Sufism: A General Introduction 1.1. SUFISM A GENERAL...
Transcript of Sufism: A General Introduction 1.1. SUFISM A GENERAL...
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CHAPTER ONE
Sufism: A General Introduction
1.1. SUFISM: A GENERAL SURVEY
Sufism (Islamic spirituality) is as old as Islam itself. It is generally known to
be the spiritual or inner (batin) dimension of Islam. The outer (dhair) or exoteric
dimension may be regarded as religious world-view. However, both inner and outer
or esoteric and exoteric aspects of religion are important aspects of Islam. They are,
in reality, the two sides of the same coin. As a matter of historical fact, the spiritual
dimension of Islam has been overemphasized for it is deemed to be representing the
true spirit of religion.
Islam consists of a Divine Law (al-Shar‘iah), a spiritual path (al-Tariqah)
and the Truth (al-Haqiqah). The Truth or al-Haq or al-Tawhid (Unity of God) is the
origin of the Divine Law and the spiritual way. The Holy Qur’an, and the prophetic
Hadith (tradition) and Sunnah are the prime sources of every aspect of human life –
social, political, judicial, theological, artistic, literary, philosophical, spiritual etc.
However, there is also a third important source, besides the Qur’an and the
Tradition of the Prophet, and that is the Nahj-al Balaghah, the collection of
sermons, letters and sayings of Imam ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. This great treatise provides
a comprehensive account of the approach of Imam ‘Ali to different aspects of
human life in the light of the Qur’an and practice of the Prophet Muhammad (s).
The outstanding feature of the work is that it also gives an intensive account of the
Islamic spirituality long before the institutional emergence of Sufism.1
There has always been a class of men believing in spiritualism or mysticism
and practicing self-denial as a means to the purification of soul and absolute
devotion to the Almighty ‘Allah’ and it is known as Sufism.2 Thus, the Sufism or
Islamic mysticism originates from the Qur’an and the Traditions of the Prophet
Muhammad(S).
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Sufism or Islamic mysticism may be regarded as one of the important
schools of Islamic philosophy. The Sufis appeal to the intuitive side of human
nature and aspire to have the knowledge of God with this means. Sufism is a vast
and varied subject. The Sufis mostly differ from one another regarding their
approach to Reality and conception of goal of life. They also differ regarding the
ways and means of attaining it. Moreover, Sufism is more practical then
theoretical. It concerns itself more with a way of life than with doctrines. Further,
Sufi teachings are esoteric, passing from heart to heart. All this make it difficult to
say anything definitely about Sufism. It gives particular stress on ‘Kashf’
(Intuition or direct apprehension of Reality) as the source of knowledge. The basis
of Sufism lies in man’s aspiration for a direct personal experience of God. Man
craves for a more one to one, authentic and intense experience of God with a view
to entering into fellowship with Him. Therefore, the Sufis underlined the spiritual
significance of love of God in comparison to doctrinal exactitude, ritualistic
propriety or anything else.3
Sufism is a philosophy of love or say a philosophy of God-intoxication.
The main aim of life, according to the Sufis, is to attain nearness (qurb) to God.
According to some of them, the aim is rather to merge the individual soul into the
universal Soul. They believe that the disappearance of consciousness of separate
selves and continuous existence into the being of Divine Self is the goal of Sufism.
Sufism is as old as Islam itself. Rather it is an integral part of it. At first,
Sufism was ascetic and devotional and gradually it becomes speculative and
doctrinal. Sufi tradition includes in itself the doctrine of love of God and service to
humankind and therefore, such peculiar character has become its hallmark through
the centuries. In reality, Sufism is a practical dimension of Islām that promotes the
intimate relationship between God and man.
Sufism is a way of spiritual realization and attainment of sanctity and
gnosis of God. It is the esoteric and intrinsic aspect of Islam and is the heart and
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the core of revelation and Prophetic teaching it is the inner dimension of Islam. It
is purely an Islamic discipline, which builds up the character and inner life of the
Muslims by imposing certain ordinances, and duties, obligations and
commitments, which may not be abandoned or given up in any way by any man.
Its doctrines and methods are deeply and firmly rooted in the Qur’an and Sunnah.
While describing the nature and method of Sufism, Junaid of Baghdad has apply
remarked, “Our system of doctrine is firmly, bound up with the dogmas of faith,
the Qur’an and the tradition”. He holds all those methods, doctrines and systems
purely heretical, which are not rooted in the Qur’an and Sunnah of the
Prophets(S).
Islamic mysticism or Sufism had its rise in a revolt of the soul, in those who
were really spiritually-minded and against formalities of religion or were
indifferent to inanities of religion. The rise of Sufism was also inspired by the
feeling that a direct relationship of man to God, Who is not to be regarded as a
Distant and All-Powerful Ruler of the destinies of humankind but as a friend and
beloved of their souls as well, is possible. The mystics have desired to know God,
so that they may love Him and they have held that the soul can receive a revelation
from God, by direct religious experience not through the senses or intellect.
Sufism is not, however, theoretical but practical and a way of life to be
followed by the true lovers of God. There must first be the conversion of the
mystic and then he must abide by a discipline to get rid of the desires of the self,
which will bring the external life into the form fit for the seeker after God. After
that, comes the discipline of the inner life, bringing the thoughts and feelings and
will into harmony with the Eternal Will of God and making the mystic able to
receive the Divine illumination (kashf).
Sufism has been described differently be scholars of various sections,
especially those writing in English. However, all consider it as a being the inner,
esoteric or mystical or purely spiritual dimension of Islam. Sufism is nothing
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external to Islam rather it is a part of it. It is really the evolution of spiritual and
mystical element inherent in all the great religions of the world. In Islamic
framework, it has its specific connotation and practical appropriation based on
purity of heart, thought and devotion.
Islam has two sides esoteric (batin) and exoteric (zahir) or internal and
external and the two sides are interdependent.4 In Islam, the two domains outward
(exoterism) and inward (esoterism) remain more or less distinct though they bear a
very definite relationship to one another. This relationship can, perhaps best, be
described in its three men aspects known as Shari’ah, Tariqah and Haqiqah:
The outward religion or (exoterism) known in Islam as
the ‘Shari‘ah’ may be linked to the circumference of a
circle. The inner truth inward or esoterism that lies at
the heart of religion and is known in Islam a ‘hiqiqa’
may be linked to the circle centre. The radius
proceeding from circumference to centre represents the
mystical or ‘initiatic’ path (Tariqa) that lead from
outward observance to inner conviction, from belief to
vision from potency to act. From the foregoing it will
be seen that Sufism (tasawwuf) comparises both
esoterism and exoterism and initiation hiqiqa and
tariqa.6
Sufism is a mystical tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth
as it is gradually revealed to the heart and mind of the Sufi. It is mainly focused on
the direct perception of Truth or God and the mystic practices are based on divine
love. Sufism embodies a number of cultures, philosophies, teachings and bodies of
esoteric knowledge.
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Sufism as in Arabic (Tasawwuf ) in Persian ( / Darwash/
Sufi-gari) is generally understood by scholars to be the inner or mystical
dimension of Islam. A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as Sufi
(Arabic ) though some senior members of tradition reserve this term for those
practitioners who have attained the goal of the Sufi tradition. Another common
denomination is the word Darvish (derived from Persian ) has the same
function like that of a Sufi.
As a spiritual and esoteric dimension of Islam, the mystic theory and
Practice is entirely based on the holy Qur’an, the hadith and sunnah of the holy
Prophet(S). In true sense, it is the combination of ‘Shariat’ Tariqat and Hiqiqat
which finally leads the blessed souls to gain the gnosis of God (m‘arifah). In fact,
Sufism (Tasawwuf) is the life and soul of Islam and entails high spiritual
aspirations of Truth. It is a process of purification of the heart, purgation of self
and illumination of the soul and finally attaining unitive life with God.7
Sufism, in fact, implies how best one should perform one’s obligatory
duties and supererogatory acts and was under stood as “Ihsan” during the time of
Prophet (S) and his companions. Tasawwuf has its root in the holy Qur’an and
Hadith. It is, therefore, in no way, discordant with the Shari‘ah.8
The beginning of Sufism or Tasawwuf is Iman (faith) which consists of six
main principles:
1. The Existence of God.
2. The Unity of God
3. The Angels.
4. The Prophets.
5. The Day of Resurrection.
6. Good and Evil through God’s predestination.9
Again, Sufism is based on the four pillars of Islam:
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1. Shari’ah (Theology)
2. Tari’qah (Methodology: Acting upon Theology)
3. Hiqi’qah (Truth)
4. Mari’fah (Gnosis of God)
A Brief description of each of these pillars is given as under:
1. Shari’ah:
Shari‘ah is the first stage or the first stage of law in which the traveller has
to acquired the outward or exoteric knowledge (‘ilm) of the canon of Islam and
wherein a devotee has to follow strictly the rules of religion. In Shari‘ah, the
practicing Muslim or a murid (disciple) observes the Sha’ar and the rites of Islam;
ever breathes his Sheikh in mind; in him effaceth himself through meditation;
maketh him his shield against evil thoughts and regardeth his spirit as his guardian
spirit.
2. Tari’qah:
Tari’qah is the second stage in which the first exoteric secrets and practices
of the order are imparted to the traveller and wherein a devotee has to follow
blindly the command of his mentor (pir or Murshad). In Tari’qah, the murid
attaineth power; centereth on Sufism and abandoneth the observance of religious
froms, exchanging outward for inward worship. Without great piety, virtue and
fortitude (based on knowledge of the dignity of the soul of man) he cannot attain
this stage. However, it becomes the duty of the murid to abide by the orders and
commands of his Pir, but with happy moods.
3. Hiqi’qah (Truth)
The third stage is Hiqi’qah in which the traveller is rewarded for his efforts
by the vision of the beatitude of God. It is the name given to the inner truth or
inner reality. The murid or the practicing true believer has become joined to Truth
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(God), in whom he sees all the things and does relize His secrets. This is
effacement in God.
4. Mari’fat (Gnosis)
The fourth stage is the mari’fah or the stage of esoteric knowledge in which
the traveller realizes the Divine Individuality within himself and wherein a
devotee follows strictly the teachings of the holy Prophet (S). The murid has
attained to supernatural knowledge and is, therefore, equal to the angel. The
Shaikh leads him to Muhammad (S) whom, in all things, he seethe. This is
effacement in Prophet of Islam.10
The Prophet (S) said that Shar‘iah is my word (Aqwali), Tari’qah is my
deeds (Afaali), Hiqi’qah is my spiritual state (Ahwali) and mari’fah is my secret
(Asrari). By attaining perfection in the observance of Islamic law (Shar‘iah)
through a pious conduct one may move to the path leading to divinity (Tari’qat)
and then onward he passes on to enlightenment (mari’fat) and lastly to the
attainment of the high point of human existence, (Haqi’qah.)11
The Shari‘ah is
concerned with the observance of the outward practices of religion, while
Haqi’qah is concerned with an inward vision of Divine Power.
According to Sufis, M‘arifah is the attitude of the man who acknowledges
God in his name and attributes; who is sincere in his action, who tries himself to
be away from the blameworthy traits of character and from weaknesses and lets
his heart dwell with God. When a Sufi becomes alien to other creature, free from
the frailties of self; in his innermost being he is in continuous communion with
God and at each movement truly comes back to God. When he has knowledge of
God by receiving His secrets concerning the operating of His decrees, then he will
be called Arif and his condition will be called M‘arifah.
The Development of Sufism:
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It is generally said that Sufism came into being toward the close of the
second or beginning of the third century of Islamic era. It is a mistaken idea that
leads some modern scholars to connect Sufism with Greek Philosophy, which had
begun to creep into the mind of some of learned Muslims. The earliest of three
greatest Islamic mystics were Prophet Muhammad, his life-partner, Bibi Khadijah
and Imam Ali. There were others also from prophets’ family and his companions
who were actively engaged in sufi-practices. However, an overview of their
spiritual struggle will entail a long discussion.
The development of Sufism from the very beginning of its existence can be
traced to the Holy Qur’an and it would be erroneous to trace it to so-called foreign
sources. The fact is that Sufism is inherent in Islam itself. It was brought into
being as soon as the verses of the mystical import were revealed to the Prophet.
The holy Qur’an is often allegorical with mystical touch. The following verse
brings out very powerfully the mystical orientation of the Qur’an:
He (God) is the First and Last, Visible and Invisible and none is like unto Him.12
Such verses emphatically prove that the universe with all its contents is
merely a reflection of the Divine Being. Sufism is generally known to be the
spiritual or inner (batin) dimension of Islam. The outer (zahir/dhair) or exoteric
dimension may be regarded as religious word-view. However, both inner and
outer or esoteric and exoteric aspects of religion are important aspects of Islam
and they are in reality the two sides of the same coin. As a matter of historical fact,
the spiritual dimension of Islam has been overemphasized for it is deemed to be
representing the true spirit of religion i.e. Islam.
All the Islamic scholars broadly agree that the elements of Sufism or
Islamic spirituality are inherent in the very original Islamic discourse and the
Orientalits wrongly attribute its origin to neo-Platonism or Aryan Mind or to the
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Greek word “Sophism”. In fact, spirituality is at the heart of Islamic revelation, the
Holy Qur’an, which in its turn is the heart of Islamic religion. Moreover, it is also
a fact that the Qur’anic spiritual dimension was recognized right at the very outset
rather than centuries later when it was crystallized into “Sufism”. The Qur’anic
words such as ‘wali’ (friend), aswaf (Plural of Suf, Meaning ‘wool’ denotes simple
dress), mari’fa (gnosis of God) and so on indicate that spirituality is inherent in
Islamic discourse itself.
As mentioned before, Islam consists of a Divine law (al-shari’ah) a
spiritual path (al-Tari’qah) and the Truth (al-Haqi’qah) or al-Haq. Al-Tawhid
(unity of God) is the origin of the Divine law and the spiritual way. The Holy
Qur’an and the Prophetic Hadith (tradition) and Sunnah are the prime sources of
every aspect of human life; social, political, judicial, theological, artistic, literary,
philosophical, spiritual etc. Sufism is an approach aiming at the direct knowledge
of God and it treats man both as an esoteric (batiniyyah) as well as an exoteric
(Zahiriyyah) personality, offering a balanced perspective of human situation or
condition. The seed of Sufism was sown in the very beginning of Islam. The
Prophet(S) himself displayed mystical inclination and not infrequently resorted to
some hidden place e.g. (cave-Hira) for meditation and devotion.13
In the first three or four centuries of the Islamic era, there was no apparent
distinction between a secular scholar and a mystic. Both groups of the faithful
were equally prompt to observe all the injunctions of Islam in theory and practice.
Junayad Baghdadi (297. A.H.-909 A.D.) was a famous Sufi who emphasized that
the external path (Shari‘ah) and the internal path (Hiqi’qah) of Islam are
essentially the two sides of the same thing and they are interrelated. He
systematized the mystical doctrines and put them in black and white.14
However, it was Dhul-Nun-Misri (788-859. A.D), who for the first time put
the doctrines in words and Abu-Bakr Shibli was the first to preach them from the
pulpit (menber) of Mosque. Sufism teaches renunciation of the worldly pleasures,
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complete devotion to God and healing of suffering human hearts through
cultivation of spiritual forbearance and insight and service towards humanity. It is
a way to reach God through the rigorous practices of Salat (Prayer), Faqr
(Poverty), Zikr (remembrance of God), Fana (anhilation), and Safa (Purity of body
and soul). Some important components of these practices are tauba (repentance),
Zuhud (asceticism), tawakkul (Trust in God), rida or reza (Will of God), etc. In
this pursuit, a Sufi move through different station of mystical experience.15
The interpretation of the word “Sufi” can best be understood when placed
in the context of the historical evolution of Sufism and Sufi brotherhood. Sufism
or Islamic mysticism or Tasawwuf (as it is called in Arabic) is a discipline, which
aims at appropriating the spiritual mysteries or dimensions of Islam. Sufism lies at
the centre of religion. It aims at the personal experience of the central mystery of
Islam. i.e. Tawhid (unity of God). There is nothing to be worshipped, nothing to be
adored God. Sufism becomes a mediator between Shari‘ah and Haqiqat precisely
as it intends to push a man to the extreme of what he only accepts intellectually.
At the beginning Sufism and Islam is general rest on the same ground of
Shahadah:
(There is no God save Allah and Prophet Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.)
However, while a person embraces Islām and becomes a Muslim by simply
repeating the Shahadah and believing in it, a Sufi on the other hand, is one who
explores its ultimate meanings and tries to live up to them. Tawhid (Oneness of
God) which is doctrinally the essence of Islam is contained in the first part of the
Shahadah (La-Illah Illa-Allah). A Sufi starts contemplating on what he really
means to actualize it. It is only in the second part of the Shahadah.
Sufism can also be explained from the perspective of the three basic
religious attitudes mentioned in the holy Qur’an. These attitudes are as under:
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1. Islam 2. Iman (faith) 3. Ihsan
1. Islam: The attitude of Islam which has given the umbrella name to the
Islamic religion which means “submission to the will of Allah”. This is the
minimum qualification for being a Muslim. It implies an acceptance even if only
formal of the teachings contained in the holy Qur’an and traditions of the Prophet
of Islam.
2. Iman: Iman (faith) is a more advanced stage in the field of religious
experience. It designates a further penetration into the heart of religion and a firm
faith in its teachings.
3. Ihsan: The third stage is the highest stage of spiritual advancement. At
this stage, the devotee has such a realization of the religious truth which amounts
almost to their direct vision. Sufism may be defined as the spiritual progress of a
devotee from the initial stage of Islam to the final stage of Ihsan.16
Thus, Iman is essentially faith in divine unity (Tawhid) and Islam mean
submission to divine will. Ihsan operates upon these two fundamental elements of
the religious and transforms, them into what is called Tasawwuf.
Thus, Sufism can be said to be a movement, which aims at making
Muslims good or better Muslims. It is a call to them to actualize truly and
internally those teachings of Islam they have accepted only formally or
intellectually as a part of their inheritance. Throughout the history of Islām,
Sufism has been the standard-bearer of genuine religiosity and spiritual
advancement in the Muslims societies. Sufism has made Muslims a living reality
infused with the depth and strength of spirituality. Sufism is not an alien
movement transplanted into Islam from foreign sources, such as. Neo-Platonism,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Christian, mysticism, or any of the pre-Islamic Iranian
Ideologies. Sufism can fully fledgely be directly traced to Islam.17
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Fortunately, some important books on Sufism have taken care to trace the
roots of Sufism to the Qur’an and Sunnah the holy Prophet, a living example of
the teachings of holy Qur’an, who had a purely spiritual dimension to his
personality. Among the companions of the Prophet, there were a number of
persons prominent for their spiritual bent of mind. Foremost among the
companions extolled for their high spiritual attainment were the first four Caliphs
and some other companions of the Prophet of Islam.
Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (632-34), the first Caliph was a paragon of
voluntary poverty advocated or practiced by Sufis and taught Muslims to renounce
all their material goods for Islam. Hazrat Umer Farooq (634-44), the second
Caliph was a symbol of self-denial His life exemplified the fact that spiritualists
outwardly were a part of humankind, however, inwardly their hearts clung to God
and their worldly activities failed to divert them from God. Hazrat Usman Ghani
(644-56), was the third Caliph and a fine example in resignation during the crisis.
However, the fourth Caliph, Hazrat Imam Ali (656-61), was regarded by all
the Sufi-orders as the Sayyid or the Shaikh or the Sarder-i-Wilyat, (Leader or
Teacher of Sufism) in both theory and practice of Tasawwuf. Hazrat Imam ‘Ali
was a role-model for Sufi tradition in respect of the truth of outward expression
and inward meaning of spirituality. He was the finest example of the stripping of
one’s self of all property either of this world or of the next and fully depending on
divine providence.18
All Caliphs enjoyed high spiritual ranks. However, Imam Ali
has a special significance for Sufi domain. According to the judgment of Sunni
Canon lawyers, ‘Ali was just not the fourth number in the Khilafat-i-Roshidah but
appropriated the highest place after Muhammad(s) amongst Muslim spiritualists.
Accordingly, Shaykh Aliu’l-Hujwiri writes concerning Imam ‘Ali:
His renown and rank in this path (of Sufism) were very
high. He explained the principle (Usul) of Divine truth
with exceeding subtlety, so that Junayd said, “Ali is
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our Shaikh as regards the endurance of affliction i.e. in
the theory and practice of Sufism: for Sufis call the
theory of this path “Principle” (Usul) and its practice
consists entirely in the endurance of affliction.19
Moreover, the Prophet(s) said about Imam ‘Ali:
“I am the city of knowledge and ‘Ali is the gate”.
Junayad Baghdadi praises mystical qualities of ‘Ali in these worlds, “ ‘Ali
is our Shaikh as regard the endurance of affliction.”20
Hazrat ‘Ali is an important
link in the spiritual chain leading Sufis back to the holy Prophet(s). Prophet
Muhammad(s) is the fountainhead of Sufism; prototype of the mystic spiritual
ascension into the intimate presence of God and esoteric knowledge was
transmitted from the Messenger of Allah to his cousin and son in law, Imam ‘Ali –
Ibn Abi Talib. Imam ‘Ali has special significance for the Sufis as almost all the
Sufi fraternities (Salasil sing Silsilah), except Naqshbandiyyah, are connected with
the Prophet through Imam ‘Ali.
Among the companions of the holy Prophet(s), another important
personality from the Sufi point of view was Salman Farsi (d. ad. 656). He was of
Persian origin and had no connection with Arab society and livel with complete
absorption in the religion. He had joined the Ahl-us-Suffah and lived in the
Mosque of Prophet Muhammad(s) and contributed a lot to the sufi-tradition.
Another mystical figure of the same period, who has cast a long shadow on Sufi
tradition, was Uways Qarni. He lived in Yamen at the time of Prophet(s) but is
said to have never met him. The Prophet(s) responded to his unbounded love in
saying, “The breath of the merciful (Nafs–ar–Rehman) came to me from Yemen.20
There are many stories about his passionate love for the Prophet(s). Similarly,
many sayings of the Prophet indicate his spiritual station. Uwyas Qarni achieved
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the spiritual aspect of the Prophet’s personality and the example of these
companions provided the guidance for a way of life, which later developed into
the tradition of Sufism.22
Salman Farsi, Uways Qarni and other saints led the Sufis to asceticism.
Around the middle of 8th
century A.D. the ascetic tradition was ushered into a new
era of development and growing popularity.23
Before Ghazali, Sufism passed through three main stages of development:
1. Ascetic stage,
2. Theosophical stage,
3. Pantheistic stage.
Let us briefly examine these stages one by one:
1. Ascetic stage:
At the first stage of the development, the sufis were ascetics and quietists.
They labored under a terrible consciousness of sin. The sufis of this stage devoted
their lives to prayer both incumbent and supererogatory. They retired from society
and daily life and avoided every from of luxury and ostentation. Their object was
the avoidance of every indulgence, which entangled the soul. At this stage, there
emerged a score of such personalities who become the shining stars of the whole
Sufi-tradition. Its leading figures were, Hasan-al-Basra (d. A.D. 728), Habib Ajmi
(d. A.D. 738), Imam Ja’far Sadiq (d. A.D. 765), Ibrahim Ibn Adham (d. A.D. 777-
90), Abu-Hashim (d. A.D. 777), Rabia Basri (d. 801), and others. They may be
counted as the first group of regular Sufis. These early mystics were the followers
of pure Sufi tradition. They had little interest in any other field besides their
mystical pursuits and spiritual perfection. At this stage, we can say that the ascetic
movement in Islam was turning into a distinct mystical tradition.23
The mystical
movement in Islam was fast becoming a distinct discipline in the growth of
Islamic civilization.
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2. Theosophical stage:
The second stage of development is known as theosophical stage. In this
stage, the doctrines of Sufism began to take their proper shape. This stage began in
late 9th
century. The Sufis belonging to this stage made further advance with
regard to the definition explication and explanation of Sufism. Sufis belonging to
this Stage were Dhuln Nun Misri (d. A.D. 859), Bayazid Bistami (d. A.D. 874),
Yahya-bin Mu’and (d. A.D. 871), Hazrat-al-Muhasibi (d. A.D. 857), Maruf Karkhi
(d. A.D. 821), Siri-as-Saqti (d. A.D. 864), Sahal-al-Tustari (d. A.D. 896) and Abu-
Said-al-Kharraz. (d. A.D. 899), etc. These Sufis form a link between theosophical
stage and pantheistic stage.
3. Pantheistic stage:
At the third stage, pantheism came to the forefront. Bayazid is well -known
for his radical mystical utterances. He elaborates the doctrines of self-effacement
and self-annihilation. The Sufi doctrine was systematized and unified by Junayd of
Baghdad (d. A.D. 900) and preached by Shibli (d. A.D. 945). It is the doctrine of
absorption and self-effacement, which lead to pantheism. Pantheism obliterates the
distinction between the Creator and the creatures and contends that there is only
One Existence, all else being an illusion. At this stage, Mansur-al-Hallaj (d. A.D.
921) was exclaiming “Ana’l-Haqq” (I am the truth). According to the Sufis, such
utterance was due to a state of exaltation in which Mansur-al-Hallaj was lost in
raptures at the beatific vision and had lost touch with the phenomenal reality. He
introduced un-Islamic doctrines such as Hülül (fusion), Ittihad (union) Tanasuhk
(transmigration), Raj‘at (return) etc. into Sufism.
The breach between Sufism and orthodox Islam took place gradually at its
first stage of development. Sufism was not very different from Islam. In their
doctrine, the Sufis emphasized some truth of Islam at the cost of others. In their
conduct, they cut themselves off from society. At the second stage novel method
of the purification of the heart were devised. At the third sage pantheistic
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tendencies, became evident. In Niffari, these appear a distinction between Sufism
and Islam. The external side of Islam was lost sight of, prayers, fasts, etc. were
given up and dhikr and other innovations were adopted for the purification of
heart. The breach between the orthodox Islam and Sufism became complete. The
theologians adhered to the letter of law and the Sufis sought the spirit.
It was al-Ghazali who leavened all gnostic, pantheistic and heretical
thoughts in the intellectual world or Islam. Before al-Ghazali, Sufism deviated
from early idealistic and quietist type and changed into theosophical and
pantheistic currents, which were denounced by devoted Muslims. With al-Ghazali,
Sufism began to be accepted as an ethical movement in the orthodox Islam. He
systematized eastern Sufism. Under the predominant influence of al-Ghazali,
Sufism was introduced in Sunni orthodox Theology in a modified 6th
century.
A.D.25
There are two stages in the history of Sufism viz. (i). Early stage (ii). Later
stage. In the earlier stage, which covered the first few centuries of the Muslim era,
there arose in the Muslim society a class of people who developed a negative
attitude of self-denial and preferred a pious, ascetic life mainly devoted to the
meditation and love of God, to a life of enjoyment, activity and struggle. They
were self-contented people, apathetic to all enjoyment of this world and had the
least feeling of wants. They were primarily concerned with the apprehension of
Divine reality and called themselves Ahl-alhaq (followers of the real). They
dedicated their lives to the love and worship of God. They preferred solitudes,
retirement, self-restraint and contemplation. They became assiduous in piety and
gave up everything for the sake of God. To turn away from worldly goods and
vanities, to renounce pleasure, wealth and power, which are the common objects
of human ambition, to abandon society and to live secluded life devoted to the
service of God, were the main features of early Sufism during the first three
centuries of Muslim era. This early phase of Sufism is a form of asceticism, which
17
had its origin in an exaggerated consciousness of sin and the extreme dread of
Divine punishment as well as a revolt against the luxury and worldliness prevalent
during the tyrannical rule of the Umayyad. The injustice, suffering and moral de-
generation that were rampant in the social political life of the time led a small but
important section of the people to develop an attitude of other-worldliness. They
held that this world is essentially bad and full of evils and therefore, men should
not be engrossed in it. They should rather shun it and prepare for the world to
come. They early Sufis were orthodox Muslims in respect of their beliefs and
practices. The distinctive features of their creed consisted in self-abnegation, self-
mortification fervent piety and quietism carried to the extreme. In this early phase,
we may include eminent Sufis like Abu-Hashem, Rabia-Basri, Maruf-Kharkhi,
Dhul-un-Misri, Bayzid-Bustmi, Junayid Baghdadi and others Sufis.
In the initial stage, Sufism was not much different from orthodox Islam; it
was rather in conformity with the orthodox beliefs and practices. Nevertheless the
Sufis over emphasized certain teachings of the Holy Qur‘an and developed them at
the expanse of others which Muslims in general deemed equally important. This
ascetic attitude of self-denial and inaction was against the real spirit of Islam. For
Islam looks upon this as real and urges man to lead a life of action. The Prophet
also strongly denounced these attitudes of inaction. With the spread of Islam, the
Muslims came in contact with many foreign ideas and doctrines in the light of
which they tried to understand and interpret their faith. Some emphasized the love
of God, others the fear of God. Further more during the rule of the Umayyad, there
was extreme moral degeneration in social-political life and the people were deeply
attached to the pomp and the pleasures of this world, utterly neglecting the
development of devotional and spiritual life. This tendency had its reaction in
Sufism, which emphasized the need and importance of an ascetic life devoted to
the love and contemplation of God.
18
At the later stage, under the influence of various internal and external force,
this ascetic tendency developed into sort of mystic philosophy mainly Pantheistic
in character. Hence, the Sufis mingled various foreign and un-Islamic elements in
their teachings. Among these, the most prominent are Mansur-Hallaj, Ibn-Arabi,
Al-Jilli, Al-Ishraqi, Rumi and Jami. It was through Al-Ghazzali that Sufism
secured a recognized position in the religious life of the Muslims.
In the later stage also, Sufism had been under many foreign influences and
become a speculative philosophical doctrine. At this stage, it deviated widely from
orthodox Islam, its asceticism was considered only as the first step to a long
journey varying mainly towards Pantheism. The keynote of the new Sufism was
the light, knowledge and love. It replaced the transcendent God by immanent, One
who is present everywhere and whose thorn is more in the human heart than in the
Heaven of Heavens. God according to them is not a transcendent being for above
human feelings and aspirations.
Moreover, the deeper instincts of man crave for direct revelation of God to
the soul. God was thus conceived to be both far and near, transcendent as well as
immanent. ‘He is the light of heaven and of the earth’ a being who works in the
world and in the soul of man. The consciousness of sin and fear that haunted the
mind of Muslims gradually disappeared and they began to seek for direct
knowledge and love of God as well personal communication with Him. Thus they
deviated from the teaching of Islam and lost sight of the transcendent aspect of
God as laid down in the Qur‘an. Even then they have been accepted by Islam.
Instead of being condemned, they have been much venerated by the general
Muslims. Hence MacDonald remarks that every thinking religious Muslim is a
mystic/Sufi and that all are Pantheists.
Thus, the attitude of individual Sufi towards Islam varies from entire
conformity to a mere nominal profession of belief in God and Prophet. The Qur‘an
and Hadith were generally accepted by them as the ultimate standard of religious
19
faith. However, they tried to distinguish what is religious and what is heretical by
the help of their personal experience and intuitive knowledge. Creeds and
catechism count for nothing in the Sufi’s estimation.
The attitude of the Sufis towards religion is rather variable. Some of them
had been quite orthodox, many were hardly Muslims from the orthodox point of
view and others were Muslims by fashion only. Orthodox Islam in its present form
owes much to Ghazali. His teachings and Interpretations were harmonized largely
with Sufism. Hence, Islam as found among the educated Muslims has assumed a
tinge of Mysticism.26
1.2: MAIN FEATURES OF THE EARLY SUFISM.
An analytical study of the first century Sufism proves that poverty,
abstinence, trust in Allah, fear of Allah, remembrance of Allah, the outmost
scrupulosity (wara), observing the rules of Shari‘ah and renunciation of the world
were the major features of Sufism. However, it is worth noting that these
characteristics of the early Sufism simply convey their ethical flavor, they were
not a metaphysical doctrine.27
Hasan al-Basari (d. 110/728 A.D.), the eminent early Sufi-theologian
known for his piety and asceticism is generally claimed by the historians to have
been the first Sufi. He maintained that fear of Allah and abstinence from worldly
pleasures are necessary for the purification of heart, which ultimately leads to the
ultimate end; the vision of Allah.
After the Prophet of Islām, Bibi Khedijah, Imam ‘Ali and other companions,
it was Rabia al-Basari, (d. 185. A.H. /801 A.D.), famous woman mystic who in the
second century Hijra, introduced the concept of Love in Sufi tradition, which later
become a dominant feature, a metaphysical doctrine and an indispensable element
of Sufism. She explains the concept of love in the following verses:
In two ways have I loved thee: selfishly,
20
And with a love that worthy is of thee.
In selfish love, my joy in thee I find,
While to all else, and other. I am blind.
But in that love which seek thee worthy,
The veil is raised that I may look on thee.
Yet is the praise in that or this not mine,
In this and that the praise is wholly thine. 28
Rabia-al-Basari does not deny the importance of the fear of Allah.
However, she gives utmost importance to love of Allah as well as the pure and
unalloyed Love, “One should remember Allah not because the fear of hell or
attainment of heaven.” For the Rabia, the pleasure of Allah and His vision must be
the end of love.
At the end of second and beginning of the third century Hijra, the Islamic
spiritual tradition emerged as an institution. Now the Zuhhad, Ubad, Nusak gained
the name of Sufi. Abu Hashim Kufi (d. 150/777. A.D.), according to some sources
is the first person called by the name of Sufi. It is by the name Sufism that esoteric
dimension of Islam has been known ever since.29
The third century marks the advent of many famous Sufi figures, whose
eloquent and penetrating utterances have survived and re-echoed with in the soul
of the Sufis of later generations. Here we shall discuss in brief the fundamental
doctrines of Dhun-Nun-Misri, Bayazid Bistami, Mansoor Hallaj and Junaid
Bagdadi — the well-known figures of the third century Sufism whose impact on
the development of subsequent Islamic mystical thought can hardly be
overemphasized.
Dhun-Nun-Misri (d 246 A.H. / 859. A.D.), was the first to found a Sufi sect
in Egypt. He formulated the doctrines of “Hal” (state) and Maqum (stage) and
21
ecstasy. He wrote treaties wherein he expounded mystical doctrines. He is
reported to have discussed “gnosis” (ma‘rifa) before anybody else and to have
distinguished it from mere intellectual knowledge. His sayings reported in
dramatic setting contributed to shaping the later Sufi tradition. He is generally
credited with having introduced the idea of ‘gnosis’ (ma‘rifa) into Sufism.
According to him, the gnosis has three types:
1. Gnosis of Scholars: They recognize Allah in the light of Reason;
2. The Gnosis of common Muslims: They believe in Allah on the basis of
faith;
3. The Gnosis of mystics: They know Allah through their inner and authentic
light.
Dhun-Nun-Misri holds the third category to be the best and superior to them
all, it provides that certitude which is identical with perfect faith ( ) and the
gnosis of Allah is neither related to nor provided by reason but is attained through
intuition.30
We find the panthestistic tendencies in his doctrine of love. He says
that when man loves Allah he looses his being ( ) in the being of Allah.
Bayzaid-Bustami (d. 874) is another mystical thinker of that period who
presented for the first time the doctrine of fana (passing away in Allah), which
exerted an abiding influence and attained the central position in subsequent Sufi
thought. His doctrine of annihilation of self or absorption in Allah is clear in his
narrations. He said, “Once he raised me up and stationed me before him, and said
to me, O-Abu-Yazid ! truly my creation desire to see I said Adorn me in thy unity
and clothe me in they oneness so that when thy creation see me they will say we
have seen thee and thou wit me that and I shell not be there at all”.31
He is the first
Sufi to have introduced the concepts of intoxication (Sukr) and Fana (annihilation)
in Sufism.
Thus, at this historical juncture of the initiation of the concept of
annihilation of the self and intoxication, a dynamic personality in Sufism was
22
Bayzaid Bistami. He initiated a new-epoch by introducing quite a different
doctrine of continuance of life in Allah (Baqa) and patience (Sabr). Bayzaid says
that the rapture of love for God involves the cessation of human attributes, like
consciousness, foresight and choice and annihilation of a man’s self-control in
God so that only those faculties survive in him that do not belong to the human
genus. It is not acquired but is purely a divine gift. It is a stage where the
attribution of man’s act is to God and man of ‘Sukr’ stands through God.
Annihilation, for Bayzid, is complete absorption of one’s own self in the
personality of God. It is a self-surrender to God, and self-surrender demands
complete obedience to the commands of God.32
Junayad Baghdadi (d. 298 A.H./910 A.D.), disciple of al-Muhasibi
designated in later times the Sheikh of the Order (Shaikh-al-Tariqah) is by far the
most original and penetrating of intellects among the Sufis of his time. He
introduces a classical definition of ‘Tawhid’; by maintaining, that ‘Tauhid’ Means’
the separation of the eternal from that which was originated in time.33
He
maintained that sobriety is superior to intoxication. He explains it by saying that
man becomes forgetful of everything even of his own self and reason in
intoxication, where as in sobriety man is conscious of his actions and has control
over his senses. He knows, what he is doing, for what he is responsible, and for
what he is not. He explains his doctrine of ‘life’ in God, as it is the stage, which a
mystic attains after the stage of annihilation of self. At this stage, man is not
forgetful of his existence, but conscious of it.34
In short, Junayad was the first Sufi who systematized and unified the Sufi
doctrine. Mansur-al-Hallaj (d. A.D. 921), also betrays pantheistic tendencies. He
was executed for exclaiming “Ana’l-Haq” (I am the truth). He says that I saw my
lord with the eye of the heart. I said “who are you”, he answered “thou”. He was
executed for his mystical utterances, which according to so-called ‘ulema were
tantamount to blasphemy. He introduced the anti-Islamic doctrines like fusion
23
(Hulul), Union (Itihad), Transmigration (tanasuk) and Return (Rajat).35
etc. His
ideas can be broadly classified as 36
1. Fusion of Allah in man;
2. The eternity of the reality of Muhammad (S)
3. The unity of Religions.
Abu-al-Hasan Siri Saqti (d. 864), made original contribution to the mystical
thought of Islam. The doctrine of ‘Tauhid’ which became the central idea of later
Sufi philosophy was very forcefully explicated by him. He is reported to have
defined the various mystical states for the first time. Siri Saqti, belonged to those
Sufis who expounded the mystical theories at the early stage. He was a leading
personality of Baghdad School.37
In the fourth century, the Sufi tradition began to express itself in large
didactic works. The famous works which are held as manuals of Sufism are the
kitab-al-luma (the book of flashes) of Abu Nasr-al-Sarraj; kitab-al-ta’arruf,
(doctrine of Sufis) of Kalabadhi; kashf-al-Mahjub (the unveiling of hidden) of
Hujwiri; the first Indian major Sufi prose work in Persian Qut-ul-Qulub, (the
nourishment of heart) of Abu Talib-al-Makki and celebrated Risalat-al-
Qushairiyah (The treatise of Qushairi); and others. These works initiated the
systematic theorization in Sufism. To present a general account of the practices,
tradition, and sects of Sufism, for example, Hujwiri in his kashful-mahjub,
‘enumerates no fewer than twelve “Sects” of Sufism, of which ten are stated to be
the ‘orthodox’ and two the heretical.38
Before proceeding ahead, it seems appropriate to comment on the
controversies and opposition between Sufis and Jurists. The opposition was the
result of their attitude and understanding of Islam. The Sufis consider themselves
the people of secret ( ) and called the jurists as the people of tradition
( ). As against them, the jurists hold that the sayings of Sufis are against the
24
injunctions of Shari‘ah.39
It was against this background that al-Ghazali appears
upon the scene to ‘legitimize’ Sufism in official judicial circles of Muslims. He
brought about a concordance between the esoteric and exoteric aspects of Islam, in
both of which he participated actively. Al-Ghazali, essentially exteriorized certain
teachings of Sufism in order to give it freedom to carry on its inner life in Muslim
community. Thus, his defense of Sufism served an important function in
determining the status granted to the Orders and their doctrines’ and practices in
general religious community. Moreover, in some of his more esoteric treatises like
Mishkat-al-Anwar, (the Niche for Lights) and Al-Risalat-al-Daduniyah (Treatise
on Divine Knowledge) he began to discuss the doctrines of Sufism in a manner
which foreshadowed the work of Ibn-Arabi.40
Besides al-Ghazali there are some
other important Sufis like Ahmad al-Ghazali, Ain-al-Quzat, Ibn-al-Fariz and Abu-
Madyn, who cannot be over-looked. There are some more important figures like
Shahabuddin Suhrawardi, Abdul Qadir Gilani, Najm-al-din Kubra and Ahmad al-
Rifai, whom we shall deal in development of Sufis Orders.
Ibn-Arabi was one of the most important Sufis who played an important
role in the System-building of Sufi doctrines. He presented a well-knit
metaphysical, cosmological and psychological system. He can be regarded as the
expositor of gnosis in Islam. His writing indicates a break or turning point within
the tradition of Sufism. It is by him that the ‘doctrine of Sufism’, which up to his
time had been contained implicitly in sayings of various masters becomes
explicitly formulated.41
His vision of Sufism is generally known as Wahdat-al-
Wujud. Scholars are not in agreement with the mystic philosophical position of
Ibn-Arabi. He is generally held to be a pantheist or monist.
Nicholson and Affifi maintain that he was a pantheist, but not all such
terms imply a real meaning to his doctrine of Wahdat-al-Wujud. He holds Allah
both as transcendent and immanent being; absolutely transcending universe but
mysteriously permeating in it. In this way, he contradicts the thesis of both the
25
anthropomorphist and transcendentalist. According to Ibn-Arabi, God is the
Absolute Reality. He maintains the world as His manifestation and not the
creation. The universe and Being are identical. Universe and things in it are not
Allah, but their reality is not other than His. Otherwise, they would be completing
independent realities, which is the same as considering them deities along with
Allah.42
According to Ibn Arabi, the Divine Essence ( ) is above all distinction
and differentiation. God is devoid at the plane of first self-determination called as
‘Ahadiya’. He reveals himself in multiple manifestations and different forms. This
is of such a nature that in spite of expressing Himself in different manifestations
and multiple forms, the absolute Being maintains his immutable attributes and
Being and no change of any kind does necessarily take place. The stages of
descent are innumerable but the most marked of these are termed as six Descents
by the Sufis. The first three of them are called Maratib-i-Ilahi (Divine Ranks),
which are Ahadiyyat (Abstract Oneness), i.e. the State of Essence, the colourless,
the infinite, the indeterminate; the second is wahdat (unity), and the third
wahidiyyat (Unity in plurality). The remaining three are called Maratib-i-kawni
(worldly ranks) and they are: 1. Ruh (spirit). 2. Mithal (Similitude) and 3. Jism
(body). Man comes last of all there ranks and his rank is inclusive of all other
ranks.
Ibn Arabi’s doctrine of the universal man (al-insan al-kamil), is of basic
importance in Sufi thought. The universal man, who is also the logos, is the total
theophany of the Divine names; he is the whole of the universe in its ones as
“seen” by Divine Essence. He is the prototype of the universe as well as of man by
virtue of whom man, the microcosm, contains within himself all possibilities
found in the universe.43
The doctrine of the ‘union’ has a co-ordinal importance in
Sufi thought in general but Ibn -Arabi completely rejects such a concept. He holds
26
that there is no ‘union’ between Allah and man, but the realization of oneness,
which is already latent, but man has to realize it.
1.3. DEVELOPMENT OF SUFI ORDERS IN INDIA:
In order to understand Iqbal’s approach to Sufism it seems essential to
discuss the Islamic spiritual tradition in Indian-sub-continent.
The traditional Sufi orders all trace Sufism within the text of the Qur‘an
and practices of the Prophet of Islam. The ‘Shari‘ah” (traditional Islamic law) and
the Sunnah (customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial source of Sufism. The Sufi
Orders Started systematic spiritual training from about the 10th
century A.D. and
from the 12th
century A.D., these Orders were fully organized and each Order was
marked by distinguishing features in its teachings and practices.
As we have already mentioned that Sufism is not a later development of
Islam, but is as old as Islam itself. As a matter of fact, all the Orders traces their
chain of succession back to Prophet Muhammad(s) and thus it is that the Prophet
of Islam is regarded by the Sufis as the fountainhead of Sufism. Next to Prophet
Muhammad(s) in the Chain of succession, comes the name of Hazrat Imam ‘Ali.
The importance of Imam ‘Ali in Sufism, as mentioned earlier, is thus very
seminal. Prophet Muhammad(s) is reported to have said, “I am the city of
knowledge and ‘Ali is its gate.”44
However, the real or serious Sufi activities in India began from the last
decade of the twelfth or beginning of the thirteenth century. Outstanding Sufi
personalities began to visit India one after another in quick succession. These
Sufis did organize themselves into various Orders called Silsilas up to 16th
century
A.D. Gradually each Order was divided into a number of other sub-branches, each
having its own founder and tracing connection with other Order of the more
celebrated early Sufis and finally tracing up a connection to the Prophet
Muhammad(s), through Hazrat Imam Ali, the fourth Caliph. However, one Order
27
(Naqshbandiyyah) came into being tracing its origin to Abu-Bakr Saddiq, the first
Caliph.
Sufi Orders (silsilas) are numerous their number crossing one hundred
seventy five (175). However, the most important among them are as hereunder:
1. The Chishtiyyah Order.
2. The Qadriyyah Order.
3. The Naqshbandiyyah Order.
4. The Suhrawardiyyah Order.
We shall deal here briefly with the origin and development of these major
Sufi Orders as they played a leading role in the spiritual enlightenment of Muslims
in India:
1. The Chishtiyyah Order:
The Chishtiyyah Order was one of the first important Sufi Orders to be
established in India. It was founded by Khawja Abu-Ishaq Shami Chishti. The
Order traced its roots to the Qur’an and Sunnah through Hazrat Imam Ali. He
migrated from Asia Miner, settled at Chisht, in khurasan, and consequently was
called Chishti. He was a disciple of Mimshad Ali Dina-wari. The following four
saints spiritually descended from Abu-Ishaq Chishti and, are regarded as the
pillars of the Orders in particular and Islam in general: 45
1. Khawja Abu Ahmad (d. 966 A.D.), vicegerent to Abu-Ishaq, became an
Abdal.
2. Khawja Abu Muhammad (d. 1020 A.D.) who was the son and successor of
Abu Ahmad
3. Khawja Abu Yusuf (d. 1067 A.D.). He was a vicegerent of Abu
Muhammad.
4. Khawja Mawdud (d. 1133 A.D.), who was the son and successor of Abu
Yusuf.
28
The credit of introducing the Chishtiyyah Order into the Indian
subcontinent goes to Khawja Moin-uddin Chishti of Ajmer. He has been one of
the most renowned saints in the history of this Order. He was born around 1142-43
A.D. in Sijistan, came to Delhi in 1192 A.D. with the invading army of
Shihabuddin Ghauri. He came to Ajmer around (1195/97 A.D.) where he died in
(1234-36. A.D.). He lived at Ajmer for about half a century and his subsequent
entombment at Ajmer, earned the city renown as a pilgrimage centre. His Dargah
(Mausoleum), where he lies buried, is a sacred place of spiritual inspiration for
millions of Muslims, Hindus and other people belonging to various faiths. Khawja
Moin-uddin Chishti’s preachments provided guidance to all sections of humanity.
He was a thoroughgoing mystic and popularized Sufism in India. He assigned to
the mystics the highest place among humankind. He says, “Mystic are like the
Sun, they shine over the world and the entire world is illuminated by their light”.
He tried infusing the spirit of human service among his disciples; he declared that
the service of humanity is the service of Allah.
Many others Chishti saints like Qutubuddin Kaki (d. 1236) and Shaikh
Hamiduddin, Sufis of Nagaur, and Shaikh Fariduddin Shakarganj of Ajodhan
(Modern Punjab) (who was popularly known as Hazrat Baba Farid and whose bani
and slokes are a part of the holy Guru Granth Sahib). Sheikh Jamaluddin Hanowi
popularly known as Jamali (d. 1536) preached Sufi beliefs and practiced Sufi
values in India. The most eminent of Delhi Chishtis was Sheikh Nizamuddin
Auliya. He founded the Nizamiyya sub-silsilah that spread throughout the country
due to the dedicated efforts of his disciples like Shaikh Sirajuddin, Shaikh-Alaul-
Haqq, Shaikh Nur Qutb-i-Alam, Sayed Ashrf Jahangir, Khawja Gesu Deraz, Amir
Khusro and Burhanuddin Gharib. They spread mystical teachings in the Indian
Sub-Continent. The Chishtiyyah order followed the doctrine of the ontological
monism advanced by of Wahdat-al-Wujud, which explain the influence of Ibn-
29
Arabi on it. Thus, the Chishtiyyah saints followed the concept of pantheistic
monism called Wahdat-al-Wujud.46
2. The Qadriyyah Order:
The Qadriyyah Order developed from the school of Junayid, the ascetic
Order of Sufism was instituted by Shaikh Sayed Abdul Qadir Gilani (1076-1156
A.D.), popularly known as Pir-i-Dastagir or Ghaus-al-Azam. The founder of the
Order is one of the most venerated saints of Islam, who revived and recognized the
true context of the faith and worked throughout his life for a religious renaissance.
A follower of the Hambalite School of Sunni theology, Shaikh Abdul Qadir Gilani
strove hard to root out innovations and deviations, which had distorted the true
image of Islam. Shaikh Abdul Qadir Gilani, with his profound knowledge and
spiritual excellence, elaborated and systematized mystic practices, propagated
them widely and developed them ‘into unique harmony with the tenets of
shari‘ah. Countless people were guided by him to the path of self discipline,
devotion to God, and virtuous living.
The Qadriyyah Order was founded in the twelfth century and is considered
to be the oldest and the earliest. It had exercised great influence on the
contemporary society and culture by creating a new spiritual ferment in the life
and thought of the people. However, it gained a footing only at the end of 14th
and
beginning of 15th
centuries. Its’ followers are found all over the world. It played a
dynamic role in the religious and spiritual life of Indian masses between 16th
and
18th
centuries.
As a direct descendent of the Prophet Muhammad(s) through his daughter
Fatima), Shaikh Abdul Qadir Gilani was believed to have inherited every one of
his ancestor’s spiritual achievement. However, there are some controversies
regarding his teachings and as a descendent of the Prophet.
Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gilani’s writings are very much effective and
remarkable. His most renewed books are:
30
1. Futuh-al-Gheyb: A remarkable book on mysticism.
2. Ghuniya-tut-talibin: A comprehensive book dealing with the principle of
Shari’at and Tari’qat.
3. Futuh-al-Rabbani: A collection of his lectures and discourse.
A model of simplicity, selflessness and righteousness, this remarkable saint
of Islam expired on the 11th
Rabi-us-thani, at the age of 91 years. However, until
today his life and teachings illuminate the hearts of Muslims and others throughout
the world. The Qadriyyah khanqahs are mostly located in Punjab, parts of
Northern India and extensively in south India.
The Qadriyyah saints made the silsilah popular among the Indian masses.
They were against the rituals and ceremonies and all other alien elements
introduced in the name of Sufism contrary to the true spirit of Shari’a., The three
characteristics which distinguish them from the Sufis of Other Orders were:
1. Religious Orthodoxy.
2. Urbanism and
3. Distinct Arab Character.
The literature produced on Qadriyyah Order may be divided into three
categories:47
1. Biographical account of saints.
2. Work on mystic ideologies and practices.
3. Poetical work.
However, this Order was fully established in 16th
and 18th
centuries in India
and the main centres of its activity were Multan, Sind, Delhi, Agra, Biana, Bengal,
Ujjain, Kashi, Jaunpur, Gujrat, Ahmed Nagar, Daulatabad, Gulbarga, Kashmir,
Bihar and Hyderabad.
The famous Urdu poets Hasrat Mohani and (poet-philosopher) Allamah
Muhammad Iqbal belong to this Order.
31
3. The Naqshbandiyyah Order:
Naqshbandiyyah order is also known as Silsilah-i-khawajan. It was the
most outstanding Sufi Order in India during the 17th
century. It was founded by
Khawja Ahmad Ata Yasvi (d. 1161), but organized and developed by Khawja
Bahauddin Naqshbandi (d. 1389). Its descent is traced through Abu Yazid Bistami
to the first orthodox Caliph Abu Bakr Saddiq. However, the Naqshbandiyyah
Order was popularized in India through the efforts of Khawja Baqi Billah (1564-
1603), during the reign of Emperor Akbar. His Khalifah was Shaikh Ahmed
Sirhindi, commonly known as Mujaddid-i-alf thani. He was very devoted to the
Naqshbandis of Bukhara. Under him, the Naqshbandiyyah Order reached its
culmination, developed certain characteristics of its own, and got popularity
among the masses.
Shah Wali-Allah Dehlavi (1702-62 AD), the well-known political thinker
and Sufi of the 18th
century also belonged to the Naqshbandiyyah order. In his
Sufistic tract Shah Wali-Allah has elucidated the mystic practices of the four
prevalent Sufi Orders, including the eleven basic principles of his own Silsilas.
Mirza Mazhar Jan-i-Janan infused a new vigour by establishing Shamsiyah
Mazharay within the fold of Naqshbandiyyah Order.
Sayed Ahmed Shah and Ghulam Ali were some of the great Sufis of this
Order. Other famous Sufi- poets of this order are Mir Dard, and Mirza Mazhar
Jan-i-Janan. The principal doctrine of this order is Wahdat-al-Shuhud and this
doctrine is also traceable to Hallaj. However, in Naqshbandiyyah Order it was
evolved in Central Asia by Simnani (d. 1336), and fully developed by the great
Indian Naqshbandi mystic Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi, in the seventeenth century in
seceding from pantheistic ontological monism. Sirhindi worked out a close
integration between Sufism and theology. The Order has been revived in the
recent years in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.48
4. The Suhrawardiyyah Order:
32
This Order originated from Junaydia khanwada and flourished in India
simultaneously with the Chishtiyyah Movement. It’s founder, Shaikh Najibuddin
Abu Qalir (1097-1168), was a native of Suhraward. The history of
Suharwardiyyah Order began when some of the disciples of Shaikh Shahab-u’d-
din Suharwardi started their work in Bagdad. Among them Shaikh Jalal-ud-din
Tabrizi, Qazi Hamid-ud-din Nagauri, Sayyed Nur-ud-Din Mubarak Ghaznavi,
Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariyya Multani, Mulana Majd-ud-din Haji, Shaikh Zia-ud-
din, were the most renewed. Each of them had a distinguished career in his sphere
but the credit for organizing the Suhrawardi Order in India goes exclusively to
Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariyya Multani. The Order exercised considerable influence
at Uchch, Sind, and Multan. Shaikh Bahuddin’s Khanqah, at Multan become a
great centre of mystic discipline and teachings in medieval India. The Uchch
branch came into prominence under Sayyed Jalaluddin Surkh Bukhari (d. 1291)
Makhdum lal Shahbaz Qalandar was also a renowned Sufi of Sind. The leading
Sufis of Suhrawardi Order also received Khilafat from the Qadriyyah Saint.49
Jalal-uddin Tabrizi introduced the Suharwardiyyah Order in Bengal in
thirteenth century. Under his distinguished khulafa the Order spread in the whole
Subcontinent including Delhi, Gujarat and Bengal. It become a leading Order and
got popularity among masses. Later on, the Sufis of this Order divided themselves
into several sub-sects, and played a very significant role in the religion culture and
history of the country from 13th
to the 15th
centuries. With the arrival of the
Qadiris in Sind and Multan in the 15th
century, they ceased functioning in those
regions. This Order became popular in Kashmir, Punjab, Sind and some parts of
Bengal and Bangladesh.
1.4. SUFI DOCTRINES:
As already indicated, Sufism is a vast and varied discipline. It cannot be
looked upon as a regularly organized school as it manifested itself in different
33
shapes in different ages and countries. Moreover, divergent tendencies can be
found in the teachings of distinguished Sufis who founded different Sufi- Tariqas.
Generally, it is said that the number of the Tariqas of the Sufis would be
more than two hundred, and they differ from one another in many ways.
Therefore, it is not possible to make any accurate statement of the doctrines, which
would universally be accepted by all Sufis of various shades in spite of the
divergence in many respects. However, we shall try to enlist some important
common points of agreement and they are as under:
1. Conception of God (Al-Tawhid):
The Sufi conception of God is a bit different from that of orthodox Islam.
The Sufis interpret the first point of kalmiah, ‘la-illa-iillah’ (Nothing is a durable
but Allah), so according to them, God is the only Reality and all else is illusion.
However, with regard to the nature of the Supreme Reality Sufis are not
unanimous. Some regard it as Universal Will, some as True Knowledge; to some it
is Eternal Light and still to others, it is Supreme Beauty and Ultimate Good. The
Qur’an says, ‘No vision can grasp Him.’ God’s existence is not time-bound. As a
famous Urdu poet Ghalib says:50
When there was nothing, there was God.
Had there been nothing, there would have been God.
Briefly, God is the first and He is the last. However, He is indescribable
and may be expressed by symbols. A verse in the Rig-Veda says, “They call him
Indra, Mitra Varuna, Agani and even the fleet-winged celestial bird Garuda. The
One Reality, the learned speak of in many ways.”51
Such symbols are an outcome
34
of subjective thinking as every individual has his own concept of God and does
explain his views accordingly.
2. Conception of Human soul:
According to Sufis, the human soul is a part of God. The Qur’an says that
God breathed into him (man) of His (God’s) spirit. Further, the Prophet says that
God created man in his own image. Therefore, man’s inner nature or spirit
resembles the spirit of God. As such, many of the attributes of God have been
reflected in man. They consider man as small world-a microcosm in which God’s
spirit is present in the highest degree. Hence, the Sufi saying that is attributed to
Imam ‘Ali, ‘one, who knows his own self, knows his God’.52
3. Conception of world:
Sufis say that the external world is unreal and illusive and the only reality is
God. There is nothing except God. He is the only essence underlying all
phenomena. The world has no real existence and everything of the cosmos
depends upon God. However, they also accept world and all its things as gift of
God for His true believers. A man has to perform his duties and faithfully carry
out his responsibilities here in this world, as it is the only place where he sows the
seeds of his deeds whether good or evil. What the Sufis dislike and disfavour is the
over-involvement in the worldly matters where a man forgets his duties and
responsibilities as directed or assigned by God.
4. Love and Service to Humankind:
The relation between God and man is that of love. God has created the
universe out of love and man in his own image. Therefore, in human soul there is
the divine attribute of love. This impels man to pine for union with God. God and
man are lover and Beloved. Thus, the prime aim of Sufi-tradition is to work out
the means to attain this unique end.
5. Knowledge:
35
Real knowledge of God can only be attained by means of kashf or intuition.
According to some Sufis ‘Reason’ is not at all helpful and capable of attaining the
knowledge of God. It is through intuition or direct apprehension that knowledge of
God can be attained. Intuition brings ecstasy (hal) which comes after a long
process of spiritual training.
6. Ecstasy:
The Sufis prefer ecstasy (hal) or similar spiritual experience to ritual
practices. Ecstasy means a state of mind leading to higher states and stages. It
usually implies fana and baqa. Fana means, passing away or loss of the
consciousness of the individuality. In this stage, one becomes insensible to the
things of this world. Baqa means enduring continuance of individual self in God.
7. Dhikr/Zikr (Remembrance of God):
In order to advance towards the ecstatic state, the Sufis have recourse to
dhikr. It is said in the Qur’an “remembers God often”. The Sufis give stress on this
injunction and remember God by repeating a name of God (asma’u’l-husna) or
any verse of the Qur’an constantly. In some of the confraternities, dhikr is very
sober as mention above.
8. Fana and Baqa:
The Sufis try to lose the consciousness of the individual things around them
as also of their individual selves in order to be absorbed in the universal
consciousness of God. Through ecstasy, they can communicate with God and can
become one with Him. This State of losing self- consciousness in a state of ecstasy
is called Fana. In Baqa, the Sufis live in the consciousness of God. Through
Fana, the Sufi extricates himself from all the evil qualities of his mind and
imbibes Divine qualities. In Baqa, the Sufi passes from the phenomenal Self to the
real self. In his contemplation of the Essence of God, the Sufi finds that the
Essence of God is one with his own essence. Then he finds nothing but God and
36
becomes one with God. His words become the Word of God and his knowledge,
the Knowledge of God.53
1.5. SUFI CONCEPTS AND PRACTICES:
A. SUFI CONCEPTS
There are mainly six subtleties (Lataif-i-Sitta) drawn from the Qur’anic
verses. Virtually all Sufis distinguish (Latiaif-i-Sitta), the six subtleties as: Nafs,
Qulb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi, and Akhfa. These lataif (singular-latifa) designate various
psycho-spiritual ‘organs’ or faculties of sensory perception. In general, the Sufis
inner development involves the awaking of certain orders. These spiritual centres
of perception, are dormant in every person. Each centre is associated with a
particular color and general area of the body, often with a particular prophet and
various from order to order. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help
activate these centers. After undergoing this process, the Sufi (Darvish) is said to
reach the certain type of ‘completion’ and becomes a complete man and gets
acquainted with the lataif one by one by Muraqaba (Sufi meditation) and Dhikr
(Remembrance of God) and purification of one’s psyche of negative thoughts,
emotions and actions.
The Six ‘organs’ or faculties, Qalb, Nafs, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi and Akhfa and
the purificative activities applied to them, contain the basic orthodox Sufi
philosophy. The purification of elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-i-Nafs) is
followed by cleansing of spiritual heart. So that it may be acquire mirror-like
purity of reflection (Tazkiya-i-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God’s love
(‘Ishq) and illumination of the sprit (Tajjali-i-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic
drives (Taqliyya-i-sirr) and remembrance of God attributes (Dhikr) and
completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi and Akhfa.
B. SUFI PRACTICES:
37
1. Dhikr: Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur’an for
all Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam.
Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of the divine names, supplication
and aphorisms from the Hadith literature and sections of the Qur’an. More
precisely any activity in which a Muslim maintains awareness of God is
considered dhikr.
2. Muraqaba: Muraqaba is the word used by many Sufis when referring to
the practice of meditation. The Arabic word literally means ‘observe’, ‘guard’ or
‘control’. In this context, referring to, controlling and guarding one’s thoughts and
desires. In some Sufi orders, Muraqaba may involve concentrating one’s mind on
the names of God. Muraqba, in other order (Such as Naqshbandiyyah), may
involve the Sufi aspirant focusing on his/her Murshid, while others imagine certain
colors to achieve different spiritual states.
3. Qawwali: Qawwali is a form of the devotional Sufi-poetry and music
common in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey. It is known
for its secular and liberal flavour. Some of its modern day masters include, Nusrat
Fatah Ali Khan, the Sabri Brothers and others. Amir Khusraw, a disciple of
Nazamuddin Auliya of the Chishtiyyah Order, is credited with inventing Qawwali
in the 14th
century.
4. Sama‘ (Sufi poetry and music): Sama‘ or mausiqi in Arabic means
‘listening’. It refers to Sufi worship practices, which involve music and dance.
Sama is one of the special aspects of Sufism, which is a kind of ecstasy, spiritual
exhilaration, striking the face and the joyous uplifting of the hand. As some Sufis
say that Spiritual Dance, Sama‘ is the food for the spirit and remembrance, (Dhikr)
is the Nourishment of the heart. Some other says that spiritual Dance so much
absorbs the Sufi that, he neglect all the intermediary causes and does not see
anything except God. The aim of Sama‘ rests in the awakening of the spirit and its
constant attention toward God.
38
In the spiritual Sama‘, man becomes free from the attachment of matter and
body and intends to the liberation of the soul and the attainment of union with
God. They start to dance in remembrance of God. Sufis considered Sama‘ to be
the comfort for the lover of God and a food for his soul and a remedy for his
aliments.
Al-Ghazali says in his Iyah-al-ulum-al-Din (Revivification of Islamic
Knowledge) Sama‘ is a true touchstone for the heart and a living criterion, the
breeze of Sama does not touch a heart except that it puts in motion whatever pre-
dominates it. Muwlana Rumi, a famous poet of the thirteenth century (A.D.), has
established a special method of Sama‘ in his Order.
The Indian subcontinent has enjoyed a vitality and continuity of the Sama‘
tradition, which has few parallels in the history of Islam. This vitality is directly
linked to the deep local roots of Indian Sufism. Among Indian Sufis, the tradition
of Sama‘ was established and it took on a special character, in the Indian
subcontinent. Sufism and practice of Sama‘ took roots in the 13th
century. Sama‘ is
comfort of the living spirit, only he who has the spirit of the spirit in him knows
this, only that person wants to get awakened, who is sleep in the beautiful garden.
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1. Shuja Alhaq, (1997) A Forgotten Vision (vol. I), (Vikas Pub. House Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi), p. 110.
2. Nadvi, S.M., Muslim Thoughts and its Source, (Idharah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delhi,
1946 Reprint, 1983), p. 103.
3. Saiyed, Abdul Hai, Muslim Philosophy, (Islamic Foundation Bangladesh, I.F.
Pub. I.F. Library, 966), p. 136.
4. Nadvi. S.M., op. cit., p.103.
39
5. Nicholson R.A., Sufism, the Mystical Doctrine and the idea of Personality,
(Adam Pub. and Distributor, New Delhi, n.d.), p.4.
6. Ibid. p., 5.
7. Qadri, M.R., Great Mystic of Islam, (Adam pub. And Distributor, New Delhi,
2007), p.1.
8. Qutbi, M.M.A., Fragrance of Sufism, (pub. Saleem Nagar Hyderabad, 1952),
p.53.
9. Suhrawardi, S.U.M., The Awarif-ul-Ma’arif (Adam pub. and Distributor,
New Delhi, 2006), p. 8.
10. Ibid., p.4.
11. Qadri, M.R.., op. cit. p.259.
12. Nadvi, S.M., op.cit. p.79.
13. Ibid., p.81.
14. Ibid., p.86.
15. Hassain, H., Sufism and Bakti Movement, (Nice Printing Press, New Delhi,
2007 ), p. XVI.
16. Faruqi, I.H. Azad, Sufism and Bakti Movement, (Abhinav Publication, New
Delhi, 1984), p.5.
17. Ibid., pp. 6-7.
18. Rizvi, A. Abbas. A History of Sufism in India, (Vol I), (Munshiram
Manuharlal, New Delhi, 1983, Reprit, 1992), p.25.
19. Subhan. J.A., Sufism its Saint and Shrine, (Cosmo, pub. Ansari road
Deryaganj, New Delhi, 1999), pp. 162-63.
20. Qadri, M.R., op. cit., pp.16-17.
21. Faruqi, I.H, Azad. op. cit. p.09.
40
22. Ibid., p.10.
23. Ibid., p.12.
24. Ummaruddin, M., The Ethical Philosophy of Al-Ghazzali, (Adam Pub. and
Distributor, New Delhi, 2003), p.61.
25. Ibid., pp. 62-63.
26. Rehman, S., An Introduction to Islamic Culture and Philosophy, (Mullick,
Brothers, Dacca, 1970), pp. 112-13.
27. Nasr, S. H., Three Muslim Sages, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1964), p. 83.
28. Shahid, A. C., Sufism is not Islam, (Regency Pub., New Delhi, 1998), p. 4.
29. Mujeeb. M., The Indian Muslims, (London, 1967) p. 25.
30. Sayied, Abdul Hai, op. cit., p. 181.
31. Nasr, S. H., Tarikh Tasawwuf Islām , p. 55.
32. Nabi, M.N., Shades of Mysticism, (Taj printing work Nai Basti, Aligarh,
1977), pp. 17-18.
33. Nasr, S. H., op. cit., pp. 56-57.
34. Ibid.,pp.58-59.
35. Ummaruddin M., op. cit., p. 61.
36. Nasr, S. H., op. cit., pp.59-60.
37. Faruqi, I.H. Azad, op. cit., p.15.
38. Hujwjari, S.A., Kashf-al-Mahjub, (Urdu), (Lahore, 1923), p. 176.
39. Nasr, S.H., op. cit., pp. 232-33
40. Nasr, S. H., Three Muslim Sages, op. cit., p. 89.
41. Ibid., p. 90.
41
42. Ibid., pp. 106-107.
43. Ibid., p.110.
44. Subhan, J.A., op.cit., p. 162.
45. Masood, A.K., Chishti Order of Sufism and Miscellaneous Literature,
(Anmol Publication, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2003), p.17.
46. Shahid, A. C., op. cit., pp.184-85.
47. Bilgrami, F.Z., History of Qadiri Order in India, (Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli,
New Delhi, 2005), p.13.
48. Shahid, A. Chaudhary, op. cit., pp. 184-85.
49. Bilgrami, F.Z., op. cit., p.6.
50. Shahid, A. Chaudhary, op. cit., pp.20-21.
51. Ibid., p.21.
52. Saiyed Abdul Hai, op. cit., pp.144-45.
53. Ibid., p.144.