a w a y r a t h e r q u i c k l y . I f n e e d e d , a n t i h i s t a m i n e s c a n b e g i v e n t o h e l p r e l i e v e t h e s y m p t o m s . A m o r e s e r i o u s r e a c t i o n t o i n t r a v e n o u s c o n t r a s t i s c a l l e d a n a n a p h y l a c t i c r e a c t i o n . W h e n t h i s o c c u r s , t h e p a t i e n t m a y e x p e r i e n c e s e v e r e h i v e s a n d / o r e x t r e m e d i f f i c u l t y i n b r e a t h i n g . T h i s r e a c t i o n i s q u i t e r a r e , b u t i s p o t e n t i a l l y l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g i f n o t t r e a t e d . M e d i c a t i o n s w h i c h m a y i n c l u d e c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s , a n t i h i s t a m i n e s , a n d e p i n e p h r i n e r e v e r s e t h i s a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n .

T o x i c i t y t o t h e k i d n e y s w h i c h c a n r e s u l t i n k i d n e y f a i l u r e i s a n e x t r e m e l y r a r e c o m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e i n t r a v e n o u s c o n t r a s t u s e d i n C A T s c a n s . D i a b e t i c s , d e h y d r a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s , o r p a t i e n t s w h o a l r e a d y h a v e i m p a i r e d k i d n e y f u n c t i o n a r e m o s t p r o n e t o t h i s r e a c t i o n . N e w e r i n t r a v e n o u s c o n t r a s t a g e n t s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d , s u c h a s I s o v u e , w h i c h h a v e n e a r l y e l i m i n a t e d t h i s c o m p l i c a t i o n .

T h e a m o u n t o f r a d i a t i o n a p e r s o n r e c e i v e s d u r i n g a C A T s c a n i s m i n i m a l . I n m e n a n d n o n - p r e g n a n t w o m e n , i t h a s n o t b e e n s h o w n t o p r o d u c e a n y a d v e r s e e f f e c t s . I f a w o m a n i s p r e g n a n t , t h e r e m a y b e a p o t e n t i a l r i s k t o t h e f e t u s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i r s t t r i m e s t e r o f t h e p r e g n a n c y . I f a w o m a n i s p r e g n a n t , s h e s h o u l d i n f o r m h e r d o c t o r o f h e r c o n d i t i o n a n d d i s c u s s o t h e r p o t e n t i a l m e t h o d s o f t e s t i n g , s u c h a s a n u l t r a s o u n d , w h i c h a r e n o t h a r m f u l t o t h e f e t u s .

H o w d o e s a p a t i e n t p r e p a r e f o r C A T s c a n n i n g , a n d h o w i s i t p e r f o r m e d ? I n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a C A T s c a n , p a t i e n t s a r e o f t e n a s k e d t o a v o i d f o o d , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n c o n t r a s t m a t e r i a l i s t o b e u s e d . C o n t r a s t m a t e r i a l m a y b e i n j e c t e d i n t r a v e n o u s l y , o r a d m i n i s t e r e d b y m o u t h o r b y a n e n e m a i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n v a r i o u s o r g a n s o r a r e a s o f t h e b o d y . T h e r e f o r e , f l u i d s a n d f o o d m a y b e r e s t r i c t e d f o r s e v e r a l h o u r s

Page 14: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 4

p r i o r t o t h e e x a m i n a t i o n . I f t h e p a t i e n t h a s a h i s t o r y o f a l l e r g y t o c o n t r a s t m a t e r i a l ( s u c h a s i o d i n e ) , t h e r e q u e s t i n g p h y s i c i a n a n d r a d i o l o g y s t a f f s h o u l d b e n o t i f i e d . A l l m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s a n d c e r t a i n c l o t h i n g a r o u n d t h e b o d y a r e r e m o v e d b e c a u s e t h e y c a n i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e c l a r i t y o f t h e i m a g e s .

P a t i e n t s a r e p l a c e d o n a m o v a b l e t a b l e , a n d t h e t a b l e i s s l i p p e d i n t o t h e c e n t e r o f a l a r g e d o n u t - s h a p e d m a c h i n e w h i c h t a k e s t h e x - r a y i m a g e s a r o u n d t h e b o d y . T h e a c t u a l p r o c e d u r e c a n t a k e f r o m a h a l f a n h o u r t o a n h o u r a n d a h a l f . I f s p e c i f i c t e s t s , b i o p s i e s , o r i n t e r v e n t i o n a r e p e r f o r m e d b y t h e r a d i o l o g i s t d u r i n g C A T s c a n n i n g , a d d i t i o n a l t i m e a n d m o n i t o r i n g m a y b e r e q u i r e d . I t i s i m p o r t a n t d u r i n g t h e C A T s c a n p r o c e d u r e t h a t t h e p a t i e n t m i n i m i z e s a n y b o d y m o v e m e n t b y r e m a i n i n g a s s t i l l a n d q u i e t a s i s p o s s i b l e . T h i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e s t h e c l a r i t y o f t h e x - r a y i m a g e s . T h e C A T s c a n t e c h n o l o g i s t t e l l s t h e p a t i e n t w h e n t o b r e a t h e o r h o l d h i s / h e r b r e a t h e d u r i n g s c a n s o f t h e c h e s t a n d a b d o m e n . I f a n y p r o b l e m s a r e e x p e r i e n c e d d u r i n g t h e C A T s c a n , t h e t e c h n o l o g i s t s h o u l d b e i n f o r m e d i m m e d i a t e l y . T h e t e c h n o l o g i s t d i r e c t l y w a t c h e s t h e p a t i e n t t h r o u g h a n o b s e r v a t i o n w i n d o w d u r i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e a n d t h e r e i s a n i n t e r c o m s y s t e m i n t h e r o o m f o r a d d e d p a t i e n t s a f e t y .

C A T s c a n s h a v e v a s t l y i m p r o v e d t h e a b i l i t y o f d o c t o r s t o d i a g n o s e m a n y d i s e a s e s e a r l i e r i n t h e i r c o u r s e a n d w i t h m u c h l e s s r i s k t h a n p r e v i o u s m e t h o d s . F u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t s i n C A T s c a n t e c h n o l o g y c o n t i n u e t o e v o l v e w h i c h p r o m i s e e v e n b e t t e r p i c t u r e q u a l i t y a n d p a t i e n t s a f e t y . N e w e r C A T s c a n s c a l l e d " s p i r a l " o r " h e l i c a l " C A T s c a n s c a n p r o v i d e m o r e r a p i d a n d a c c u r a t e v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l o r g a n s . F o r e x a m p l e , m a n y t r a u m a c e n t e r s a r e u s i n g t h e s e s c a n s t o m o r e r a p i d l y d i a g n o s e i n t e r n a l i n j u r i e s a f t e r s e r i o u s b o d y t r a u m a .

Page 15: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 5

M a g n e t i c R e s o n a n c e I m a g i n g ( M R I ) W h e r e I t ' s D o n e W h o D o e s I t H o w L o n g I t

T a k e s D i s c o m f o r t / P a i n

D i a g n o s t i c c l i n i c , r a d i o l o g y l a b , o r h o s p i t a l .

R a d i o l o g i s t o r q u a l i f i e d t e c h n i c i a n .

3 0 - 9 0 m i n u t e s .

N o n e , b u t s o m e p e o p l e f i n d t h e n o i s e a n d b e i n g i n a c o n f i n e d s p a c e u p s e t t i n g .

R e s u l t s R e a d y W h e n

S p e c i a l E q u i p m e n t R i s k s / C o m p l i c a t i o n s A v e r a g e

C o s t

O f t e n w i t h i n a f e w h o u r s .

M R I s c a n n e r , c o m p u t e r , a n d d i s p l a y s c r e e n o r m o n i t o r ; f i l m o r m a g n e t i c t a p e r e c o r d e r .

N o n e , u n l e s s t h e p a t i e n t h a s a n i m p l a n t e d p a c e m a k e r o r o t h e r i m p l a n t e d m e t a l d e v i c e s .

$ $ $

M a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e i m a g i n g ( M R I ) - a l s o c a l l e d m a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e t o m o g r a p h y ( M R T ) - i s a m e t h o d o f c r e a t i n g i m a g e s o f t h e i n s i d e o f o p a q u e o r g a n s i n l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s a s w e l l a s d e t e c t i n g t h e a m o u n t o f b o u n d w a t e r i n g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . I t i s p r i m a r i l y u s e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e p a t h o l o g i c a l o r o t h e r p h y s i o l o g i c a l a l t e r a t i o n s o f l i v i n g t i s s u e s a n d i s a c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r m o f m e d i c a l i m a g i n g . M R I h a s a l s o f o u n d m a n y n i c h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o u t s i d e o f t h e m e d i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l f i e l d s s u c h a s r o c k p e r m e a b i l i t y t o h y d r o c a r b o n s a n d c e r t a i n n o n -d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g m e t h o d s s u c h a s p r o d u c e a n d t i m b e r q u a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n .

M a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e i m a g i n g w a s d e v e l o p e d f r o m k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d i n t h e s t u d y o f n u c l e a r m a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e . T h e o r i g i n a l n a m e f o r t h e m e d i c a l t e c h n o l o g y i s n u c l e a r m a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e i m a g i n g ( N M R I ) , b u t t h e w o r d n u c l e a r i s a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y d r o p p e d . T h i s i s d o n e t o a v o i d t h e n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e w o r d n u c l e a r , a n d t o p r e v e n t p a t i e n t s f r o m a s s o c i a t i n g t h e e x a m i n a t i o n w i t h r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e . S c i e n t i s t s s t i l l u s e N M R w h e n d i s c u s s i n g n o n - m e d i c a l d e v i c e s o p e r a t i n g o n t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s .

M R I p r o v i d e s a n u n p a r a l l e l e d v i e w i n s i d e t h e h u m a n b o d y . T h e l e v e l o f d e t a i l w e c a n s e e i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y c o m p a r e d w i t h a n y

Page 16: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 6

o t h e r i m a g i n g m o d a l i t y . M R I i s t h e m e t h o d o f c h o i c e f o r t h e d i a g n o s i s o f m a n y t y p e s o f i n j u r i e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s b e c a u s e o f t h e i n c r e d i b l e a b i l i t y t o t a i l o r t h e e x a m t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e d i c a l q u e s t i o n b e i n g a s k e d . B y c h a n g i n g e x a m p a r a m e t e r s , t h e M R I s y s t e m c a n c a u s e t i s s u e s i n t h e b o d y t o t a k e o n d i f f e r e n t a p p e a r a n c e s . T h i s i s v e r y h e l p f u l t o t h e r a d i o l o g i s t ( w h o r e a d s t h e M R I ) i n d e t e r m i n i n g i f s o m e t h i n g s e e n i s n o r m a l o r n o t . W e k n o w t h a t w h e n w e d o " A , " n o r m a l t i s s u e w i l l l o o k l i k e " B " - - i f i t d o e s n ' t , t h e r e m i g h t b e a n a b n o r m a l i t y . M R I s y s t e m s c a n a l s o i m a g e f l o w i n g b l o o d i n v i r t u a l l y a n y p a r t o f t h e b o d y . T h i s a l l o w s u s t o p e r f o r m s t u d i e s t h a t s h o w t h e a r t e r i a l s y s t e m i n t h e b o d y , b u t n o t t h e t i s s u e a r o u n d i t . I n m a n y c a s e s , t h e M R I s y s t e m c a n d o t h i s w i t h o u t a c o n t r a s t i n j e c t i o n , w h i c h i s r e q u i r e d i n v a s c u l a r r a d i o l o g y . H o w M R I w o r k s

T h e b i g g e s t a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t i n a n M R I s y s t e m i s t h e m a g n e t . T h e m a g n e t i n a n M R I s y s t e m i s r a t e d u s i n g a u n i t o f m e a s u r e k n o w n a s a t e s l a . A n o t h e r u n i t o f m e a s u r e c o m m o n l y u s e d w i t h m a g n e t s i s t h e g a u s s ( 1 t e s l a = 1 0 , 0 0 0 g a u s s ) . T h e m a g n e t s i n u s e t o d a y i n M R I a r e i n t h e 0 . 5 - t e s l a t o 2 . 0 - t e s l a r a n g e , o r 5 , 0 0 0 t o 2 0 , 0 0 0 g a u s s . M a g n e t i c f i e l d s g r e a t e r t h a n 2 t e s l a h a v e n o t b e e n a p p r o v e d f o r u s e i n m e d i c a l i m a g i n g , t h o u g h m u c h m o r e p o w e r f u l m a g n e t s - - u p t o 6 0 t e s l a - - a r e u s e d i n r e s e a r c h . C o m p a r e d w i t h t h e E a r t h ' s 0 . 5 - g a u s s m a g n e t i c f i e l d , y o u c a n s e e h o w i n c r e d i b l y p o w e r f u l t h e s e m a g n e t s a r e .

N u m b e r s l i k e t h a t h e l p p r o v i d e a n i n t e l l e c t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m a g n e t i c s t r e n g t h , b u t e v e r y d a y e x a m p l e s a r e a l s o h e l p f u l . T h e M R I s u i t e c a n b e a v e r y d a n g e r o u s p l a c e i f s t r i c t p r e c a u t i o n s a r e n o t o b s e r v e d . M e t a l o b j e c t s c a n b e c o m e d a n g e r o u s p r o j e c t i l e s i f t h e y a r e t a k e n i n t o t h e s c a n r o o m . F o r e x a m p l e , p a p e r c l i p s , p e n s , k e y s , s c i s s o r s , h e m o s t a t s , s t e t h o s c o p e s a n d a n y o t h e r s m a l l o b j e c t s c a n b e p u l l e d o u t o f p o c k e t s a n d o f f t h e b o d y w i t h o u t w a r n i n g , a t w h i c h p o i n t t h e y f l y t o w a r d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e m a g n e t ( w h e r e t h e p a t i e n t i s p l a c e d ) a t v e r y h i g h s p e e d s , p o s i n g a t h r e a t t o e v e r y o n e i n t h e r o o m . C r e d i t c a r d , b a n k c a r d s a n d a n y t h i n g e l s e w i t h m a g n e t i c e n c o d i n g w i l l b e e r a s e d b y m o s t M R I s y s t e m s .

T h e m a g n e t i c f o r c e e x e r t e d o n a n o b j e c t i n c r e a s e s e x p o n e n t i a l l y a s i t n e a r s t h e m a g n e t . I m a g i n e s t a n d i n g 1 5 f e e t ( 4 . 6 m ) a w a y f r o m t h e m a g n e t w i t h a l a r g e p i p e w r e n c h i n y o u r

Page 17: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 7

h a n d . Y o u m i g h t f e e l a s l i g h t p u l l . T a k e a c o u p l e o f s t e p s c l o s e r a n d t h a t p u l l i s m u c h s t r o n g e r . W h e n y o u g e t t o w i t h i n 3 f e e t ( 1 m e t e r ) o f t h e m a g n e t , t h e w r e n c h l i k e l y i s p u l l e d f r o m y o u r g r a s p . T h e m o r e m a s s a n o b j e c t h a s , t h e m o r e d a n g e r o u s i t c a n b e - - t h e f o r c e w i t h w h i c h i t i s a t t r a c t e d t o t h e m a g n e t i s m u c h s t r o n g e r . M o p b u c k e t s , v a c u u m c l e a n e r s , I V p o l e s , o x y g e n t a n k s , p a t i e n t s t r e t c h e r s , h e a r t m o n i t o r s a n d c o u n t l e s s o t h e r o b j e c t s h a v e a l l b e e n p u l l e d i n t o t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d s o f M R I m a c h i n e s . T h e l a r g e s t o b j e c t I k n o w o f b e i n g p u l l e d i n t o a m a g n e t i s a f u l l y l o a d e d p a l l e t j a c k ( s e e b e l o w ) . S m a l l e r o b j e c t s c a n u s u a l l y b e p u l l e d f r e e o f t h e m a g n e t b y h a n d . L a r g e o n e s m a y h a v e t o b e p u l l e d a w a y w i t h a w i n c h , o r t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d m a y e v e n h a v e t o b e s h u t d o w n .

Page 18: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 8

U l t r a s o u n d

M e d i c a l u l t r a s o n o g r a p h y i s a n u l t r a s o u n d - b a s e d d i a g n o s t i c i m a g i n g t e c h n i q u e u s e d t o v i s u a l i z e i n t e r n a l o r g a n s , t h e i r s i z e , s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e i r p a t h o l o g i c a l l e s i o n s .

U s e s

U l t r a s o n o g r a p h y i s w i d e l y u t i l i z e d i n m e d i c i n e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o p e r f o r m d i a g n o s i s o r t h e r a p e u t i c p r o c e d u r e s w i t h t h e g u i d a n c e o f u l t r a s o n o g r a p h y ( f o r i n s t a n c e b i o p s i e s o r d r a i n a g e o f f l u i d c o l l e c t i o n s ) . T y p i c a l l y u s e s a h a n d - h e l d p r o b e ( o f t e n c a l l e d a s c a n h e a d ) t h a t i s p l a c e d d i r e c t l y o n a n d m o v e d o v e r t h e p a t i e n t : a w a t e r - b a s e d g e l e n s u r e s g o o d c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n t h e p a t i e n t a n d s c a n h e a d .

M e d i c a l u l t r a s o n o g r a p h y i s u s e d i n , f o r e x a m p l e :

• g a s t r o e n t e r o l o g y • c a r d i o l o g y • g y n e c o l o g y • o b s t e t r i c s • u r o l o g y • e n d o c r i n o l o g y

T e c h n o l o g y

U l t r a s o n o g r a p h y u s e s a p r o b e c o n t a i n i n g o n e o r m o r e a c o u s t i c t r a n s d u c e r s t o s e n d p u l s e s o f s o u n d i n t o a m a t e r i a l . W h e n e v e r a s o u n d w a v e e n c o u n t e r s a m a t e r i a l w i t h d i f f e r e n t a c o u s t i c a l i m p e d a n c e , p a r t o f t h e s o u n d w a v e i s r e f l e c t e d , w h i c h t h e p r o b e d e t e c t s a s a n e c h o . T h e t i m e i t t a k e s f o r t h e e c h o t o t r a v e l b a c k t o t h e p r o b e i s m e a s u r e d a n d u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d e p t h o f t h e t i s s u e i n t e r f a c e c a u s i n g t h e e c h o . T h e g r e a t e r t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a c o u s t i c i m p e d a n c e s , t h e l a r g e r t h e e c h o i s . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n g a s e s a n d s o l i d s i s s o g r e a t t h a t m o s t o f t h e a c o u s t i c e n e r g y i s r e f l e c t e d , a n d s o i m a g i n g o f o b j e c t s b e y o n d t h a t r e g i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e .

T h e s p e e d o f s o u n d i s d i f f e r e n t i n d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s , a n d i s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e a c o u s t i c a l i m p e d a n c e o f t h e m a t e r i a l . P a r t o f t h e a c o u s t i c e n e r g y i s l o s t e v e r y t i m e a n e c h o i s f o r m e d .

U n l i k e r e g u l a r s o u n d , u l t r a s o u n d c a n b e d i r e c t e d i n t o a s i n g l e d i r e c t i o n . T h e e c h o e s r e c e i v e d b y a s t a t i o n a r y p r o b e w i l l r e s u l t

Page 19: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

1 9

i n a s i n g l e d i m e n s i o n a l s i g n a l s h o w i n g p e a k s f o r e v e r y m a j o r m a t e r i a l c h a n g e .

T o g e n e r a t e a 2 D - i m a g e , t h e p r o b e i s s w i v e l e d , e i t h e r m e c h a n i c a l l y o r t h r o u g h a p h a s e d a r r a y o f u l t r a s o u n d t r a n s d u c e r s . T h e d a t a i s a n a l y z e d b y c o m p u t e r a n d u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t t h e i m a g e . I n a s i m i l a r w a y , 3 D i m a g e s c a n b e g e n e r a t e d b y c o m p u t e r u s i n g a s p e c i a l i z e d p r o b e .

S o m e u l t r a s o n o g r a p h y m a c h i n e s c a n p r o d u c e c o l o r i m a g e s , o f s o r t s . F r o m t h e a m o u n t o f e n e r g y i n e a c h e c h o , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n a c o u s t i c i m p e d a n c e c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a n d a c o l o r i s t h e n a s s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g l y .

T h e f r e q u e n c i e s u s e d f o r m e d i c a l i m a g i n g a r e g e n e r a l l y i n t h e r a n g e o f 1 t o 1 0 M H z . H i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l o w e r w a v e l e n g t h , a n d s o i m a g e s c a n h a v e a g r e a t e r r e s o l u t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e a t t e n u a t i o n o f t h e s o u n d w a v e i s i n c r e a s e d a t h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s , s o i n o r d e r t o b e t t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f d e e p e r t i s s u e s , a l o w e r f r e q u e n c y ( 3 - 5 M H z ) m a y b e u s e d .

D o p p l e r u l t r a s o n o g r a p h y

U l t r a s o n o g r a p h y c a n b e e n h a n c e d w i t h D o p p l e r m e a s u r e m e n t s , w h i c h e m p l o y t h e D o p p l e r E f f e c t t o a s s e s s w h e t h e r s t r u c t u r e s ( u s u a l l y b l o o d ) a r e m o v i n g t o w a r d s o r a w a y f r o m t h e p r o b e . B y c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y s h i f t o f a p a r t i c u l a r s a m p l e v o l u m e , f o r e x a m p l e a j e t o f b l o o d f l o w o v e r a h e a r t v a l v e , i t s s p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d a n d v i s u a l i z e d . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n c a r d i o v a s c u l a r s t u d i e s ( u l t r a s o n o g r a p h y o f t h e v a s c u l a t u r e a n d h e a r t ) a n d e s s e n t i a l i n m a n y a r e a s s u c h a s d e t e r m i n i n g r e v e r s e b l o o d f l o w i n t h e l i v e r v a s c u l a t u r e i n p o r t a l h y p e r t e n s i o n . T h e D o p p l e r i n f o r m a t i o n i s d i s p l a y e d g r a p h i c a l l y u s i n g s p e c t r a l D o p p l e r , o r a s a n i m a g e u s i n g c o l o r D o p p l e r o r p o w e r D o p p l e r . I t i s o f t e n p r e s e n t e d a u d i b l y u s i n g s t e r e o s p e a k e r s : t h i s p r o d u c e s a v e r y d i s t i n c t i v e , a l t h o u g h s y n t h e t i c , s o u n d .

S t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s

S t r e n g t h s o f u l t r a s o u n d i m a g i n g

• I t i m a g e s m u s c l e a n d s o f t t i s s u e v e r y w e l l a n d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r d e l i n e a t i n g t h e i n t e r f a c e s b e t w e e n s o l i d a n d f l u i d - f i l l e d s p a c e s .

Page 20: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 0

• I t r e n d e r s " l i v e " i m a g e s , w h e r e t h e o p e r a t o r c a n d y n a m i c a l l y s e l e c t t h e m o s t u s e f u l s e c t i o n f o r d i a g n o s i n g a n d d o c u m e n t i n g c h a n g e s , o f t e n e n a b l i n g r a p i d d i a g n o s e s .

• I t s h o w s t h e s t r u c t u r e a s w e l l a s s o m e a s p e c t s o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f o r g a n s .

• I t h a s n o k n o w n l o n g - t e r m s i d e e f f e c t s a n d r a r e l y c a u s e s a n y d i s c o m f o r t t o t h e p a t i e n t .

• E q u i p m e n t i s w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e a n d c o m p a r a t i v e l y f l e x i b l e . • S m a l l , e a s i l y c a r r i e d s c a n n e r s a r e a v a i l a b l e ; e x a m i n a t i o n s

c a n b e p e r f o r m e d a t t h e b e d s i d e . • R e l a t i v e l y i n e x p e n s i v e c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r m o d e s o f

i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( e . g . D E X A , c o m p u t e d X - r a y t o m o g r a p h y o r m a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e i m a g i n g ) .

W e a k n e s s e s o f u l t r a s o u n d i m a g i n g

• C l a s s i c a l u l t r a s o u n d d e v i c e s h a v e t r o u b l e p e n e t r a t i n g b o n e b u t c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h o n u l t r a s o u n d b o n e i m a g i n g w i l l m a k e i t p o s s i b l e w i t h d e d i c a t e d d e v i c e s i n t h e f u t u r e .

• U l t r a s o u n d p e r f o r m s v e r y p o o r l y w h e n t h e r e i s a g a s b e t w e e n t h e s c a n h e a d a n d t h e o r g a n o f i n t e r e s t , d u e t o t h e e x t r e m e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a c o u s t i c a l i m p e d a n c e . F o r e x a m p l e , o v e r l y i n g g a s i n t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t o f t e n m a k e s u l t r a s o u n d s c a n n i n g o f t h e p a n c r e a s d i f f i c u l t , a n d l u n g i m a g i n g i s n o t p o s s i b l e ( a p a r t f r o m d e m a r c a t i n g p l e u r a l e f f u s i o n s ) .

• E v e n i n t h e a b s e n c e o f b o n e o r a i r , t h e d e p t h p e n e t r a t i o n o f u l t r a s o u n d i s l i m i t e d , m a k i n g i t d i f f i c u l t t o i m a g e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a r e f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e b o d y s u r f a c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n o b e s e p a t i e n t s .

• T h e m e t h o d i s o p e r a t o r - d e p e n d e n t . A h i g h l e v e l o f s k i l l a n d e x p e r i e n c e i s n e e d e d t o a c q u i r e g o o d - q u a l i t y i m a g e s a n d m a k e a c c u r a t e d i a g n o s e s .

Page 21: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 1

M a m m o g r a p h y

M a m m o g r a p h y i s a s p e c i f i c t y p e o f i m a g i n g t h a t u s e s a l o w -d o s e x - r a y s y s t e m f o r e x a m i n i n g t h e b r e a s t s . T h e i m a g e s o f t h e b r e a s t s c a n b e v i e w e d o n f i l m a t a v i e w b o x o r a s s o f t c o p y o n a d i g i t a l m a m m o g r a p h y w o r k s t a t i o n . M o s t m e d i c a l e x p e r t s a g r e e t h a t s u c c e s s f u l t r e a t m e n t o f b r e a s t c a n c e r o f t e n i s l i n k e d t o e a r l y d i a g n o s i s .

M a m m o g r a p h y p l a y s a c e n t r a l p a r t i n e a r l y d e t e c t i o n o f b r e a s t c a n c e r s b e c a u s e i t c a n s h o w c h a n g e s i n t h e b r e a s t u p t o t w o y e a r s b e f o r e a p a t i e n t o r p h y s i c i a n c a n f e e l t h e m . C u r r e n t g u i d e l i n e s f r o m t h e U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h a n d H u m a n S e r v i c e s ( H H S ) , t h e A m e r i c a n C a n c e r S o c i e t y ( A C S ) , t h e A m e r i c a n M e d i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n ( A M A ) a n d t h e A m e r i c a n C o l l e g e o f R a d i o l o g y ( A C R ) r e c o m m e n d s c r e e n i n g m a m m o g r a p h y e v e r y y e a r f o r w o m e n , b e g i n n i n g a t a g e 4 0 .

W h a t a r e s o m e c o m m o n u s e s o f t h e p r o c e d u r e ?

M a m m o g r a p h y i s u s e d t o a i d i n t h e d i a g n o s i s o f b r e a s t d i s e a s e s i n w o m e n . S c r e e n i n g m a m m o g r a p h y c a n a s s i s t y o u r p h y s i c i a n i n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f d i s e a s e e v e n i f y o u h a v e n o c o m p l a i n t s o r s y m p t o m s .

I n i t i a l m a m m o g r a p h i c i m a g e s t h e m s e l v e s a r e n o t a l w a y s e n o u g h t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a b e n i g n o r m a l i g n a n t d i s e a s e w i t h c e r t a i n t y . I f a f i n d i n g o r s p o t s e e m s s u s p i c i o u s , y o u r r a d i o l o g i s t m a y r e c o m m e n d f u r t h e r d i a g n o s t i c s t u d i e s .

D i a g n o s t i c m a m m o g r a p h y i s u s e d t o e v a l u a t e a p a t i e n t w i t h a b n o r m a l c l i n i c a l f i n d i n g s , s u c h a s a b r e a s t l u m p o r l u m p s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n f o u n d b y t h e w o m a n o r h e r d o c t o r . D i a g n o s t i c m a m m o g r a p h y m a y a l s o b e d o n e a f t e r a n a b n o r m a l s c r e e n i n g m a m m o g r a p h y i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c a u s e o f t h e a r e a o f c o n c e r n o n t h e s c r e e n i n g e x a m .

H o w s h o u l d I p r e p a r e f o r a m a m m o g r a m ? B e f o r e s c h e d u l i n g a m a m m o g r a m , t h e A C S a n d o t h e r s p e c i a l t y o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e c o m m e n d t h a t y o u d i s c u s s a n y n e w f i n d i n g s o r p r o b l e m s i n y o u r b r e a s t s w i t h y o u r d o c t o r . I n a d d i t i o n , i n f o r m

Page 22: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 2

M i c r o w a v e I m a g i n g

T h e t e r m m i c r o w a v e i m a g i n g c o v e r s a l l p r o c e s s e s i n w h i c h m e a s u r e m e n t s o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d s i n t h e m i c r o w a v e r e g i o n f r o m 3 0 0 M H z t o 3 0 G H z a r e u s e d f o r c r e a t i n g i m a g e s .

T o c r e a t e i m a g e s f r o m m i c r o w a v e m e a s u r e m e n t s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s t r u c t a m i c r o w a v e c a m e r a , w h i c h i s a b l e t o t r a n s m i t m i c r o w a v e s a n d m e a s u r e t h e s c a t t e r e d w a v e s a t o n e o r m o r e a n t e n n a s . D i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f m i c r o w a v e c a m e r a s a r e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g u s e d f o r i m a g i n g i n s u c h a r e a s a s g r o u n d p e n e t r a t i n g r a d a r a n d r e m o t e s e n s i n g . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e i t e m s t o b e i m a g e d , d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f m i c r o w a v e c a m e r a s a r e n e e d e d . T h e s e r a n g e f r o m s m a l l a n t e n n a s u s e d f o r n e a r f i e l d m e a s u r e m e n t s i n g r o u n d p e n e t r a t i n g r a d a r t o t h e l a r g e a i r b o r n e s y s t e m s u s e d i n r e m o t e s e n s i n g .

T h e r e a r e t w o k e y i s s u e s t o a d d r e s s w h e n d e s i g n i n g a m i c r o w a v e c a m e r a . O n e i s t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e s i g n a l t o n o i s e r a t i o i n t h e s y s t e m a n d t h e o t h e r i s t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e s y s t e m h a s a l a r g e d y n a m i c r a n g e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b o t h o f t h e s e i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s c a t t e r e d s i g n a l i s o f t e n v e r y w e a k i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e d s i g n a l . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t a n y n o i s e i n t h e s y s t e m w i l l h a v e a l a r g e i m p a c t o n t h e i m a g e q u a l i t y a n d t h a t t h e s y s t e m m u s t b e a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h e v e n s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l s .

T o o b t a i n t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t o f i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e m i c r o w a v e m e a s u r e m e n t s , i n v e r s e s c a t t e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s m u s t b e a p p l i e d . T h e t e r m i n v e r s e s c a t t e r i n g i s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t e c h n i q u e s i n w h i c h t h e i m a g e s a r e c r e a t e d b y i n v e r t i n g a m o d e l o f t h e s c a t t e r i n g m e c h a n i s m s d e r i v e d f r o m M a x w e l l ' s e q u a t i o n s W h e n u s i n g i n v e r s e s c a t t e r i n g f o r m i c r o w a v e i m a g i n g , t w o t h i n g s d e t e r m i n e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i m a g e s . T h e f i r s t t h i n g i s t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e f o r w a r d m o d e l a n d t h e o t h e r i s t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e i n v e r s i o n a l g o r i t h m . B y u s i n g M a x w e l l e q u a t i o n s , a n e x a c t s o l u t i o n t o t h e f o r w a r d s c a t t e r i n g p r o b l e m c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e f o r w a r d m o d e l , h o w e v e r , i s o f t e n t o o c o m p l e x t o e f f i c i e n t l y b e i n v e r t e d a n d c e r t a i n a p p r o x i m a t i o n s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e a p p l i e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l l y v i a b l e a s s u m p t i o n s a n d s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s t o t h e f o r w a r d m o d e l i s a s i m p o r t a n t i n i n v e r s e s c a t t e r i n g a s t h e p u r e m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o c e d u r e o f i n v e r t i n g t h e m o d e l .

Page 23: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 3

A t t h e p r e s e n t , t h e o n l y s u i t a b l e s c r e e n i n g t o o l f o r t h e d e t e c t i o n o f b r e a s t c a n c e r i s X - r a y i m a g i n g o f t h e b r e a s t s , k n o w n a s m a m m o g r a p h y . W h e n u s i n g m a m m o g r a p h y , t h e b r e a s t i s i l l u m i n a t e d b y X - r a y s a n d o n t o a p h o t o - s e n s i t i v e m a t e r i a l . T h e r e s u l t i n g p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e X - r a y a b s o r p t i o n i n t h e b r e a s t c a n t h e n b e u s e d f o r l o c a t i n g t u m o r s . M a m m o g r a p h y h a s p r o v e n i t s e l f a s a v e r y s u i t a b l e s c r e e n i n g t o o l f o r p o s t - m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n w i t h s e n s i t i v i t y a n d s p e c i f i c i t y r e a c h i n g a s m u c h a s 9 0 % . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e h i g h s e n s i t i v i t y a n d s p e c i f i c i t y , t h e s c r e e n i n g p r o c e s s i s f a s t , w i t h a s c r e e n i n g t a k i n g a s l i t t l e a s s e v e n m i n u t e s .

W h e n m a m m o g r a p h y s c r e e n i n g i s c o m b i n e d w i t h a f o l l o w - u p u l t r a s o n i c e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h o s e w o m e n w h o s e m a m m o g r a p h i e s s h o w s i g n s o f p o s s i b l e c a n c e r , t h e s e n s i t i v i t y a n d s p e c i f i c i t y c a n r e a c h a s m u c h a s 9 5 % . M a m m o g r a p h y , h o w e v e r , i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r s c r e e n i n g o f p r e - m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n , a s t h e s e n s i t i v i t y f o r t h i s g r o u p o f w o m e n i s a s l o w a s 6 0 % . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e D a n i s h s c r e e n i n g p r o g r a m d o e s n o t i n c l u d e w o m e n u n d e r t h e a g e o f 5 0 y e a r s , a g r o u p w h o m a k e s u p a r o u n d 2 0 % o f t h e a n n u a l d i a g n o s e d b r e a s t - c a n c e r c a s e s i n D e n m a r k . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e - m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n , m a m m o g r a p h y a l s o p e r f o r m s p o o r l y o n t h e i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f p o s t m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n r e c e i v i n g h o r m o n a l t r e a t m e n t .

T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e l o w s e n s i t i v i t y f o r y o u n g e r w o m e n i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e a l i z e w h a t i s i m a g e d w h e n p e r f o r m i n g m a m m o g r a p h y s c r e e n i n g s . T h e m a m m o g r a p h y i s a n i m a g e o f h o w m u c h o f t h e X - r a y r a d i a t i o n i s d i s s i p a t e d i n t h e b r e a s t . T h e d i s s i p a t i o n o f t h e e n e r g y i n t h e X - r a y s i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e t y p e o f t i s s u e t h e X - r a y s n e e d t o p r o p a g a t e t h r o u g h f r o m t h e s o u r c e t o t h e p h o t o - s e n s i t i v e d e t e c t o r . C e r t a i n t y p e s o f t i s s u e , s u c h a s f a t , c a u s e l o w d i s s i p a t i o n w h i l e o t h e r t y p e s , s u c h a s t u m o r s a n d b r e a s t t i s s u e , c a u s e h i g h d i s s i p a t i o n o f t h e e n e r g y o f t h e X - r a y s . I n t h e b r e a s t s o f p o s t m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n , t h e h o r m o n a l c h a n g e i m p l i e s t h a t m o s t o f t h e b r e a s t t i s s u e h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d t o f a t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , h i g h l y d i s s i p a t i n g t i s s u e s u c h a s m a l i g n a n t t u m o r s w i l l s t a n d o u t i n t h e m a m m o g r a p h i e s . F o r p r e - m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n , h o w e v e r , t h e p r e s e n c e o f d e n s e b r e a s t t i s s u e m e a n s t h a t t u m o r s a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o b e u n d e t e c t e d b y X - r a y s .

A s o p p o s e d t o X - r a y s , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n m i c r o w a v e s a n d b r e a s t t i s s u e i s n o t g o v e r n e d b y t h e d i s s i p a t i o n o f e n e r g y i n

Page 24: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 4

t h e b r e a s t t i s s u e , b u t r a t h e r b y s c a t t e r i n g o f t h e i n c i d e n t m i c r o w a v e s . T h i s s c a t t e r i n g i s c a u s e d b y i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n s t i t u t i v e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e t i s s u e .

A s e a r l y a s i n t h e l a t e 1 9 4 0 ' s i t w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e p a r a m e t e r s o f m a l i g n a n t b r e a s t t i s s u e i s 3 - 1 0 t i m e s t h a t o f n o r m a l t i s s u e . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e w i l l c a u s e t h e m i c r o w a v e s t o s c a t t e r , a n d b y a p p l y i n g s i g n a l p r o c e s s i n g t o t h e m e a s u r e d s c a t t e r e d w a v e s , t h e s i z e a n d p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g m a l i g n a n t t u m o r s , i n t h e b r e a s t c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e m o s t i n t u i t i v e w a y t o p r e s e n t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e s c a t t e r e d s i g n a l i s b y p r o d u c i n g t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l i m a g e s . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s k n o w n a s m i c r o w a v e i m a g i n g .

Page 25: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 5

Y o u r d o c t o r o f a n y p r i o r s u r g e r i e s , h o r m o n e u s e a n d f a m i l y o r p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y o f b r e a s t c a n c e r .

D o n o t s c h e d u l e y o u r m a m m o g r a m f o r t h e w e e k b e f o r e y o u r p e r i o d i f y o u r b r e a s t s a r e u s u a l l y t e n d e r d u r i n g t h i s t i m e . T h e b e s t t i m e i s o n e w e e k f o l l o w i n g y o u r p e r i o d ? A l w a y s i n f o r m y o u r d o c t o r o r x - r a y t e c h n o l o g i s t i f t h e r e i s a n y p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t y o u a r e p r e g n a n t .

T h e A C S a l s o r e c o m m e n d s y o u :

D o n o t w e a r d e o d o r a n t , t a l c u m p o w d e r o r l o t i o n u n d e r y o u r a r m s o r o n y o u r b r e a s t s o n t h e d a y o f t h e e x a m . T h e s e c a n a p p e a r o n t h e m a m m o g r a m a s c a l c i u m s p o t s .

D e s c r i b e a n y b r e a s t s y m p t o m s o r p r o b l e m s t o t h e t e c h n o l o g i s t p e r f o r m i n g t h e e x a m .

I f p o s s i b l e , o b t a i n p r i o r m a m m o g r a m s a n d m a k e t h e m a v a i l a b l e t o t h e r a d i o l o g i s t a t t h e t i m e o f t h e c u r r e n t e x a m .

A s k w h e n y o u r r e s u l t s w i l l b e a v a i l a b l e ; d o n o t a s s u m e t h e r e s u l t s a r e n o r m a l i f y o u d o n o t h e a r f r o m y o u r d o c t o r o r t h e m a m m o g r a p h y f a c i l i t y .

I n a d d i t i o n , b e f o r e t h e e x a m i n a t i o n y o u w i l l b e a s k e d t o r e m o v e a l l j e w e l r y a n d c l o t h i n g a b o v e t h e w a i s t a n d y o u w i l l b e g i v e n a g o w n o r l o o s e - f i t t i n g m a t e r i a l t h a t o p e n s i n t h e f r o n t .

H o w d o e s t h e p r o c e d u r e w o r k ?

T h e b r e a s t i s e x p o s e d t o a s m a l l d o s e o f r a d i a t i o n t o p r o d u c e a n i m a g e o f i n t e r n a l b r e a s t t i s s u e . T h e i m a g e o f t h e b r e a s t i s p r o d u c e d a s a r e s u l t o f s o m e o f t h e x - r a y s b e i n g a b s o r b e d ( a t t e n u a t i o n ) w h i l e o t h e r s p a s s t h r o u g h t h e b r e a s t t o e x p o s e e i t h e r a f i l m ( c o n v e n t i o n a l m a m m o g r a p h y ) o r d i g i t a l i m a g e r e c e p t o r ( d i g i t a l m a m m o g r a p h y ) . T h e e x p o s e d f i l m i s e i t h e r p l a c e d i n a d e v e l o p i n g m a c h i n e — p r o d u c i n g i m a g e s m u c h l i k e t h e n e g a t i v e s f r o m a 3 5 m m c a m e r a — o r i m a g e s a r e d i g i t a l l y s t o r e d o n c o m p u t e r .

H o w i s t h e p r o c e d u r e p e r f o r m e d ?

D u r i n g m a m m o g r a p h y , a s p e c i a l l y q u a l i f i e d r a d i o l o g i s t w i l l p o s i t i o n y o u t o i m a g e y o u r b r e a s t . T h e b r e a s t i s f i r s t p l a c e d o n a s p e c i a l p l a t f o r m a n d c o m p r e s s e d w i t h a p a d d l e ( o f t e n m a d e o f c l e a r P l e x i g l a s o r o t h e r p l a s t i c ) .

Page 26: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 6

B r e a s t c o m p r e s s i o n i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o :

E v e n o u t t h e b r e a s t t h i c k n e s s s o t h a t a l l o f t h e t i s s u e c a n b e v i s u a l i z e d .

S p r e a d o u t t h e t i s s u e s o t h a t s m a l l a b n o r m a l i t i e s w o n ' t b e o b s c u r e d b y o v e r l y i n g b r e a s t t i s s u e .

A l l o w t h e u s e o f a l o w e r x - r a y d o s e s i n c e a t h i n n e r a m o u n t o f b r e a s t t i s s u e i s b e i n g i m a g e d .

H o l d t h e b r e a s t s t i l l i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e b l u r r i n g o f t h e i m a g e c a u s e d b y m o t i o n .

R e d u c e x - r a y s c a t t e r t o i n c r e a s e s h a r p n e s s o f p i c t u r e .

T h e t e c h n o l o g i s t w i l l g o b e h i n d a g l a s s s h i e l d w h i l e m a k i n g t h e x - r a y e x p o s u r e , w h i c h w i l l s e n d a b e a m o f x - r a y s t h r o u g h t h e b r e a s t t o t h e i m a g e r e c e p t o r b e h i n d t h e p l a t e , t h u s e x p o s i n g t h e f i l m o r d i g i t a l r e c e p t o r .

Y o u w i l l b e a s k e d t o c h a n g e p o s i t i o n s s l i g h t l y b e t w e e n i m a g e s . T h e r o u t i n e v i e w s a r e a t o p - t o - b o t t o m v i e w a n d a n o b l i q u e s i d e v i e w . T h e p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d f o r t h e o t h e r b r e a s t .

T h e e x a m i n a t i o n p r o c e s s s h o u l d t a k e a b o u t h a l f a n h o u r . W h e n t h e m a m m o g r a p h y i s c o m p l e t e d y o u w i l l b e a s k e d t o w a i t u n t i l t h e t e c h n o l o g i s t e x a m i n e s t h e i m a g e s t o d e t e r m i n e i f m o r e a r e n e e d e d .

W h a t a r e t h e b e n e f i t s v s . r i s k s ?

B e n e f i t s I m a g i n g o f t h e b r e a s t i m p r o v e s a p h y s i c i a n ' s a b i l i t y t o

d e t e c t s m a l l t u m o r s . W h e n c a n c e r s a r e s m a l l , t h e w o m a n h a s m o r e t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s a n d a c u r e i s m o r e l i k e l y .

T h e u s e o f s c r e e n i n g m a m m o g r a p h y i n c r e a s e s t h e d e t e c t i o n o f s m a l l a b n o r m a l t i s s u e g r o w t h s c o n f i n e d t o t h e m i l k d u c t s i n t h e b r e a s t , c a l l e d d u c t a l c a r c i n o m a i n s i t u ( D C I S ) . T h e s e e a r l y t u m o r s c a n n o t h a r m p a t i e n t s i f t h e y a r e r e m o v e d a t t h i s s t a g e a n d m a m m o g r a p h y i s t h e o n l y p r o v e n m e t h o d t o r e l i a b l y d e t e c t t h e s e t u m o r s .

R i s k s T h e e f f e c t i v e r a d i a t i o n d o s e f r o m a m a m m o g r a m i s a b o u t

0 . 7 m S v , w h i c h i s a b o u t t h e s a m e a s t h e a v e r a g e p e r s o n r e c e i v e s f r o m b a c k g r o u n d r a d i a t i o n i n t h r e e m o n t h s .

Page 27: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 7

F e d e r a l m a m m o g r a p h y g u i d e l i n e s r e q u i r e t h a t e a c h u n i t b e c h e c k e d b y a m e d i c a l p h y s i c i s t e v e r y y e a r t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e u n i t o p e r a t e s c o r r e c t l y .

W o m e n s h o u l d a l w a y s i n f o r m t h e i r d o c t o r o r x - r a y t e c h n o l o g i s t i f t h e r e i s a n y p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e y a r e p r e g n a n t .

F a l s e P o s i t i v e M a m m o g r a m s . F i v e p e r c e n t t o 1 5 p e r c e n t o f s c r e e n i n g m a m m o g r a m s r e q u i r e m o r e t e s t i n g s u c h a s a d d i t i o n a l m a m m o g r a m s o r u l t r a s o u n d . M o s t o f t h e s e t e s t s t u r n o u t t o b e n o r m a l . I f t h e r e i s a n a b n o r m a l f i n d i n g a f o l l o w - u p o r b i o p s y m a y h a v e t o b e p e r f o r m e d . M o s t o f t h e b i o p s i e s c o n f i r m t h a t n o c a n c e r w a s p r e s e n t . I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t a w o m a n w h o h a s y e a r l y m a m m o g r a m s b e t w e e n a g e s 4 0 a n d 4 9 h a s a b o u t a 3 0 p e r c e n t c h a n c e o f h a v i n g a f a l s e - p o s i t i v e m a m m o g r a m a t s o m e p o i n t i n t h a t d e c a d e a n d a b o u t a 7 p e r c e n t t o 8 p e r c e n t c h a n c e o f h a v i n g a b r e a s t b i o p s y w i t h i n t h e 1 0 - y e a r p e r i o d . T h e e s t i m a t e f o r f a l s e - p o s i t i v e m a m m o g r a m s i s a b o u t 2 5 p e r c e n t f o r w o m e n a g e s 5 0 o r o l d e r .

W h a t a r e t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f M a m m o g r a p h y ?

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f m a m m o g r a m s c a n b e d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e a n o r m a l b r e a s t c a n a p p e a r d i f f e r e n t l y f o r e a c h w o m a n . A l s o , t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a n i m a g e m a y b e c o m p r o m i s e d i f t h e r e i s p o w d e r o r s a l v e o n t h e b r e a s t s o r i f y o u h a v e u n d e r g o n e b r e a s t s u r g e r y . B e c a u s e s o m e b r e a s t c a n c e r s a r e h a r d t o v i s u a l i z e , a r a d i o l o g i s t m a y w a n t t o c o m p a r e t h e i m a g e t o v i e w s f r o m p r e v i o u s e x a m i n a t i o n s . N o t a l l c a n c e r s o f t h e b r e a s t c a n b e s e e n o n m a m m o g r a p h y .

B r e a s t i m p l a n t s c a n a l s o i m p e d e a c c u r a t e m a m m o g r a m r e a d i n g s b e c a u s e b o t h s i l i c o n e a n d s a l i n e i m p l a n t s a r e n o t t r a n s p a r e n t o n x - r a y s a n d c a n b l o c k a c l e a r v i e w o f t h e t i s s u e s b e h i n d t h e m , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e i m p l a n t h a s b e e n p l a c e d i n f r o n t o f , r a t h e r t h a n b e n e a t h , t h e c h e s t m u s c l e s . B u t t h e N C I s a y s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d t e c h n o l o g i s t s a n d r a d i o l o g i s t s k n o w h o w t o c a r e f u l l y c o m p r e s s t h e b r e a s t s t o i m p r o v e t h e v i e w w i t h o u t r u p t u r i n g t h e i m p l a n t . W h e n m a k i n g a n a p p o i n t m e n t f o r a m a m m o g r a m , w o m e n w i t h i m p l a n t s s h o u l d a s k i f t h e f a c i l i t y u s e s s p e c i a l t e c h n i q u e s d e s i g n e d t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e m . B e f o r e t h e m a m m o g r a m i s t a k e n , t h e y s h o u l d m a k e s u r e t h e t e c h n o l o g i s t i s e x p e r i e n c e d i n p e r f o r m i n g m a m m o g r a p h y o n p a t i e n t s w i t h b r e a s t i m p l a n t s .

Page 28: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 8

C o n c l u s i o n

M e d i c a l i m a g i n g m a k e s t h e h e a l t h c a r e s y s t e m w o r k m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y b y f o s t e r i n g g r e a t e r e c o n o m y a n d c o s t s a v i n g s . S u c h s a v i n g s a r e o f t e n a p p a r e n t , a s w h e n i m a g i n g r e p l a c e s s u r g e r y . O t h e r t i m e s , s a v i n g s a r e h a r d e r t o s e e , a s w h e n i m a g i n g a l l o w s a p a t i e n t t o r e c o v e r i n h a l f t h e t i m e . I m a g i n g ' s n e w e s t f r o n t i e r , f u s i n g d i g i t a l i m a g i n g w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , i s i n t r o d u c i n g s a v i n g s t h a t s t r e t c h t h r o u g h o u t t h e h e a l t h d e l i v e r y s y s t e m .

M e d i c a l i m a g i n g i s e x t e n d i n g h u m a n v i s i o n i n t o t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f d i s e a s e , t h u s e n a b l i n g a n e w a n d m o r e p o w e r f u l g e n e r a t i o n o f d i a g n o s i s a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n . M e d i c a l i m a g i n g i s a l s o m e l d i n g s u c h a d v a n c e s w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y - e n h a n c i n g p o w e r o f d i g i t a l a n d i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y — f o s t e r i n g g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y , q u a l i t y , a n d v a l u e i n h e a l t h d e l i v e r y .

Page 29: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

2 9

R e f e r e n c e s 1 . w w w . a n s w e r s . c o m 2 . w w w . m e d i c a l i m a g i n g . o r g 3 . w w w . y a h o o . c o m 4 . w w w . r a d i o l o g y . o r g 5 . R a d i o l o g y 6 . M R I 7 . w w w . w i k i p e d i a . o r g 8 . h t t p : / / w w w . e m i . d t u . d k / r e s e a r c h / a f g / r e s e a r c h / b r e a s t c

a n c e r _ s c r e e n i n g . h t m l 9 . w w w . b r e a s t c a n c e r . o r g

Page 30: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 0

A p p e n d i x A : W e e k l y R e p o r t s W e e k O n e : Met with my advisor and other students on the team. Created my Web page. I learnt about the COM block and its components; I read the documentations from the previous team. Also I was able to use the software that allows you to modify the settings. I was introduced to the System View software which aims at personalizing the system in a way that will meet every expectation of the system user and provide the system administrator(s) to manage their own systems with their customized automation software and to solve the problems. W e e k 2 : I n w e e k 2 o f m y r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t : I g o t a l i t t l e b i t m o r e o f t h e S y s t e m V i e w s o f t w a r e ; i . e . I s a w t h e d e m o a g a i n a n d w o r k e d o n s o m e e x a m p l e s . A l s o w e w e r e n ' t a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C O M b l o c k s T C P / I P # 5 0 0 1 a n d a f t e r s o m e t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g , f o u n d o u t t h a t t h e r o u t e r w a s n ' t a l l o w i n g c o n n e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e w i r e l e s s L A N l i n e s W e e k 3 :

I w o r k e d o n a p p l i c a t i o n s t o m e d i c a l i m a g i n g .

• A l s o I l e a r n t a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s p r o c e s s e s u s e d i n M e d i c a l I m a g i n g .

" M e d i c a l i m a g i n g d e t e c t s c r i t i c a l i l l n e s s e s a t t h e i r m o s t c u r a b l e s t a g e – a n d , i n m a n y c a s e s , w h e n t h e y a r e l e a s t c o s t l y t o t r e a t . M e d i c a l i m a g i n g i s c e n t e r - s t a g e i n A m e r i c a ' s e f f o r t s a t p r e v e n t i o n a n d e a r l y d e t e c t i o n " . " I t r e m a i n s a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p t o d a y i n m a k i n g i n i t i a l a s s e s s m e n t s o f p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s , a l t h o u g h a d d i t i o n a l s t e p s a r e o f t e n u s e d t o c o n f i r m a d i a g n o s i s . T h e p r i m a r y d r a w b a c k i s t h a t f i n d i n g s a r e s u b j e c t t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d w h i l e a r e c o r d e d i m a g e c a n b e p r o d u c e d m a n u a l l y , i n p r a c t i c e t h i s i s o f t e n n o t d o n e " .

Page 31: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 1

M o d e r n i m a g i n g t e c h n o l o g y : R a d i o g r a p h s , m o r e c o m m o n l y k n o w n a s x - r a y s , a r e o f t e n u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t y p e a n d e x t e n t o f a f r a c t u r e . ( s e e R a d i o g r a p h y ) C o m p u t e d T o m o g r a p h y , A C T s c a n , a l s o k n o w n a s a C A T s c a n( C o m p u t e d A x i a l T o m o g r a p h y s c a n ) , t r a d i t i o n a l l y p r o d u c e s a 2 D i m a g e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s i n a s m a l l s e c t i o n o f t h e b o d y w i t h t h e u s e o f r a d i a t i o n . ( s e e C o m p u t e d a x i a l t o m o g r a p h y ) M a g n e t i c R e s o n a n c e I m a g i n g , A n M R I u s e s n u c l e a r m a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e s p e c t r o m e t e r t o p r o d u c e e l e c t r o n i c i m a g e s o f s p e c i f i c a t o m s a n d m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e s i n s o l i d s , e s p e c i a l l y h u m a n c e l l s , t i s s u e s , a n d o r g a n s . U n l i k e t h e C T s c a n i t d o e s n o t u s e r a d i a t i o n . ( s e e M a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e i m a g i n g ) U l t r a s o u n d , A n i m a g i n g t e c h n i q u e t h a t u s e s h i g h f r e q u e n c y s o u n d w a v e s t o v i s u a l i z e u n d e r w a t e r s u r f a c e s , b o u n d a r i e s , o b j e c t s , a n d c u r r e n t s . ( s e e M e d i c a l u l t r a s o n o g r a p h y ) M a m m o g r a p h y , a d i a g n o s t i c p r o c e d u r e t o d e t e c t b r e a s t t u m o r s b y t h e u s e o f X r a y s , i d e n t i f i e s b r e a s t c a n c e r o n e t o t h r e e y e a r s b e f o r e a l u m p c a n b e f e l t , t h e r e b y s a v i n g l i v e s . ( s e e M a m m o g r a p h y ) W e h a v e i m a g i n g t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h i n c l u d e s : � d i f f u s e o p t i c a l t o m o g r a p h y � e l a s t o g r a p h y � e l e c t r i c a l i m p e d a n c e t o m o g r a p h y � f l u o r o s c o p y � n u c l e a r m e d i c i n e � o p t o a c o u s t i c i m a g i n g � o p h t h a l m o l o g y

• c o r n e a l t o p o g r a p h y • H e i d e l b e r g r e t i n a l t o m o g r a p h y • o c u l a r c o h e r e n c e t o m o g r a p h y • s c a n n i n g l a s e r o p h t h a l m o s c o p y

� p o s i t r o n e m i s s i o n t o m o g r a p h y

Page 32: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 2

W e e k 4 : I w o r k e d o n C A T S c a n . T h e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d a n d h o w i t r e l a t e s w i t h X - r a y s . W h y i s C T s c a n c h o s e n o v e r x - r a y , o r w h y w o u l d x - r a y b e c h o s e n o v e r C T s c a n . T h e c o s t o f t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s a n d t h e d e v i c e s i n v o l v e d .

***CAT Scan (Computed Axial Technology is the process of using computers to generate a three-dimensional image from flat (i.e, two-dimensional) x-ray pictures, one slice at a time... CAT Scanners rather than actually cut people up, they use x-rays to make pictures of the slices to get an overall picture. In the case of x-ray we get the whole picture, but with CAT scan: machines go around in a circle: so they can take x-rays from all sides * CAT scanning adds x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views of anatomy. * CAT scanning can identify normal and abnormal structures and be used to guide procedures. * CAT scanning is painless. * Iodine-containing contrast material is sometimes used in CAT scanning. Patients with a history of allergy to iodine or contrast materials should notify their physicians and radiology staff. Week 5:

W o r k e d o n M R I a k a m a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e t o m o g r a p h y ( M R T )

The first MRI exam was performed on July 3, 1977.

To understand how MRI works, let's start by focusing on the "magnetic" in MRI. The biggest and most important component in an

Page 33: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 3

MRI system is the magnet. The magnet in an MRI system is rated using a unit of measure known as a tesla. Another unit of measure commonly used with magnets is the gauss (1 tesla = 10,000 gauss). The magnets in use today in MRI are in the 0.5-tesla to 2.0-tesla range, or 5,000 to 20,000 gauss. Magnetic fields greater than 2 tesla have not been approved for use in medical imaging, though much more powerful magnets -- up to 60 tesla -- are used in research. Compared with the Earth's 0.5-gauss magnetic field, you can see how incredibly powerful these magnets are. Numbers like that help provide an intellectual understanding of the magnetic strength, but everyday examples are also helpful. The MRI suite can be a very dangerous place if strict precautions are not observed. Metal objects can become dangerous projectiles if they are taken into the scan room. For example, paperclips, pens, keys, scissors, hemostats, stethoscopes and any other small objects can be pulled out of pockets and off the body without warning, at which point they fly toward the opening of the magnet (where the patient is placed) at very high speeds, posing a threat to everyone in the room. Credit cards, bank cards and anything else with magnetic encoding will be erased by most MRI systems.

In this photograph, you can see a fully loaded pallet jack that has been sucked into the bore of an MRI system. The fact that MRI systems do not use ionizing radiation is a comfort to many patients, as is the fact that MRI contrast materials have a very low incidence of side effects. Another major advantage of MRI is its

Page 34: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 4

ability to image in any plane. CT is limited to one plane, the axial plane (in the loaf-of-bread analogy, the axial plane would be how a loaf of bread is normally sliced). An MRI system can create axial images as well as images in the sagitall plane (slicing the bread side-to-side lengthwise) and coronally (think of the layers of a layer cake) or any degree in between, without the patient ever moving. If you have ever had an X-ray, you know that every time they take a different picture, you have to move. The three gradient magnets discussed earlier allow the MRI system to choose exactly where in the body to acquire an image and how the slices are oriented. There are many people who cannot safely be scanned with MRI (for example, because they have pacemakers), and also people who are too big to be scanned. There are many claustrophobic people in the world, and being in an MRI machine can be a very disconcerting experience for them. The machine makes a tremendous amount of noise during a scan. The noise sounds like a continual, rapid hammering. Patients are given earplugs or stereo headphones to muffle the noise. The noise is due to the rising electrical current in the wires of the gradient magnets being opposed by the main magnetic field. The stronger the main field, the louder the gradient noise. MRI scans require patients to hold very still for extended periods of time. MRI exams can range in length from 20 minutes to 90 minutes or more. Even very slight movement of the part being scanned can cause much distorted images that will have to be repeated. Orthopedic hardware (screws, plates, artificial joints) in the area of a scan can cause severe artifacts (distortions) on the images. The hardware causes a significant alteration in the main magnetic field. Remember, a uniform field is critical to good imaging. MRI systems are very, very expensive to purchase, and therefore the exams are also very expensive.

Page 35: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 5

* * * T h e b a s i c d e s i g n u s e d i n m o s t i s a g i a n t c u b e . * * * I l e a r n t a b o u t t h e p r o c e d u r e , t h e c o s t o f t h e p r o c e d u r e , t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f h a v i n g t h i s p r o c e d u r e . * * * * * I w i l l b e w o r k i n g o n U l t r a s o u n d n e x t * * * * *

Week 6: * * * I r e s e a r c h e d U l t r a s o u n d . * * * T h e u s e s o f U l t r a s o u n d . * * * T h e d a n g e r s i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o c e s s . * * * T h e c o s t o f t h e p r o c e d u r e .

Ultrasound or ultrasonography is a medical imaging technique that uses high frequency sound waves and their echoes. The technique is similar to the echolocation used by bats, whales and dolphins, as well as SONAR used by submarines. In ultrasound, the following events happen: 1. The ultrasound machine transmits high-frequency (1 to 5 megahertz) sound pulses into

Page 36: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 6

your body using a probe. 2. The sound waves travel into your body and hit a boundary between tissues (e.g. between fluid and soft tissue, soft tissue and bone). 3. Some of the sound waves get reflected back to the probe, while some travel on further until they reach another boundary and get reflected. 4. The reflected waves are picked up by the probe and relayed to the machine. 5. The machine calculates the distance from the probe to the tissue or organ (boundaries) using the speed of sound in tissue (5,005 ft/s or1,540 m/s) and the time of the each echo's return (usually on the order of millionths of a second). 6. The machine displays the distances and intensities of the echoes on the screen, forming a two dimensional image like the one shown below.

Dangers of Ultrasound

There have been many concerns about the safety of ultrasound. Because ultrasound is energy, the question becomes "What is this energy doing to my tissues or my baby?" There have been some reports of low birth weight babies being born to mothers who had frequent ultrasound examinations during pregnancy. The two major possibilities with ultrasound are as follows:

• development of heat - tissues or water absorb the ultrasound energy which increases their temperature locally

• formation of bubbles (cavitations) - when dissolved gases come out of solution due to local heat caused by ultrasound

However, there have been no substantiated ill-effects of ultrasound documented in

Page 37: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 7

studies in either humans or animals. This being said, ultrasound should still be used only when necessary (i.e. better to be cautious).

Week 7: * * * I s t a r t e d o u t w o r k i n g o n R a d i o l o g y . * * * R a d i o l o g y i s a d i a g n o s t i c s p e c i a l t y w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f m e d i c i n e t h a t e m p l o y s X - R a y s a n d o t h e r m o d a l i t i e s f o r d i a g n o s t i c i m a g i n g . * * * R a d i o g r a p h s , m o r e c o m m o n l y k n o w n a s X - R a y s . R a d i o g r a p h y i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f r a d i o g r a p h s , p h o t o g r a p h s m a d e b y e x p o s i n g a p h o t o g r a p h i c f i l m o r o t h e r i m a g e r e c e p t o r t o X -r a y s . S i n c e X - r a y s p e n e t r a t e s o l i d o b j e c t s , b u t a r e s l i g h t l y a t t e n u a t e d b y t h e m , t h e p i c t u r e r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e e x p o s u r e r e v e a l s t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e o b j e c t . T h e m o s t c o m m o n u s e o f r a d i o g r a p h y i s i n t h e m e d i c a l f i e l d ( w h e r e i t i s k n o w n a s m e d i c a l i m a g i n g ) . A n o t h e r u s e o f r a d i o g r a p h y i s i n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s o f p a i n t i n g s , w h e r e s t u d i e s c a n r e v e a l s u c h d e t a i l s a s t h e a g e o f a p a i n t i n g a n d u n d e r l y i n g b r u s h s t r o k e t e c h n i q u e s t h a t h e l p t o i d e n t i f y o r v e r i f y t h e a r t i s t . X r a y s a r e u s e d i n s e v e r a l t e c h n i q u e s t h a t c a n p r o v i d e e n l a r g e d i m a g e s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f o p a q u e o b j e c t s . T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s c o l l e c t i v e l y r e f e r r e d t o a s X -r a y m i c r o s c o p y o r m i c r o - r a d i o g r a p h y , c a n a l s o b e u s e d i n t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f m a n y m a t e r i a l s . O n e o f t h e d a n g e r s i n t h e u s e o f X r a y s i s t h a t t h e y c a n d e s t r o y l i v i n g t i s s u e a n d c a n c a u s e s e v e r e s k i n b u r n s o n h u m a n f l e s h e x p o s e d f o r t o o l o n g a t i m e . T h i s d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r i s u s e d i n X - r a y t h e r a p y t o d e s t r o y d i s e a s e d c e l l s . W e e k 8 : W o r k e d o n M a m m o g r a p h y :

This is a specific type of imaging that uses a low-dose x-ray system for examining the breasts. The images of the breasts can be viewed on film at a view box or as soft copy on a digital mammography work station. Most medical experts agree that successful treatment of breast cancer often is linked to early diagnosis. Mammography plays a central part in early detection of breast cancers because it can show changes in the breast up to two years before a patient or physician can feel them.

Page 38: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 8

M a m m o g r a p h y i s u s e d t o a i d i n t h e d i a g n o s i s o f b r e a s t d i s e a s e s i n w o m e n . S c r e e n i n g m a m m o g r a p h y c a n a s s i s t y o u r p h y s i c i a n i n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f d i s e a s e e v e n i f y o u h a v e n o c o m p l a i n t s o r s y m p t o m s .

I n i t i a l m a m m o g r a p h i c i m a g e s t h e m s e l v e s a r e n o t a l w a y s e n o u g h t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a b e n i g n o r m a l i g n a n t d i s e a s e w i t h c e r t a i n t y . I f a f i n d i n g o r s p o t s e e m s s u s p i c i o u s , y o u r r a d i o l o g i s t m a y r e c o m m e n d f u r t h e r d i a g n o s t i c s t u d i e s .

D i a g n o s t i c m a m m o g r a p h y i s u s e d t o e v a l u a t e a p a t i e n t w i t h a b n o r m a l c l i n i c a l f i n d i n g s , s u c h a s a b r e a s t l u m p o r l u m p s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n f o u n d b y t h e w o m a n o r h e r d o c t o r . D i a g n o s t i c m a m m o g r a p h y m a y a l s o b e d o n e a f t e r a n a b n o r m a l s c r e e n i n g m a m m o g r a p h y i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c a u s e o f t h e a r e a o f c o n c e r n o n t h e s c r e e n i n g e x a m

S t a r t e d m a k i n g t h e s l i d e s f o r m y m e d i c a l i m a g i n g p r e s e n t a t i o n .

Week 9: W e n t o n a t e a m t r i p . . . C r u i s e . I t w a s f u n F i n i s h e d w i t h t h e l a s t s u b - t o p i c w i t h M i c r o w a v e I m a g i n g .

T h e t e r m m i c r o w a v e i m a g i n g c o v e r s a l l p r o c e s s e s i n w h i c h m e a s u r e m e n t s o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d s i n t h e m i c r o w a v e r e g i o n f r o m 3 0 0 M H z t o 3 0 G H z a r e u s e d f o r c r e a t i n g i m a g e s .

T o c r e a t e i m a g e s f r o m m i c r o w a v e m e a s u r e m e n t s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s t r u c t a m i c r o w a v e c a m e r a , w h i c h i s a b l e t o t r a n s m i t m i c r o w a v e s a n d m e a s u r e t h e s c a t t e r e d w a v e s a t o n e o r m o r e a n t e n n a s .

D i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f m i c r o w a v e c a m e r a s a r e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g u s e d f o r i m a g i n g i n s u c h a r e a s a s g r o u n d p e n e t r a t i n g r a d a r a n d r e m o t e s e n s i n g . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e i t e m s t o b e i m a g e d , d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f m i c r o w a v e c a m e r a s a r e n e e d e d . T h e s e r a n g e f r o m s m a l l a n t e n n a s u s e d f o r n e a r f i e l d m e a s u r e m e n t s i n g r o u n d p e n e t r a t i n g r a d a r t o t h e l a r g e a i r b o r n e s y s t e m s u s e d i n r e m o t e s e n s i n g . T h e r e a r e t w o k e y i s s u e s t o a d d r e s s w h e n d e s i g n i n g a m i c r o w a v e c a m e r a . O n e i s t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e s i g n a l t o n o i s e r a t i o i n t h e s y s t e m a n d t h e o t h e r i s t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e s y s t e m h a s a

Page 39: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

3 9

l a r g e d y n a m i c r a n g e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b o t h o f t h e s e i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s c a t t e r e d s i g n a l i s o f t e n v e r y w e a k i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e d s i g n a l . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t a n y n o i s e i n t h e s y s t e m w i l l h a v e a l a r g e i m p a c t o n t h e i m a g e q u a l i t y a n d t h a t t h e s y s t e m m u s t b e a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h e v e n s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l s .

C o n t i n u e d w o r k i n g o n m y p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r n e x t w e e k .

W e e k 1 0 : Worked on my power point presentation. Did a lot of editing on the slides W e e k 1 1 : Presented my slides… Didn’t go as well as i wanted... Started working on my final report W e e k 1 2 : Put my final report together. Getting ready to leave Hoboken...Started packing ... I would miss every bit of the last 3 months Adios amigos!!!

Page 40: Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By …...Summer Research Final Report Medical Imaging By Shale Olagbegi Under the direction of Prof. Y. Yao May 2005 – August 2005 This

4 0