Language PlanningA summaryBy Elizabeth Demissie, Beniyam Jembere and Chimdi Wakuma

2009

Submitted to: Dr. Zelealem LeyewAddis Ababa University

11/26/2009

Summary on Language Planning

By

Elizabeth Demissie

Beniyam Jembere

Chimdi Wakuma

To

Zelealem Leyew (Phd)

Addis Ababa University

Institute of Language Studies

Department of African Languages and Applied Linguistics

Language Planning and Standardization Course (ALAL 601)

Addis Ababa

November 2009

Contents

1. What is Language Planning?

2. Concepts of Language Planning

2.1. Instrumental approach

2.2. Socio- linguistic approach

3. Ideologies of Language Planning

3.1 Linguistic Pluralism

3.2 Linguistic Assimilation and Nationalism

3.3 Internationalism

3.4 Verncularization

4. The Aims of Language Planning

4.1 Extra-Linguistic Aims

4.2 Semi-Linguistic Aims

4.3 Linguistic Aims

5. Language Related Problems which trigger Language Planning

6. Factors Affecting Language Planning

7. Who Is Involved In Language Planning Efforts And How?

8. Language Planning Types

8.1. Status planning

8.2. Corpus planning

8.2 . Acquisition planning

9. Criteria of Language Choice in Language Planning

10. Stages in Language Planning

References

1. What is Language Planning?

According to Fishman (1972), Language Planning is a systematic activity of

regulating and improving existing languages or creating new common regional,

national or international languages. Similarly Fasold (1987:246) explains the

idea of Language Planning as language determination, to refer to choices of

languages to be used for specific purposes. In any country, for instance, there is

a tendency of selecting a given language to be functioning in such areas as

education, media, courts and others.

Many other scholars define Language Planning in their own ways. The

prominent scholars in Language Planning, Rubin and Jernudd (1971: xvi), on the

other hand, define it as follows.

Language planning is a deliberate language change; that is; changes in

the system of language code or speaking or both that are planned by

organizations that are established for such purpose or given a mandate

to fulfill such purpose. As such, language planning is focused on

problem solving and is characterized by the formulation and evaluation

of alternatives for solving language problems to find the best (or

optimal, most efficient) decision.

Moreover, Kaplan and Baldauf (1997:3), who also consider Language planning

as an attempt to change the way in which it is used, remarks that Language

Planning is also a means of preventing change to take place. Their definition is

stated as indicated hereafter.

Language planning is a body of idea, laws, and regulations (language

policy), change rules, believes, practices intended to achieve a planned

change (to stop change from happening) in the language use in one or

more communities.

Generally, it is possible to say that Language Planning is an area which deals

with language related problems and its solutions. It is a calculated effort to

influence the function, structure, or acquisition of a language or language

variety within a speech community.

It is often associated with government planning, but is also used by a variety of

non-governmental organizations, such as grass-roots organizations and even

individuals. The goals of Language Planning differ depending on the nation or

organization, but generally include making planning decisions and possibly

changes for the benefit of communication. Planning or improving effective

communication can also lead to other social changes such as language shift or

assimilation, thereby providing another motivation to plan the structure,

function and acquisition of languages.

2. Concepts of Language Planning

According to Fasold (1987:250) there are two concepts of language planning -

the instrumental approach and the social-linguistic approach. Let us

discuss these approaches one after the other.

2.1. The instrumental approach sees language fundamentality as a tool.

This approach is just like a work. For example, a work for mechanics is so simple

provided that mechanical tools are standardized. Likewise, communication

would be easier if languages are standardized. According to the advocators of

this approach, as Fasold (ibid) states, some languages are better than others in

their balance of beauty, clarity, elasticity and economy and these should be

chosen over less adequate languages where possible. When impossible,

Language Planning should be used to improve the quality of the inadequate

language.

2.2. The socio- linguistic approach begins with the recognition of a social

problem that is connected with language. In this approach there is no need of

attempt to improve the esthetic and functional quality of languages as

instrumental tools. Rather, there is seeing language as a resource that can be

used in improving social life. This way of practicing Language Planning would

attempt to determine which of the available linguistic alternative is most likely

to improve a problematic situation.

3. Ideologies of Language Planning

As Daoust (1997:441) explain by referring Cobarrubias (1983) there are

language ideologies which motivate the undertaking of language reforms.

These are:

3.1 Linguistic Pluralism

Linguistic pluralism promotes the coexistence of different language groups and

their right to maintain and cultivate their languages on an equitable basis. For

example, French is officially recognized in the south, Flemish in the North,

German in the East.

3.2 Linguistic Assimilation and Nationalism

Nationalism often favors linguistic assimilation to make sure that every member

of a speech community is able to use the dominant language. This is a cause for

a dominant language to gain prestige and become superior over the minor

languages. In extreme case, linguistic minorities are given little or no rights.

This kind of ideology has occurred in France in which the government planned

to eliminate the non standard French varieties; which has resulted in modern

Language Policy by France revolution. In Russia and Indonesia the same

situation has happened.

3.3 Internationalism

Internationalism is the ideology which consists in adopting a non indigenous

language of wider communication either as an official language or as language

of instruction which underlies the language planning policies of several

postcolonial countries. For example, in Gabon, French is the sole official

language, in Cameroon, both French and English are official languages, in Haiti

both the Creole and French are official languages.

3.4 Verncularization

Vernacularization is the situation in which indigenous or national languages are

restored or modernized and officially recognized instead of or alongside an

international language of wider communication. For example, In Madagascar,

both French and Malagasy enjoy official status. In Israel, Hebrew was revived

and installed as a national language.

4. The Aims of Language Planning

Like any other activities, Language Planning has its own aims. Scholars in this

area have come up with various types of classification of the goals. Rabin

(1971, 277-279)), for instance, classifies the aims of Language Planning as:

Extra-Linguistic aims, Semi-Linguistic aims and Linguistic aims. It is important to

discuss each of them as follows.

4.1 Extra-Linguistic Aims these are treated as typical instances of Language

Planning and appear to concern sociolinguists and political scientists. It’s said

that their implementation often involves teaching a language to a large number

of people. These aims are classified as:

Horizontal- this is concerned with change in area of use. The area of

use can be geographical (country, province, etc.) and communal (with

mixed population).

Vertical- such an aim is about change in social use like 1. Between

classes, 2. Between town and country, settled and nomads, etc. and 3.

In specific uses like literary vs spoken, or religious vs vernacular use.

Diachronic- this type of aim is said to be radical. It is involved in the

revival of ‘dead’ language, the use of written language for speaking or

of a spoken language for writing, the creation of a new language block

and surprisingly the killing, or allowing to die, an existing language.

4.2 Semi-Linguistic Aims- these aims represent the most frequent type of

planned language change. Even though it seems difficult to which discipline this

study could belong, strong sociological and psychological factors seem to be

contained in them. Added to this fact, there is no doubt that the linguists do the

research in most cases. The Semi-linguistic aims are categorized as:

Writing- this is aimed at first, changing the writing system (e.g. from

logographic to alphabetic script, from diacritic to linear representation

of vowels), second changing features of the writing system (e.g.

introduction of capitals; new single graphs instead of digraphs; abolition

of special initials or final graphs; abolition of word-divider), and third,

Para-orthographical change (e.g. pronunciation, standards of

transliteration).

Spelling- this is concerned with systemization and unification,

simplification, phonemization (especially of etymological spelling), word

boundary spelling changes (e.g. dividing prepositions, articles, and the

like from nouns).

Pronunciation- is about the unification of the regional or social

allophones and the like that are not affecting the distribution or number

of phonemes.

Restrictions in speaking- it is the use of politeness forms and the

avoidance language taboos.

4.3 Linguistic Aims- this the province of the normative linguist, in

collaboration with the literary practitioner. The aims are classified as:

Vocabulary- aims at: 1. the enlargement of vocabulary, 2. Vocabulary

standardization ( as technical, non-technical and dialectal), 3.

Sociosemantics (decisions on sources of vocabulary enlargement), the

sources could be foreign, native, older forms of the same language,

regional dialect (borrowing), closely related languages (adaptation),

vulgar and slang forms (admissibility).

Structure- such a change is related to the phonology, morphology and

syntax.

Style- this is concerned with such styles as Traditional vs Europeanized

style(specified according to domain of language use), “high” style vs

simple straight forward writing and original national prestige literatures’

ways of reading like in modernized spelling or translation.

5. Language Related Problems which trigger Language

Planning

Language planning deals with language related problems and its solutions. To

find out the solutions, the problems should be identified first. Okoth Okombo by

quoting Webb and Kembo-Sure (2000) identifies four language based problems.

These language related problems are:

Restricted access to knowledge and skills

Low productivity and ineffective performance in the workplace

Inadequate political participation by the public, manipulation,

discrimination, and exploitation by the ruling powers, national division

and conflict

Linguistic and cultural alienation

Basically, language related problems are not exactly language problems; rather

they are problems in different domains. The problems appear out of using the

language in different domains like education, economy, politics or social life.

The whole idea of Language Planning, as a policy matter belongs not only to the

restricted domains of language, but also to wider field of public policy. It is also

part of the wider social engineering and used to achieve other goals like

political participation or national integration. For example Tanzania used

language planning to reduce multilingualism at national level.

Language Planning is a solution to language related problems. To handle the

problems appropriately, governments’ Language Policy and Planning

Intervention should be done carefully by considering their context.

6. Factors Affecting Language Planning

Language planning is a future oriented activity. It plans for the future, so it

might fail somewhere. To minimize this risk of failure, it should consider the fact

of language within its context, in addition to language use and linguistic rules.

According to Rubin and Jernudd (1971) the following are the contextual factors

to be considered.

Economic variables and interests- should be considered because

language is a resource

Political variables- are the other factors that should be seen carefully

because language can be used as an expression of vested interests

through problems of language

Demographic variables- the number the speaker of the language, their

living places and the like should be considered

Psychological variables- include the attitude of the society towards the

language because it can affect the process of planning

Social variables and interests- the sociolinguistic variables are included

here to be consider in the planning

7. Who Is Involved In Language Planning Efforts And How?

A question of ‘who is the actor in Language Planning activity?’ may arise. To

answer this, it of great importance to have a look at the view of such scholars

as Kaplan and Baldauf (1997); they explain that language planning activity

involves many actors because it has inter-disciplinary nature. The following are

among the major ones:

Because Language Planning typically responds to problems that are

sociopolitical in nature, sociologists or political scientists may first identify

and assess the need for some sort of action.

Linguists can properly participate in the needs assessment stage to determine

if the languages or dialects chosen adequately address the problem. And may

suggest ways in which syntax or morphology may be standardized, or may

assist in expanding technical vocabularies.

Educators incorporate Language Planning legislation into action and develop

programs to fulfill the needs identified.

Writers keep up the tradition of writing in a dying language or complete

written works in a previously unwritten language. This stylistic expansion makes

possible the formulation of governmental documents in the planned language.

National language academies may oversee one or more phases of the

language planning process.

According to Fasold (1987:25) governments are in a position to make the

widest ranging, but not the most successful, decisions that influence language.

By the leadership of government there were individuals and organization who

took charge in their language planning processes.

He also added lists of language planning agents by citing Jernudd (1973) in

addition to government

1. National, but non governmental agencies

2. non national and non governmental agencies a new paper’s proof reading

function

3. the individual author, letter writer etc

8. Language Planning Types

There are two major types of planning according to Wolff (2000:332), status

planning and corpus planning.

8.1. Status planning is sometimes also referred to as ‘social’ or external’

planning, it is geared at establishing and developing the functional usage of a

particular language or languages within a state. In addition, according to

Mutasa (2006,119) it is a role given to language which involves the

maintenance, extension or restriction of the range of uses of a language for

particular function, or even the introduction of an official language. Status

planning is usually carried out by non-language experts usually politicians and

the considerations in the decisions are often quite political rather than social

linguistic.

Christine Macnab (1988:140) states that status planning has great relationship

with level of importance that is given to languages with respect to other

languages or the language needs of a national government. This type of

planning refers the change of language in the functions only.

In status planning comparing different varieties has its own advantage. It

involves the choice of languages to be used as official language(s) and of

educational and other cultural purposes (media, religion…). The status of these

languages may be found codified in the constitution of the country.

For any language variety, to be considered in Language Planning for the

acquisition of particular functional roles or status in the society, it must fulfill

certain requirements in terms of standardization including modernization and

cultivation. There must be codification in terms of a standard orthography, a

reliable reference grammar, a comprehensive monolingual dictionary, sufficient

and adequate reading materials and teacher-training manuals. In particular, its

vocabulary should undergo continuous expansion in some controlled way with

regard to new terminology for use of the language in education and regional or

nationwide communication. All these requirements of actual language materials

are the corpus of the language that need to be planned and implemented.

8.2 Corpus planning is the other type of language planning which is

sometimes also referred to as ‘linguistic’ or ‘internal’ planning and is geared at

establishing and developing vocabulary, morphology and spelling, or adoption

of new scrip Wolff (2000:333). It shows the planning of changes in the structure

of the language or language variety.

There are three traditionally recognized types of corpus planning: graphization,

standardization, and modernization.

Graphization

Graphization refers to development, selection and modification of scripts and

orthographic conventions for a language. In establishing a writing system for a

language, corpus planners have the option of using an existing system or

inventing a new one.

Standardization

Standardization is the process by which one variety of a language takes

precedence over other social and regional dialects of a language. This variety

comes to be understood as supra-dialectal and the ‘best’ form of a language.

The standard that is chosen as the norm is generally spoken by the most

powerful social group within the society, and is imposed upon the less powerful

groups as the form to emulate.

Modernization

Modernization is a form of Language Planning that occurs when a language

needs to expand its resources to meet functions. Modernization often occurs

when a language undergoes a shift in status, such as when a country gains

independence from a colonial power or when there is a change in the language

education policy. The most significant force in modernization is the expansion of

the lexicon, which allows the language to discuss topics in modern semantic

domains. Language planners generally focus on creating new lists and

glossaries to describe new technical terms, but it is also necessary to ensure

that the new terms are consistently used by the appropriate sectors within

society.

However, Language Planning policy can never be corpus oriented or status

oriented exclusively, because corpus and status planning cannot be separated.

8.3 Acquisition planning according to Hornberger (in Ricento, 2006:28) the

other type of Language Planning is acquisition planning. It is introduced 20

years later by Cooper in 1989. The main focus of acquisition planning is to

influence the allocation of users or the distribution of languages by means of

creating or improving opportunity or incentive to learn them, or both.

9. Criteria of Language Choice in Language Planning

In language planning activity choice made from different languages and/or

variants. Haugen (in Fasold, 1987: 256) proposed three criteria for language

choice decisions. These are:

a. Efficiency to refer the language’s easiness to use and learn

b. Adequacy to refer the degree of the language’s precision of linguistic

forms to convey information

c. Acceptability connected with the local status of the language. This

sociological component of evaluation deals with the acceptance of the

language by the members of the society

10. Stages in Language Planning

The question ‘how is language planning done?’ is connected with the planning

and implementation stages of a large planning process. Different scholars give

different stages of planning. Rubin puts it (in Fasold, 1987:252) in four steps.

1. Fact finding- a substantial amount of background information should be

available before any planning decisions are made.

2. Planning- here the actual decisions are made. The planner will establish

goals, select the means (strategies), and predict the outcomes.

3. Implementation the planning decisions are carried out

4. Feedback -at this step, the planner finds out how well the plan has

worked.

Scholars who deal with Language Planning have their own particular

approaches of listing the stages to be followed in Language Planning. Since it

consumes time to discuss all in detail and this might not be relevant, they are

briefly indicated.

Based on the authors discussed in Chumbow (1987:17) the different stages of

planning are the following.

Haugen’s (1969) puts four stapes in the planning model. These are:

1. Selection of norms

2. Codification of norms

3. Elaboration of function

4. Propagation

Fishman et al (1971) makes the stapes three.

1. Policy formation

2. Codification and elaboration

3. Implementation

Similarly Jerudd (1973) places the process in three steps model.

1. Determination of policy

2. Development of norms

3. Implementation

After discussing all these, Chumboow (ibid) himself puts the process into two

major stages. These are

1. Policy formulation

2. Policy implementation

In the policy formulation stage he includes fact finding, policy decision, outline

of implementation, and cost benefit analysis. And in the implementation –

codification, elaboration, reforms, dissemination and evaluation are included.

References

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