Sufism

SusmFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Su" redirects here. For other uses, see Su (disambiguation).Susm (or taswwuf; Arabic: ) is a branch of Islam, dened by adherentsas the inner, mystical dimension of Islam; others contend that it is a perennialphilosophy of existence that pre-dates religion, the expression of which oweredwithin Islam.[1] Its essence has also been expressed via other religions andmetareligious phenomena.[2][3][4] A practitioner of this tradition is generallyknown as a f (). They belong to dierent uruq or "orders" congregationsformed around a master which meet for spiritual sessions (majalis), in meetingplaces known as zawiyahs, khanqahs, or tekke.[5] All Su orders (turuq) tracemany of their original precepts from the Islamic prophet Muhammad through hiscousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, with the notable exception of the SunniNaqshbandi order who claim to trace their origins through the rst sunni Caliph,Abu Bakr.[6] However, Alevi and Bektashi[7] Muslims (and some Shia Muslims)claim that every Su order traces its spiritual lineage (silsilah) back to one of theTwelve Imams, the spiritual heads of Islam who were foretold in the Hadith of theTwelve Successors and were all descendants of Muhammad through his daughterFatima and Ali. Because of this Ali ibn Abi Talib is also called the father ofSusm.[8][9] Prominent orders include Alevi, Bektashi, Mevlevi, Ba 'Alawiyya,Chishti, Rifa'i, Khalwati, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Oveyssi, Qadiria Boutshishia,Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya, Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya and Suhrawardiyya.[10]The origin of Susm is also discussed in the book Mystical Dimensions of Islam,by Annemarie Schimmel.Sus believe they are practicing ihsan (perfection of worship) as revealed byGabriel to Muhammad: "Worship and serve Allah as you are seeing Him and whileyou see Him not yet truly He sees you". Sus consider themselves as the originaltrue proponents of this pure original form of Islam. Susm is opposed by Wahhabiand Salast Muslims.Classical Su scholars have dened Susm as "a science whose objective is thereparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God".[11]Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi Su teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "ascience through which one can know how to travel into the presence of theDivine, purify one's inner self from lth, and beautify it with a variety ofpraiseworthy traits".[12]Muslims and mainstream scholars of Islam dene Susm as simply the name forthe inner or esoteric dimension of Islam[2] which is supported and complemented

Susm - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Susm...

1 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

by outward or exoteric practices of Islam, such as Islamic law.[13] In this view, "itis absolutely necessary to be a Muslim" to be a true Su, because Susm's"methods are inoperative without" Muslim "aliation".[14] In contrast, authorIdries Shah states Su philosophy is universal in nature, its roots predating therise of Islam and Christianity.[15] Some schools of Susm in Western countriesallow non-Muslims to receive "instructions on following the Su path".[16] SomeMuslim opponents of Susm also consider it outside the sphere of Islam.[2][17]Classical Sus were characterised by their attachment to dhikr, (a practice ofrepeating the names of God, often performed after prayers)[18] and asceticism.Susm gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against theworldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661750 CE[19]). Sus have spannedseveral continents and cultures over a millennium, originally expressing theirbeliefs in Arabic, before spreading into Persian, Turkish, Indian languages and adozen other languages.[20]

Contents1 Etymology2 Beliefs

2.1 Teaching3 History

3.1 Origins3.2 Formalization of doctrine3.3 Growth of inuence3.4 Present

4 Theoretical perspectives4.1 Contributions to other domains of scholarship

5 Devotional practices5.1 Dhikr5.2 Muraqaba5.3 Visitation

6 Persecution6.1 History6.2 Current attacks


2 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

6.2.1 Pakistan6.2.1.1 Timeline

6.2.2 Kashmir, India6.2.3 Somalia6.2.4 Mali6.2.5 Egypt6.2.6 Libya6.2.7 Tunisia6.2.8 Russia, Dagestan6.2.9 Iran

7 Islam and Susm7.1 Susm and Islamic law7.2 Traditional Islamic thought and Susm7.3 Traditional and Neo-Su groups

8 Prominent Sus8.1 Abul Hasan al-Shadhili8.2 Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani8.3 Bayazid Bastami8.4 Ibn Arabi8.5 Junayd Baghdadi8.6 Moinuddin Chishti8.7 Mansur al-Hallaj

9 Reception9.1 Perception outside Islam9.2 Inuence on Judaism

10 In popular culture10.1 Films10.2 Music10.3 Literature

11 Modern and contemporary Su scholars11.1 Arabian Peninsula11.2 Levant and Africa11.3 Western Europe


3 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

11.4 Eastern Europe11.5 North America11.6 South Asia11.7 Eastern and Central Asia

12 Gallery13 See also14 References15 Further reading16 External links

EtymologyTwo origins of the word su have been suggested. Commonly, the lexical root ofthe word is traced to af (), which in Arabic means "purity". Another origin isf (), "wool", referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore.The two were combined by the Su al-Rudhabari who said, "The Su is the onewho wears wool on top of purity".[21][22]Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl a-uah ("thepeople of the bench"), who were a group of impoverished companions ofMuhammad who held regular gatherings of dhikr.[23] Abd al-Karm ibn HawzinQushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other than f onlinguistic grounds.[24]According to the medieval scholar Ab Rayn al-Brn, the word su is derivedfrom the Greek word soa (), meaning wisdom.[25][26][27]

BeliefsWhile all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to God and hope tobecome close to God in Paradiseafter death and after the "Final Judgment"Sus also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God and to more fullyembrace the Divine Presence in this life.[28] The chief aim of all Sus is to seekthe pleasing of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial stateof tra,[29] described in the Qur'an. In this state nothing one does dees God, andall is undertaken with the single motivation of love of God. A secondaryconsequence of this is that the seeker may be led to abandon all notions ofdualism or multiplicity, including a conception of an individual self, and to realize


4 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

The tomb of SheikhRukn-ud-Din Abul Fathlocated in Multan, Pakistan.The city of Multan is knownfor various Su Saint tombs,as they call it the City ofSaints

the Divine Unity.Thus, Susm has been characterized as thescience of the states of the lower self (the ego),and the way of purifying this lower self of itsreprehensible traits, while adorning it instead withwhat is praiseworthy, whether or not this processof cleansing and purifying the heart is in timerewarded by esoteric knowledge of God. This canbe conceived in terms of two basic types of law(qh), an outer law concerned with actions, and aninner law concerned with the human heart. Theouter law consists of rules pertaining to worship,transactions, marriage, judicial rulings, andcriminal lawwhat is often referred to, broadly, asqanun. The inner law of Susm consists of rulesabout repentance from sin, the purging ofcontemptible qualities and evil traits of character,and adornment with virtues and goodcharacter.[30]The typical early Su lived in a cell of a mosqueand taught a small band of disciples. The extent towhich Susm was inuenced by Buddhist andHindu mysticism, and by the example of Christian

hermits and monks, is disputed, but self-discipline and concentration on Godquickly led to the belief that by quelling the self and through loving ardour forGod it is possible to maintain a union with the divine in which the human selfmelts away.[31]

TeachingTo enter the way of Susm, the seeker begins by nding a teacher, as theconnection to the teacher is considered necessary for the growth of the pupil. Theteacher, to be considered genuine, must have received the authorization to teach(ijazah) from another Master of the Way, in an unbroken succession (silsilah)leading back to Muhammad. It is the transmission of the divine light from theteacher's heart to the heart of the student, rather than of worldly knowledgetransmitted from mouth to ear, that allows the adept to progress. In addition, thegenuine teacher will be utterly strict in his adherence to the Divine Law.[32]According to Moojan Momen "one of the most important doctrines of Susm is theconcept of the "Perfect Man" (al-Insan al-Kamil). This doctrine states that therewill always exist upon the earth a "Qutb" (Pole or Axis, of the Universe)a manwho is the perfect channel of grace from God to man and in a state of wilaya


5 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Entrance of Sidi Boumedienemosque in Tlemcen, Algeria,built to honor 12th centurySu master Abu Madyan

(sanctity, being under the protection of God). Theconcept of the Su Qutb is similar to that of theShi'i Imam.[33] However, this belief puts Susm in"direct conict" with Shi'ism, since both the Qutb(who for most Su orders is the head of the order)and the Imam fulll the role of "the purveyor ofspiritual guidance and of God's grace to mankind".The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutbwhich is taken by Sus is considered incompatiblewith devotion to the Imam".[33]As a further example, the prospective adherent ofthe Mevlevi Order would have been ordered toserve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for1,001 days prior to being accepted for spiritualinstruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitaryretreat as a precondition of completing thatinstruction.[34]Some teachers, especially when addressing moregeneral audiences, or mixed groups of Muslimsand non-Muslims, make extensive use of parable,allegory, and metaphor.[35] Although approaches to teaching vary among dierentSu orders, Susm as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personalexperience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamicforms of mysticism (e.g., as in the books of Hossein Nasr).Scholars and adherents of Susm are unanimous in agreeing that Susm cannotbe learned through books. To reach the highest levels of success in Susmtypically requires that the disciple live with and serve the teacher for many, manyyears. For instance, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to theNaqshbandi Order, served his rst teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi,for 20 years, until as-Samasi died. He subsequently served several other teachersfor lengthy periods of time. The extreme arduousness of his spiritual preparationis illustrated by his service, as directed by his teacher, to the weak and needymembers of his community in a state of complete humility and tolerance for manyyears. When he believed this mission to be concluded, his teacher next directedhim to care for animals, curing their sicknesses, cleaning their wounds, andassisting them in nding provision. After many years of this he was nextinstructed to spend many years in the care of dogs in a state of humility, and toask them for support.[36]

History


6 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Ali is considered to be the"Father of Susm" inIslamic tradition.[37]

Main article: History of SusmOriginsEminent Sus such as Ali Hujwiri claim that thetradition rst began with Ali ibn Abi Talib.Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as theSheikh of the principals and practices of Susm.[37]Practitioners of Susm hold that in its early stages ofdevelopment Susm eectively referred to nothingmore than the internalization of Islam.[38] Accordingto one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an,constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, thatSusm proceeded, in its origin and itsdevelopment.[39] Others have held that Susm is thestrict emulation of the way of Muhammad, throughwhich the heart's connection to the Divine isstrengthened.[40]More prosaically, the Muslim conquests had brought large numbers of Christianmonks and hermits, especially in Syria and Egypt, under the rule of Muslims.They retained a vigorous spiritual life for centuries after the conquests, and manyof the especially pious Muslims who founded Susm were inuenced by theirtechniques and methods.[41] According to late Medieval mystic Jami, Abd-Allahibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanayyah was the rst person to be called a "Su."[24]Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm binHian, Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib. Ruwaym, from the second generationof Sus in Baghdad, was also an inuential early gure,[42][43] as was Junayd ofBaghdad; a number of early practitioners of Susm were disciples of one of thetwo.[44]Susm had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization ofSu teachings into devotional orders (tarqt) in the early Middle Ages.[45] TheNaqshbandi order is a notable exception to general rule of orders tracing theirspiritual lineage through Muhammad's grandsons, as it traces the origin of itsteachings from Muhammad to the rst Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.[6]

Formalization of doctrineTowards the end of the rst millennium CE, a number of manuals began to bewritten summarizing the doctrines of Susm and describing some typical Su


7 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

The tomb of Khoja Afq, nearKashgar, China.

practices. Two of the most famous of these are now available in Englishtranslation: the Kashf al-Mahjb of Hujwiri, and the Risla of Qushayri.[46]Two of Imam Al Ghazali's greatest treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences"and the "Alchemy of Happiness", argued that Susm originated from the Qur'anand thus was compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any waycontradict Islamic Lawbeing instead necessary to its complete fulllment. Thisbecame the mainstream position among Islamic scholars for centuries, challengedonly recently on the basis of selective use of a limited body of texts. Ongoingeorts by both traditionally trained Muslim scholars and Western academics aremaking Imam Al-Ghazali's works available in English translation for the rsttime,[47] allowing English-speaking readers to judge for themselves thecompatibility of Islamic Law and Su doctrine.Growth of inuenceThe rise of Islamic civilization coincidesstrongly with the spread of Su philosophy inIslam. The spread of Susm has beenconsidered a denitive factor in the spread ofIslam, and in the creation of integrally Islamiccultures, especially in Africa[48] and Asia. TheSenussi tribes of Libya and Sudan are one ofthe strongest adherents of Susm. Su poetsand philosophers such as Khoja AkhmetYassawi, Rumi and Attar of Nishapur (c. 1145 c. 1221) greatly enhanced the spread of Islamicculture in Anatolia, Central Asia, and South Asia.[49][50] Susm also played a rolein creating and propagating the culture of the Ottoman world,[51] and in resistingEuropean imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.[52]Between the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Susm produced a ourishingintellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age" whose physicalartifacts survive. In many places a pious foundation would endow a lodge (knownvariously as a zaouia, khanqah, or tekke) in perpetuity (waqf) to provide agathering place for Su adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers ofknowledge. The same system of endowments could also pay for a complex ofbuildings, such as that surrounding the Sleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul,including a lodge for Su seekers, a hospice with kitchens where these seekerscould serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and otherstructures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaectedby Susm in this period.[53]


8 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Mawln Rumi's tomb,Konya, Turkey

PresentCurrent Su orders include Azeemia, Alians,Bektashi Order, Mevlevi Order, Ba 'Alawiyya,Chishti, Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi,Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya, Sarwari Qadiri,Shadhiliyya, Suhrawardiyya, Ashraa and Uwaisi(Oveyssi).[10] The relationship of Su orders tomodern societies is usually dened by theirrelationship to governments.[54]Turkey and Persia together have been a center formany Su lineages and orders. The Bektashi wasclosely aliated with the Ottoman Janissary and isthe heart of Turkey's large and mostly liberal Alevipopulation. It has been spread westwards to Cyprus, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria,Macedonia, Bosnia, Kosovo and more recently to the USA (via Albania). Most SuOrders have inuences from pre-Islamic traditions such as Pythagoreanism, butthe Turkic Su traditions (including Alians, Bektashi and Mevlevi) also havetraces of the ancient Tengrism shamanism.Susm is popular in such African countries as Morocco and Senegal, where it isseen as a mystical expression of Islam.[55] Susm is traditional in Morocco buthas seen a growing revival with the renewal of Susm around contemporaryspiritual teachers such as Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutshishi. Mbacke suggeststhat one reason Susm has taken hold in Senegal is because it can accommodatelocal beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical.[56]The life of the Algerian Su master Emir Abd al-Qadir is instructive in thisregard.[57] Notable as well are the lives of Amadou Bamba and Hajj Umar Tall insub-Saharan Africa, and Sheikh Mansur Ushurma and Imam Shamil in theCaucasus region. In the twentieth century some more modernist Muslims havecalled Susm a superstitious religion that holds back Islamic achievement in theelds of science and technology.[58]A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on thepath of Susm. One of the rst to return to Europe as an ocial representative ofa Su order, and with the specic purpose to spread Susm in Western Europe,was the Swedish-born wandering Su Abd al-Hadi Aqhili (also known as IvanAguli). Ren Gunon, the French scholar, became a Su in the early twentiethcentury and was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writingsdened the practice of Susm as the essence of Islam but also pointed to theuniversality of its message. Other spiritualists, such as G. I. Gurdjie, may or maynot conform to the tenets of Susm as understood by orthodox Muslims.


9 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

The works of Al-Ghazalirmly defended the conceptsof Susm within the Islamicfaith.

Other noteworthy Su teachers who have been active in the West in recent yearsinclude Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Inayat Khan, Nazim Al-Haqqani, Javad Nurbakhsh,Bulent Rauf, Irina Tweedie, Idries Shah, Muzaer Ozak, Nahid Angha and AliKianfar.Currently active Su academics and publishers include Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee,Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Abdullah Nooruddeen Durkee, Waheed Ashraf, Omer Tarinand Abdal Hakim Murad.

Theoretical perspectivesTraditional Islamic scholars have recognized twomajor branches within the practice of Susm, anduse this as one key to dierentiating among theapproaches of dierent masters and devotionallineages.[59]On the one hand there is the order from the signsto the Signier (or from the arts to the Artisan). Inthis branch, the seeker begins by purifying thelower self of every corrupting inuence that standsin the way of recognizing all of creation as thework of God, as God's active Self-disclosure ortheophany.[60] This is the way of Imam Al-Ghazaliand of the majority of the Su orders.On the other hand there is the order from theSignier to His signs, from the Artisan to Hisworks. In this branch the seeker experiencesdivine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter theorder with a glimpse of its endpoint, of directapprehension of the Divine Presence towardswhich all spiritual striving is directed. This doesnot replace the striving to purify the heart, as inthe other branch; it simply stems from a dierentpoint of entry into the path. This is the wayprimarily of the masters of the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.[61]Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the lateOttoman scholar Said Nursi and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary calledthe Risale-i Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad,in the understanding that this wont, or sunnah, proposes a complete devotionalspirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the Su way.[62]


10 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Contributions to other domains of scholarshipSusm has contributed signicantly to the elaboration of theoretical perspectivesin many domains of intellectual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of "subtlecenters" or centers of subtle cognition (known as Lataif-e-sitta) addresses thematter of the awakening of spiritual intuition[63] in ways that some considersimilar to certain models of chakra in Hinduism. In general, these subtle centersor lat'if are thought of as faculties that are to be puried sequentially in order tobring the seeker's wayfaring to completion. A concise and useful summary of thissystem from a living exponent of this tradition has been published by MuhammadEmin Er.[59]Su psychology has inuenced many areas of thinking both within and outside ofIslam, drawing primarily upon three concepts. Ja'far al-Sadiq (both an imam in theShia tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Su transmission in allIslamic sects) held that human beings are dominated by a lower self called thenafs, a faculty of spiritual intuition called the qalb or spiritual heart, and a spiritor soul called ruh. These interact in various ways, producing the spiritual types ofthe tyrant (dominated by nafs), the person of faith and moderation (dominated bythe spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for God (dominated by the ruh).[64]Of note with regard to the spread of Su psychology in the West is Robert Frager,a Su teacher authorized in the Khalwati Jerrahi order. Frager was a trainedpsychologist, born in the United States, who converted to Islam in the course ofhis practice of Susm and wrote extensively on Susm and psychology.[65]Su cosmology and Su metaphysics are also noteworthy areas of intellectualaccomplishment.

Devotional practicesThe devotional practices of Sus vary widely. This is because an acknowledgedand authorized master of the Su path is in eect a physician of the heart, able todiagnose the seeker's impediments to knowledge and pure intention in servingGod, and to prescribe to the seeker a course of treatment appropriate to his orher maladies. The consensus among Su scholars is that the seeker cannotself-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to undertake any of thesepractices alone and without formal authorization.[66]Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritualprayer in its ve prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth).Additionally, the seeker ought to be rmly grounded in supererogatory practicesknown from the life of Muhammad (such as the "sunna prayers"). This is inaccordance with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a famous Hadith


11 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Su gathering engaged in Dhikr

Qudsi:My servant draws near to Methrough nothing I love more thanthat which I have made obligatoryfor him. My servant never ceasesdrawing near to Me throughsupererogatory works until I lovehim. Then, when I love him, I am hishearing through which he hears, hissight through which he sees, hishand through which he grasps, andhis foot through which he walks.

It is also necessary for the seeker to havea correct creed (Aqidah),[67] and to embrace with certainty its tenets.[68] Theseeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the love ofcompany and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of thelower self. (The way in which this purication of the heart is achieved is outlinedin certain books, but must be prescribed in detail by a Su master.) The seekermust also be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds which haveaccrued to his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride,arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us tomend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and now).Su practices, while attractive to some, are not a means for gaining knowledge.The traditional scholars of Susm hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledgeof God is not a psychological state generated through breath control. Thus,practice of "techniques" is not the cause, but instead the occasion for suchknowledge to be obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and properguidance by a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices mayobscure a far more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a brokenperson, stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of ImamAl-Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.[69]

Magic has also been a part of Su practice, notably in India.[70] The most famousof all Sus, Mansur Al-Hallaj (d. 922), visited Sindh in order to study "IndianMagic", where he accepted Hindu ideas of cosmogony and divine descent and alsoseems to have believed in the Transmigration of the soul.[71] The practice ofmagic intensied during the declining years of Susm in India when the Suorders grew steadily in wealth and in political inuence while their spiritualitygradually declined and they concentrated on Saint worship, miracle working,magic and superstition.Dhikr


12 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Allah ashaving beenwritten onthe disciple'sheartaccording toQadiriAl-Muntahiorder

Main article: DhikrDhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur'an forall Muslims through a specic devotional act, such as therepetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms fromhadith literature and the Qur'an. More generally, dhikr takes awide range and various layers of meaning.[72] This includes dhikras any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God.To engage in dhikr is to practice consciousness of the DivinePresence and love, or "to seek a state of godwariness". TheQur'an refers to Muhammad as the very embodiment of dhikr ofGod (65:1011). Some types of dhikr are prescribed for allMuslims and do not require Su initiation or the prescription of aSu master because they are deemed to be good for every seekerunder every circumstance.[73]

Some Su orders[74] engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, orsema. Sema includes various forms of worship such as: recitation,singing (the most well known being the Qawwali music of theIndian subcontinent), instrumental music, dance (most famously the Su whirlingof the Mevlevi order), incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance.[75]Some Su orders stress and place extensive reliance upon Dhikr. This practice ofDhikr is called Dhikr-e-Qulb (invocation of God within the heartbeats). The basicidea in this practice is to visualize the Arabic name of God, Allah, as having beenwritten on the disciple's heart.[76]

MuraqabaMain article: Muraqaba

The practice of muraqaba can be likened to the practices of meditation attested inmany faith communities. The word muraqaba is derived from the same root (r-q-b)occurring as one of the 99 Names of God in the Qur'an, al-Raqb, meaning "theVigilant" and attested in verse 4:1 of the Qur'an. Through muraqaba, a personwatches over or takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires knowledge about it,and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence, which is ever vigilant.While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandilineage reads as follows:

He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to cuthimself o from all preoccupation and notions that inict themselvesupon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full consciousness towardsGod Most High while saying three times: "Ilah anta maqsd wa-ridka


13 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

matlbmy God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what Iseek". Then he brings to his heart the Name of the EssenceAllhandas it courses through his heart he remains attentive to its meaning,which is "Essence without likeness". The seeker remains aware that Heis Present, Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying themeaning of his saying (may God bless him and grant him peace):"Worship God as though you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He seesyou". And likewise the prophetic tradition: "The most favored level offaith is to know that God is witness over you, wherever you may be".[77]

VisitationIn popular Susm (i.e., devotional practices that have achieved currency in worldcultures through Su inuence), one common practice is to visit or makepilgrimages to the tombs of saints, great scholars, and righteous people. This is aparticularly common practice in South Asia, where famous tombs include those ofKhoja Afq, near Kashgar, in China; Lal Shahbaz Qalander, in Sindh,Ali Hajwari inLahore Bawaldin Zikrya in Multan Pakistan; Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India;Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India, and Shah Jalal in Sylhet, Bangladesh. Likewise,in Fez, Morocco, a popular destination for such pious visitation is the ZaouiaMoulay Idriss II and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh of the QadiriBoutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate theMawlid (which is usually televised on Moroccan National television).

PersecutionSee also: Su-Sala relations

Sus and Susm has been subject to destruction of Su shrines and mosques,suppression of orders and discrimination against adherents in a number ofMuslim countries where most Sus live. The Turkish Republican state banned allthe dierent Su orders and closed their institutions in 1925 after Sus opposedthe new secular order. The Iranian Islamic Republic has harassed Shia Su,reportedly for their lack of support for the government doctrine of "velayat-efaqih" (i.e., that the supreme Shiite jurist should be the nation's political leader).In most other Muslim countries, attacks on Sus and especially their shrines hascome from some Muslims from the more puritanical schools of thought whobelieve Su practices such as celebration of the birthdays of Su saints, andDhikr ("remembrance" of God) ceremonies[78] are Bidah or impure innovation,and polytheistic (Shirk).[79][80]

HistoryDuring the Safavid era of Iran, "both the wandering dervishes of 'low' Susm" and


14 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

"the philosopher-ulama of 'high' Susm came under relentless pressure" frompower cleric Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (d1110/1699). Majlisi"one of the mostpowerful and inuential" Twelver Shi'a ulama "of all time"was famous (foramong other things), suppression of Susm, which he and his followers believedpaid insucient attention to Shariah law. Prior to Majlisi's rise, Shiism and Susmhad been "closely linked".[81]In 1843, the Senussi Su were forced to ee Mecca and Medina and head toSudan and Libya.[19][82]Before the First World War there were almost 100,000 disciples of the Mevleviorder throughout the Ottoman empire. But in 1925, as part of his desire to createa modern, western-orientated, secular state, Atatrk banned all the dierent Suorders and closed their tekkes. Pious foundations were suspended and theirendowments expropriated; Su hospices were closed and their contents seized;all religious titles were abolished and dervish clothes outlawed. ... In 1937,Atatrk went even further, prohibiting by law any form of traditional music,especially the playing of the ney, the Sus' reed ute.[83][84]

Current attacksIn recent years, Su shrines, and sometimes Su mosques, have been damaged ordestroyed in many parts of the Muslim world. Some Su adherents have beenkilled as well. Ali Gomaa, a Su scholar and Grand Mufti of Al Azhar, hascriticized the destruction of shrines and public property as unacceptable.[85]

PakistanSince March 2005, 209 people have been killed and 560 injured in 29 dierentterrorist attacks targeting shrines devoted to Su saints in Pakistan, according todata compiled by the Center for Islamic Research Collaboration and Learning(CIRCLe).[86] At least as of 2010, the attacks have increased each year. Theattacks are generally attributed to banned militant organizations of Deobandi orAhl-e-Hadith (Sala) backgrounds.[87] (Primarily Deobandi background accordingto another sourceauthor John R. Schmidt).[88] Deobandi and Barelvi being the"two major sub-sects" of Sunni Muslims in South Asia[89] that have clashedsometimes violentlysince the late 1970s in Pakistan.[89] Although Barelvi arefully described as Sunni Sus,[90] whether the destruction and death is a result ofDeobandi's banned militant organizations persecution of Sus(Barelvus).[91])In 2005, the militant organizations began attacking "symbols" of the Barelvicommunity such as mosques, prominent religious leaders, and shrines.[87]


15 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Timeline

200519 March: a suicide bomber kills at least 35 people and injured many more atthe shrine of Pir Rakhel Shah in remote village of Fatehpur located in JhalMagsi District of Balochistan. The dead included Shia and sunni devotees.[92]27 May: As many as 20 people are killed and 100 injured when a suicide-bomber attacks a gathering at Bari Imam Shrine during the annual festival.The dead were mainly Shia.[93] According to the police members of Sipah-i-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP) and Lashkar-i-Jhangvi (LJ) were involved.[94] Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP), were arrested from Thanda Pani and police seizedtwo hand grenades from their custody.[95][96]

200611 April: A suicide-bomber attacked a celebration of the birthday ofMuhammad (Eid Mawlid un Nabi) in Karachi's Nishtar Park organised by theBarelvi Jamaat Ahle Sunnat. 57 died including almost the entire leadership ofthe Sunni Tehrik; over 100 were injured.[97] Three people associated withLashkar-i-Jhangvi were put on trial for the bombing.[98] (see: Nishtar Parkbombing)

200718 December: The shrine of Abdul Shakoor Malang Baba is demolished byexplosives.[99]

2008March 3: ten villagers killed in a rocket attack on the 400-year-old shrine ofAbu Saeed Baba. Lashkar-e-Islam takes credit.[99]

200917 February: Agha Jee shot and killed in Peshwar, the fourth faith healerkilled over several months in Pakistan. Earlier Pir Samiullah was killed inSwat by the Taliban 16 December 2008. His dead body was later exhumed


16 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

and desecrated. Pir Raullah was kidnapped from Nowshera and hisbeheaded body was found in Matani area of Peshawar. Pir Juma Khan waskidnapped from Dir Lower and his beheaded body was found near Swat.[100]Faith healing is associated with Su Islam in PakistanPakistani faith healers are known as pirs, a term that applies to thedescendants of Su Muslim saints. Under Susm, those descendants arethought to serve as conduits to God. The popularity of pirs as a viablehealthcare alternative stems from the fact that, in much of ruralPakistan, clinics don't exist or are dismissed as unreliable.[101]

and suppressing it has been a cause of "extremist" Muslims there.[102]

March 5: The shrine of Rahman Baba, "the most famous Su Pashtolanguage poet", razed to the ground by Taliban militants "partly becauselocal women had been visiting the shrine".[99][103]8 March: Attack on shrine of "famous Su poet" Rahman Baba in Peshawar."The high intensity device almost destroyed the grave of the Rehman Babaand the gates of a mosque, canteen and conference hall situated in thespacious Rehman Baba Complex. Police said the bombers had tied explosivesaround the pillars of the tombs, to pull down the mausoleum".[104]May 8: shrine of Shaykh Omar Baba destroyed.[99][105]12 June: Mufti Sarfraz Ahmed Naeemi killed by suicide bomber in Lahore. Aleading Sunni Islamic cleric in Pakistan he was well known for his moderateviews and for publicly denouncing the Talibans beheadings and suicidebombings as "un-Islamic".[106]

201022 June: Taliban militants blow up the Mian Umar Baba shrine in Peshawar.No fatalities reported.[99][107]1 July: Multiple bombings of Data Durbar Complex Su shrine, in Lahore,Punjab. Two suicide bombers blew themselves up killing at least 50 peopleand injuring 200 others.[99]7 October: 10 people killed, 50 injured in a double suicide bombing attack onAbdullah Shah Ghazi shrine in Karachi[108]


17 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

7 October: The tomb of Baba Fariddudin Ganj Shakkar in Pakpattan isattacked. Six people were killed and 15 others injured.[99]25 October: 6 killed, and at least 12 wounded in an attack on the shrine of12th-century saint, Baba Farid Ganj Shakar in Pakpattan.[109]14 December: Attack on Ghazi Baba shrine in Peshawar, 3 killed.[110]

20113 February: Remote-controlled device is triggered as food is beingdistributed among the devotees outside the Baba Haider Saieen shrine inLahore, Punjab. At least three people were killed and 27 others injured.[99]3 April: Twin suicide attack leaves 42 dead and almost a hundred injuredduring the annual Urs festival at shrine of 13th century Su saint SakhiSarwar (a.k.a. Ahmed Sultan) in the Dera Ghazi Khan district of Punjabprovince. Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) claims responsibility for the attack.[99][111]

201221 June: Bomb kills three people and injures 31 others at the Pinza Piranshrine in Hazarkhwani in (Peshwar). "A police ocial said the bomb wasplanted in a donkey-cart that went o in the afternoon when a large numberof people were visiting the popular shrine".[112]

Kashmir, India

In this predominately Muslim, traditionally Su region,[113] some six places ofworship have been either completely or partially burnt in "mysterious res" inseveral months leading up to November 2012.[114] The most prominent victim ofdamage was the Dastageer Sahib Su shrine in Srinagar which burned in June2012, injuring 20.[115] While investigators have so far found no sign of arson,according to journalist Amir Rana the res have occurred within the context of asurging Sala movement which preaches that "Kashmiri tradition of veneratingthe tombs and relics of saints is outside the pale of Islam".[114]

mourners outside the burning shrine cursed the Salas for creating anatmosphere of hate, [while] some Salas began posting incendiarymessages on Facebook, terming the destruction of the shrine a "divine


18 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

act of God".[114]

Somalia

Under the Al-Shabab rule in Somali, Su ceremonies were banned[116] andshrines destroyed (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zyJYUr8MQGQ).[117] As thepower of Al-Shabab has waned, however, Su ceremonies are said to have"re-emerged".[113]

MaliIn the ancient city of Timbuktu, sometimes called "the city of 333 saints",UNESCO reports that as many as half of the city's shrines "have been destroyedin a display of fanaticism", as of July 2012. A spokesman for Ansar Dine has statedthat "the destruction is a divine order", and that the group had plans to destroyevery single Su shrine in the city, "without exception".[118] In Gao and Kidal, aswell as Timbuktu, Sala Islamists have destroyed musical instruments and drivenmusicians (music is not Haraam under Su Islam) into "economic exile" awayfrom Mali.[119]International Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda described theIslamists' actions as a "war crime".[120][121]

EgyptA May 2010 ban by the ministry of awqaf (religious endowments) of centuries oldSu dhikr gatherings (devoted to the remembrance of God, and including dancingand religious songs) has been described as a "another victory for extreme Salathinking at the expense of Egypt's moderate Susm". Clashes followed at Cairo'sAl-Hussein Mosque and al-Sayyida Zeinab mosques between members of Suorders and security forces who forced them to evacuate the two shrines.[78] In2009, the moulid of al-Sayyida Zeinab, Muhammad's granddaughter, was bannedostensibly over concern over the spread of swine u[122] but also at the urging ofSalas.[78]According to Gaber Qassem, deputy of the Su Orders, approximately 14 shrineshave been violated in Egypt since the January 2011 revolution. According toSheikh Tarek El-Rifai, head of the Rifai Su Order, a number of Salas haveprevented Su prayers in Al-Haram. Sheikh Rifai said that the order's lawyer hasled a report at the Al-Haram police station to that eect. In early April 2011, aSu march from Al-Azhar Mosque to Al-Hussein Mosque was followed by amassive protest before Al-Hussein Mosque, "expressing outrage at the


19 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

destruction" of Su shrines. The Islamic Research Centre of Egypt, led by GrandImam of Al-Azhar Ahmed El-Tayeb, has also renounced the attacks on theshrines.[80] According to the Muslim Brotherhood website ikhwanweb.com, in2011 "a memorandum was submitted to the Armed Forces" citing 20"encroachments" on Su shrines.[85]

LibyaFollowing the overthrow of Muammar Gadda, several Su religious sites in Libyawere deliberately destroyed or damaged.[123] In the weeks leading up toSeptember 2012, "armed groups motivated by their religious views" attacked Sureligious sites across the country, "destroying several mosques and tombs of Sureligious leaders and scholars".[124] Perpetrators were described as "groups thathave a strict Islamic ideology where they believe that graves and shrines must bedesecrated." Libyan Interior Minister Fawzi Abdel A'al, was quoted as saying, "Ifall shrines in Libya are destroyed so we can avoid the death of one person [inclashes with security forces], then that is a price we are ready to pay."[124]In September 2012, three people were killed in clashes between residents ofRajma (50 km south-east of Benghazi) and "Salast Islamists" trying to destroy aSu shrine in Rajma, the Sidi al-La mausoleum.[125] In August 2012 the UnitedNations cultural agency Unesco urged Libyan authorities to protect Su mosquesand shrines from attacks by Islamic hardliners "who consider the traditionalmystical school of Islam heretical". The attacked have "wrecked mosques in atleast three cities and desecrated many graves of revered Su scholars".[126]

TunisiaIn an article on the rise of Salasm in Tunisia, the media site Al-Monitor reportedthat 39 Su shrines were destroyed or desecrated in Tunisia, from the 2011revolution to January 2013.[127]

Russia, DagestanSaid Atsayevalso known as Sheikh Said Afandi al-Chirkavia prominent74-year-old Su Muslim spiritual leader in Dagestan Russia, was killed by asuicide bombing August 28, 2012 along with six of his followers. His murderfollows "similar religiously-motivated killings" in Dagestan and other regions ofex-Soviet Central Asia, targeting religious leadersnot necessarily Suwho arehostile to violent jihad. Afandi had survived previous attempts on his life and wasreportedly in the process of negotiating a peace agreement between the Sus andSalas.[128] [129][130]


20 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

IranThe book Mystic Regimes. Susm and the State in Iran, from the late Qajar era tothe Islamic Republic by Matthijs van den Bos discusses the status of Susm inIran in the 19th and 20th century.[131] According to Seyed Mostafa Azmayesh, anexpert on Susm and the representative of the Ni'matullh order outside Iran, acampaign against the Sus in Iran (or at least Shia Sus) began in 2005 whenseveral books were published arguing that because Sus follow their ownspiritual leaders do not believe in the Islamic state's principle of "velayat-e faqih"(i.e., that the supreme Shiite jurist should be the nation's political leader), Susshould be treated as second-class citizens. They should not be allowed to havegovernment jobs, and if they already have them, should be identied andred.[132]Since 2005 the Ni'matullh orderIran's largest Su orderhave come underincreasing state pressure. Three of their houses of worship have been demolished.Ocials accused the Sus of not having building permits and of narcoticspossessioncharges the Sus reject.[132]The government of Iran is considering an outright ban on Susm, according to the2009 Annual Report of the United States Commission on International ReligiousFreedom.[133] It also reports:

In February 2009, at least 40 Sus in Isfahan were arrested afterprotesting the destruction of a Su place of worship; all were releasedwithin days.In January, Jamshid Lak, a Gonabadi Dervish from the Nematollahi Suorder was ogged 74 times after being convicted in 2006 of slanderfollowing his public allegation of ill-treatment by a Ministry ofIntelligence ocial.In late December 2008, after the closure of a Su place of worship,authorities arrested without charge at least six members of theGonabadi Dervishes on Kish Island and conscated their books andcomputer equipment; their status is unknown.In November 2008, Amir Ali Mohammad Labaf was sentenced to ave-year prison term, 74 lashes, and internal exile to the southeasterntown of Babak for spreading lies, based on his membership in theNematollahi Gonabadi Su order.In October, at least seven Su Muslims in Isfahan, and ve others inKaraj, were arrested because of their aliation with the NematollahiGonabadi Su order; they remain in detention.


21 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti,Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, UttarPradesh, India.

In November 2007, clashes in the western city of Borujerd betweensecurity forces and followers of a mystic Su order resulted in dozens ofinjuries and the arrests of approximately 180 Su Muslims. The clashesoccurred after authorities began bulldozing a Su monastery. It isunclear how many remain in detention or if any charges have beenbrought against those arrested. During the past year, there werenumerous reports of Shi'a clerics and prayer leaders, particularly inQom, denouncing Susm and the activities of Su Muslims in thecountry in both sermons and public statements.[133]

In 2009 the mausoleum of the 19th century Su poet Nasir Ali and an adjoiningSu prayer house were bulldozed.[134]Not all Sus in Iran have been subject to government pressure. Sunni dervishorderssuch as the Qhaderi dervishesin the Sunni-populated parts of thecountry are thought by some to be seen as allies of the government againstAl-Qaeda.[132]

Islam and SusmSusm and Islamic law

Scholars and adherents of Susm sometimesdescribe Susm in terms of a threefold approachto God as explained by a tradition (hadth)attributed to Muhammad,"The Canon is my word,the order is my deed, and the truth is my interiorstate". Sus believe the sharia (exoteric "canon"),tariqa (esoteric "order") and haqiqa ("truth") aremutually interdependent.[135]The tariqa, the 'path' on which the mystics walk,has been dened as 'the path which comes out ofthe sharia, for the main road is called branch, thepath, tariq.' No mystical experience can berealized if the binding injunctions of the sharia are

not followed faithfully rst. The tariqa however, is narrower and more dicult towalk.It leads the adept, called salik or "wayfarer", in his sulk or "road" throughdierent stations (maqmt) until he reaches his goal, the perfect tawhd, theexistential confession that God is One.[136] Shaykh al-Akbar Muhiuddeen IbnArabi mentions, "When we see someone in this Community who claims to be ableto guide others to God, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law even if he


22 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

manifests miracles that stagger the mind asserting that his shortcoming is aspecial dispensation for him, we do not even turn to look at him, for such a personis not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted with thesecrets of God Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred Law arepreserved. (Jami' karamat al-awliya')".[137]The Amman Message, a detailed statement issued by 200 leading Islamic scholarsin 2005 in Amman, and adopted by the Islamic world's political and temporalleaderships at the Organisation of the Islamic Conference summit at Mecca inDecember 2005, and by six other international Islamic scholarly assembliesincluding the International Islamic Fiqh Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006,specically recognized the validity of Susm as a part of Islamhowever thedenition of Susm can vary drastically between dierent traditions (what may beintended is simple tazkiah as opposed to the various manifestations of Susmaround the Islamic world).[138]

Traditional Islamic thought and SusmThe literature of Susm emphasizes highly subjective matters that resist outsideobservation, such as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist directreference or description, with the consequence that the authors of various Sutreatises took recourse to allegorical language. For instance, much Su poetryrefers to intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage of indirectlanguage and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training inIslam or Susm led to doubts being cast over the validity of Susm as a part ofIslam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the Shariaand discussed Susm as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order toattain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars.For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholarsand Susm is complex and a range of scholarly opinion on Susm in Islam hasbeen the norm. Some scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, helped its propagation whileother scholars opposed it. W. Chittick explains the position of Susm and Susthis way:

In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understandingthe normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, andthose who held that the most important task was to train the mind inachieving correct understanding came to be divided into three mainschools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Susm. This leaves us withthe third domain of human existence, the spirit. Most Muslims whodevoted their major eorts to developing the spiritual dimensions of thehuman person came to be known as Sus.

Traditional and Neo-Su groups


23 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

The mausoleum (gongbei) ofMa Laichi in Linxia City,China.

The traditional Su orders, which are in majority,emphasize the role of Susm as a spiritualdiscipline within Islam. Therefore, the Sharia(traditional Islamic law) and the Sunnah are seenas crucial for any Su aspirant. One prooftraditional orders assert is that almost all thefamous Su masters of the past Caliphates wereexperts in Sharia and were renowned as peoplewith great Iman (faith) and excellent practice.Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) incourts. They held that Susm was never distinctfrom Islam and to fully comprehend and practiceSusm one must be an observant Muslim."Neo-Susm" and "universal Susm" are termsused to denote forms of Susm that do not requireadherence to Shariah, or a Muslim faith. The termsare not always accepted by those it is applied to.The Universal Susm movement was founded byInayat Khan, teaches the essential unity of allfaiths, and accepts members of all creeds. SusmReoriented is an oshoot of Khan's Western Susm inuenced by the syncretisticteacher Meher Baba. The Golden Su Center exists in England, Switzerland andthe United States. It was founded by Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee to continue the workof his teacher Irina Tweedie, herself a disciple of the Hindu Naqshbandi Su BhaiSahib. The Afghan-Scottish teacher Idries Shah has been described as a neo-Suby the Gurdjiean James Moore.[139] Other Western Su organisations includethe Su Foundation of America and the International Association of Susm.Western Su practice may dier from traditional forms, for instance havingmixed-gender meetings and less emphasis on the Qur'an.

Prominent SusAbul Hasan al-ShadhiliAbul Hasan al-Shadhili (died 1258 CE), the founder of the Shadhiliyya Su order,introduced dhikr jahri (The method of remembering Allah through loud means).Su orders generally preach to deny oneself and to destroy the ego-self (nafs) andits worldly desires. This is sometimes characterized as the "Order of Patience-Tariqus Sabr". In contrast, Imam Shadhili taught that his followers need notabstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be grateful for what God hasbestowed upon them.[140] This notion, known as the "Order of Gratitude-TariqushShukr", was espoused by Imam Shadhili. Imam Shadhili gave eighteen valuable


24 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Geometric arabesque tiling on theunderside of the dome of Haz'stomb in Shiraz.

A manuscript of Su Islamictheology, Shams al-Ma'arif(translated as "The Book ofthe Sun of Gnosis") waswritten by the Algerian Sumaster Ahmad al-Buni duringthe 12th century

hizbs (litanies) to his followers out of which the notable Hizbul Bahr[141] is recitedworldwide even today.Abd al-Qadir al-JilaniAl-Sayyid Muhiyudin Abu Muhammad AbdalQadir Al-Jilani Al-Hasani Wal-Hussaini (born 11Rabi al-Thani, 470 Hijri, in the town of Na'if,district of Gilan, Ilam Province Or Amol ofTabarestan, Persia, died 8 Rabi al-Awwal 561AH, in Baghdad,[1] (10771166 CE), was aPersian Hanbali jurist and Su based inBaghdad. Qadiriyya was his patronym. Al Gilanispent his early life in Na'if, the town of hisbirth. There, he pursued the study of Hanbalilaw. Abu Ali al-Mukharrimi gave Al Gilanilessons in Fiqh. He was given lessons aboutHadith by Abu Bakr ibn Muzaar. He was givenlessons about Tafsir by Abu Muhammad Ja'far, acommentator. In Tasawwuf, his spiritual instructorwas Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas.After completing his education, Gilani leftBaghdad. He spent twenty-ve years as a reclusivewanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127, AlGilani returned to Baghdad and began to preach tothe public. He joined the teaching sta of theschool belonging to his own teacher,al-Mukharrimii,and was popular with students. Inthe morning he taught hadith and tafsir, and in theafternoon he held discourse on the science of theheart and the virtues of the Qur'an. He was said tohave been a convincing preacher and convertednumerous Jews and Christians. His strength camein the reconciling of the mystical nature of the Suand strict nature of the Qur'an. He felt it importantto control egotism and worldliness in submission toGod.Bayazid BastamiBayazid Bastami (died 874 CE) is considered to be"of the six bright stars in the rmament of theProphet", and a link in the Golden Chain of theNaqshbandi Tariqah. He is regarded as the rstmystic to openly speak of the annihilation (fan') of the base self in the Divine,


25 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

whereby the mystic becomes fully absorbed to the point of becoming unaware ofhimself or the objects around him. Every existing thing seems to vanish, and hefeels free of every barrier that could stand in the way of his viewing theRemembered One. In one of these states, Bastami cried out: "Praise to Me, for Mygreatest Glory!" His belief in the unity of all religions became apparent whenasked the question: "How does Islam view other religions?" His reply was "All arevehicles and a path to God's Divine Presence".Ibn ArabiMuhyiddin Muhammad b. 'Ali Ibn 'Arabi (or Ibn al-'Arabi) AH 561- AH 638 (July28, 1165 November 10, 1240) is considered to be one of the most important Sumasters, although he never founded any order (tariqa). His writings, especiallyal-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied within all the Suorders as the clearest expression of tawhid (Divine Unity), though because oftheir recondite nature they were often only given to initiates. Later those whofollowed his teaching became known as the school of wahdat al-wujud (theOneness of Being). He himself considered his writings to have been divinelyinspired. As he expressed the Way to one of his close disciples, his legacy is that'you should never ever abandon your servanthood ('ubudiyya), and that there maynever be in your soul a longing for any existing thing'.[142]

Junayd BaghdadiJunayd Baghdadi (830910 CE) was one of the great early Sus, and is a centralgure in the golden chain of many Su orders. He laid the groundwork for sobermysticism in contrast to that of God-intoxicated Sus like al-Hallaj, BayazidBastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. During the trial of al-Hallaj, his former disciple,the Caliph of the time demanded his fatwa. In response, he issued this fatwa:"From the outward appearance he is to die and we judge according to theoutward appearance and God knows better". He is referred to by Sus asSayyid-ut Taifai.e., the leader of the group. He lived and died in the city ofBaghdad.Moinuddin ChishtiHe was born in 1141 and died in 1236 CE. Also known as Gharb Nawz"Benefactor of the Poor", he is the most famous Su saint of the Chishti Order ofthe Indian Subcontinent. Moinuddin Chishti introduced and established the orderin the subcontinent. The initial spiritual chain or silsila of the Chishti order inIndia, comprising Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, NizamuddinAuliya (each successive person being the disciple of the previous one), constitutesthe great Su saints of Indian history. Moinuddin Chisht turned towards India,reputedly after a dream in which Prophet Muhammad blessed him to do so. Aftera brief stay at Lahore, he reached Ajmer along with Sultan Shahb-ud-Din


26 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

A choreographed Superformance on Friday atSudan.

Muhammad Ghori, and settled down there.[4] In Ajmer, he attracted a substantialfollowing, acquiring a great deal of respect amongst the residents of the city.Moinuddin Chisht practiced the Su Sulh-e-Kul (peace to all) concept to promoteunderstanding between Muslims and non-MuslimsMansur al-HallajMansur al-Hallaj (died 922 CE) is renowned for his claim "Ana-l-Haqq" (I am TheTruth). His refusal to recant this utterance, which was regarded as apostasy, ledto a long trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad prison, before beingtortured and publicly dismembered on March 26, 922. He is still revered by Susfor his willingness to embrace torture and death rather than recant. It is said thatduring his prayers, he would say "O Lord! You are the guide of those who arepassing through the Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge myheresy".[143]

ReceptionPerception outside IslamSu mysticism has long exercised a fascinationupon the Western world, and especially itsorientalist scholars.[144] Figures like Rumi havebecome well known in the United States, whereSusm is perceived as a peaceful and apoliticalform of Islam.[144]The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany,which works towards the integration of Europeand Muslims, sees Susm as particularly suited forinterreligious dialogue and interculturalharmonisation in democratic and pluralistsocieties; it has described Susm as a symbol oftolerance and humanismnondogmatic, exibleand non-violent.[145]

Inuence on JudaismSee also: Jewish philosophy

Both Judaism and Islam are monotheistic. However, there is evidence that Susmdid inuence the development of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. Agreat inuence was exercised by Susm upon the ethical writings of Jews in the


27 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Middle Ages. In the rst writing of this kind, we see "Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'ial-ulub", Duties of the Heart, of Bahya ibn Paquda. This book was translated byJudah ibn Tibbon into Hebrew under the title "ovot ha-Levavot".[146]

The precepts prescribed by the Torah number 613 only; those dictatedby the intellect are innumerable.

This was precisely the argument used by the Sus against their adversaries, theUlamas. The arrangement of the book seems to have been inspired by Susm. Itsten sections correspond to the ten stages through which the Su had to pass inorder to attain that true and passionate love of God which is the aim and goal ofall ethical self-discipline. A considerable amount of Su ideas entered the Jewishmainstream through Bahya ibn Paquda's work, which remains one of the mostpopular ethical treatises in Judaism.It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sus Al-Kusajri and Al-Harawithere are sections which treat of the same subjects as those treated in the "ovotha-Lebabot" and which bear the same titles: e.g., "Bab al-Tawakkul"; "Babal-Taubah"; "Bab al-Muasabah"; "Bab al-Tawau'"; "Bab al-Zuhd". In the ninthgate, Baya directly quotes sayings of the Sus, whom he calls Perushim.However, the author of the ovot ha-Levavot did not go so far as to approve of theasceticism of the Sus, although he showed a marked predilection for theirethical principles.The Jewish writer Abraham bar iyya teaches the asceticism of the Sus. Hisdistinction with regard to the observance of Jewish law by various classes of menis essentially a Suc theory. According to it there are four principal degrees ofhuman perfection or sanctity; namely:

1. of "Shari'ah", i.e., of strict obedience to all ritual laws of Islam, such asprayer, fasting, pilgrimage, almsgiving, ablution, etc., which is the lowestdegree of worship, and is attainable by all2. of ariqah, which is accessible only to a higher class of men who, whilestrictly adhering to the outward or ceremonial injunctions of religion, rise toan inward perception of mental power and virtue necessary for the nearerapproach to the Divinity3. of "aikah", the degree attained by those who, through continuouscontemplation and inward devotion, have risen to the true perception of thenature of the visible and invisible; who, in fact, have recognized theGodhead, and through this knowledge have succeeded in establishing anecstatic relation to it; and4. of the "Ma'arifah", in which state man communicates directly with the


28 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Deity.Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, the son of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides,believed that Su practices and doctrines continue the tradition of the Biblicalprophets. See Sefer HaMaspik, "HaPrishut", Chapter 11 ("Ha-maavak") s.v.hitbonen eifo bi-masoret muaah zu, citing the Talmudic explanation of Jeremiah13:27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov Wincelbergs translation, "The Way ofServing God" (Feldheim), p. 429 and above, p. 427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10("Ikkuvim"), s.v. va-halo yodea atah; in "The Way of Serving God", p. 371. Thereare other such references in Rabbi Abrahams writings, as well.> He introducedinto the Jewish prayer such practices as reciting God's names (dhikr).Abraham Maimuni's principal work is originally composed in Judeo-Arabic andentitled " " Kitb Kifyah al-'bidn ("A Comprehensive Guide for theServants of God"). From the extant surviving portion it is conjectured thatMaimuni's treatise was three times as long as his father's Guide for the Perplexed.In the book, Maimuni evidences a great appreciation for, and anity to, Susm.Followers of his path continued to foster a Jewish-Su form of pietism for at leasta century, and he is rightly considered the founder of this pietistic school, whichwas centered in Egypt.The followers of this path, which they called, interchangeably, Hasidism (not toconfuse with the latter Jewish Hasidic movement) or Susm (Tasawwuf),practiced spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and sleep deprivation. The JewishSus maintained their own brotherhood, guided by a religious leaderlike a Susheikh.[147]Abraham Maimuni's two sons, Obadyah and David, continued to lead thisJewish-Su brotherhood. Obadyah Maimonides wrote Al-Mawala Al Hawdiyya("The Treatise of the Pool")an ethico-mystical manual based on the typically Sucomparison of the heart to a pool that must be cleansed before it can experiencethe Divine.The Maimonidean legacy extended right through to the 15th century with the 5thgeneration of Maimonidean Sus, David ben Joshua Maimonides, who wroteAl-Murshid ila al-Tafarrud (The Guide to Detachment), which includes numerousextracts of Suhrawardi's Kalimat at-Tasawwuf.

In popular cultureFilmsIn The Jewel of the Nile (1985), the eponymous Jewel is a Su holy man.In Hideous Kinky (1998), Julia (Kate Winslet) travels to Morocco to explore Susm


29 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Friday evening ceremony atDargah Salim Chisti, India.

and a journey to self-discovery.In Monsieur Ibrahim (2003), Omar Sharif's character professes to be a Muslim inthe Su tradition.Bab'Aziz (2005), a lm by Tunisian director Nacer Khemir, draws heavily on theSu tradition, containing quotes from Su poets such as Rumi and depicting anecstatic Su dance.Music

Abida Parveen, a Pakistani Su singer is one of theforemost exponents of Su music, together withNusrat Fateh Ali Khan are considered the nestSu vocalists of the modern era. Sanam Marvianother Pakistani singer has recently gainedrecognition for her Su vocal performances.A. R. Rahman, the Oscar-winning Indian musician,has several compositions which draw inspirationfrom the Su genre; examples are the lmiqawwalis Khwaja Mere Khwaja in the lm JodhaaAkbar, Arziyan in the lm Delhi 6 and Kun FayaKun in the lm Rockstar.

Bengali singer Lalan Fakir and Bangladesh's national poet Kazi Nazrul Islamscored several Su songs.Junoon, a band from Pakistan, created the genre of Su rock by combiningelements of modern hard rock and traditional folk music with Su poetry.In 2005, Rabbi Shergill released a Su rock song called "Bulla Ki Jaana", whichbecame a chart-topper in India and Pakistan.[148][149]Madonna, on her 1994 record Bedtime Stories, sings a song called "BedtimeStory" that discusses achieving a high unconsciousness level. The video for thesong shows an ecstatic Su ritual with many dervishes dancing, Arabiccalligraphy and some other Su elements. In her 1998 song "Bittersweet", sherecites Rumi's poem by the same name. In her 2001 Drowned World Tour,Madonna sang the song "Secret" showing rituals from many religions, including aSu dance.Singer/songwriter Loreena McKennitt's record The Mask and Mirror (1994) has asong called "The Mystic's Dream" that is inuenced by Su music and poetry. Theband mewithoutYou has made references to Su parables, including the name oftheir album It's All Crazy! It's All False! It's All a Dream! It's Alright (2009). Tori


30 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Amos makes a reference to Sus in her song "Cruel".Mercan Dede is a Turkish composer who incorporates Susm into his music andperformances.LiteratureThe Persian poet Rumi has become one of the most widely read poets in theUnited States, thanks largely to the interpretative translations published byColeman Barks.[150] Elif Safak's novel The Forty Rules of Love tells the story ofRumi becoming a disciple of the Persian Su dervish Shams Tabrizi.

Modern and contemporary Su scholarsArabian Peninsula

Abdallah Bin Bayyah (b. 1935) Saudi ArabiaHabib Ali al-Jifri (b. 1971) YemenHabib Umar bin Haz (b. 1962) YemenMuhammad Alawi al-Maliki (19442004) Saudi Arabia

Levant and AfricaAbd al-Hamid Kishk (19331996) EgyptAbdalqadir as-Su (b. 1930) South AfricaAbd al-Rahman al-Shaghouri (19122004) SyriaAhmad al-Alawi (18691934) AlgeriaAhmad Tijani Ali Cisse (b. 1955) SenegalAhmed el-Tayeb (b. 1946) EgyptAli Gomaa (b. 1951) EgyptAmadou Bamba (1853-1927) SenegalGibril Haddad (b. 1960) LebanonHassan Ciss (19452008) SenegalMuhammad al-Yaqoubi (b. 1963) SyriaMuhammad ibn al-Habib (18761972) MoroccoMuhammad Sayyid Tantawy (19282010) EgyptNuh Ha Mim Keller (b. 1954) JordanShawki Ibrahim Abdel-Karim Allam Egypt


31 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Wahba Zuhayli (b. 1932) SyriaYusuf an-Nabhani (18491932) Palestine

Western EuropeAbdal Hakim Murad (b. 1960) United KingdomAhmed Babiker United KingdomFrithjof Schuon (19071998) SwitzerlandIdries Shah (19241996) United KingdomLlewellyn Vaughan-Lee (b. 1953) United KingdomMartin Lings (19092005) United KingdomMuhammad Imdad Hussain Pirzada (b. 1946) United Kingdom

Eastern EuropeHseyin Hilmi Ik (19112001) TurkeyNazim Al-Haqqani (b. 1922) TurkeySaid Afandi al-Chirkawi (19372012) DagestanSaid Nurs (18781960) Turkey

North AmericaAhmed Tijani Ben Omar (b. 1950) United StatesHamza Yusuf (b. 1960) United StatesHisham Kabbani (b. 1945) United StatesHossein Nasr (b. 1933) United StatesKabir Helminski (b. 1942) United StatesM. A. Muqtedar Khan (b. 1966) United StatesMuhammad bin Yahya al-Ninowy (b. 1966) United StatesNahid Angha (b. 1945) United StatesNooruddeen Durkee (b. 1938) United StatesZaid Shakir (b. 1956) United StatesAli Kianfar (b. 1944) United States

South Asia


32 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Dr. Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri (b. 1951) - PakistanAhmed Ullah Maizbhanderi (18261906) BangladeshAhmed Raza Khan (18561921) IndiaAkhtar Raza Khan (b. 1943) IndiaKhwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi (b. 1927) PakistanMeher Ali Shah (18591937) PakistanMuhammad Abdul Qadeer Siddiqi Qadri (18711962) IndiaMuhammad Ilyas Qadri (b. 1950) PakistanQalandar Baba Auliya (18981979) PakistanQamaruzzaman Azmi (b. 1946) IndiaSaheb Qiblah Fultali (19132008) BangladeshSyed Waheed Ashraf (b. 1933) IndiaTajuddin Muhammad Badruddin (1861-1925) IndiaThaika Shuaib (b. 1930) India

Eastern and Central AsiaHabib Munzir Al-Musawa (19732013) IndonesiaMuhammad Abdul Aleem Siddiqi (18921954) SingaporeMuhammad Ma Jian (19061978) ChinaSyed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (b. 1931) Malaysia

Gallery

The Golden Chainof theNaqshbandiyyaorder

Tomb of KhwajaGhulam Farid atMithankot

Grave of MaYuanzhang, theSu Grand Master,in China

Su mosque inSrinagar, India.


33 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

The Great Mosqueof Touba, home ofthe Mouride Suorder of Senegal

Wali tomb, southof Karima, Sudan

Mausoleum ofSheikh Ali AbuShibbak al-Rifa'i,in the Rifa'iMosque in Cairo,Egypt

The Rumi Museumin Konya, Turkey

An illustration ofIbrahima Fall,leader of theMouride Order

A small shrine inLahore

A Mughal Era Sumanuscript byMuslim Rajputs

The MughalEmperor Jahangirpreferring a Sushaikh to kings

Mazar e Soltani,Bidokht, GonabadCounty. Shrine Offour Qutbs(masters) of theNimatullahi Suorder


34 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

See alsoIndex of Susm-related articlesTawassul, a religious practice in which a Muslim seeks nearness to God.Universal Su FestivalRahe Bhander Ennoble Award

References^ "Susm" (http://dialoguetalk.org/seyyed-hossein-nasr/susm/) Dialogue Talk.1.^ a b c Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Susm's Many Paths, 2000, University ofGeorgia (http://www.uga.edu/islam/Susm.html)

2.

^ Nuh Ha Mim Keller, "How would you respond to the claim that Susm is Bid'a?",1995. Fatwa accessible at: Masud.co.uk (http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/susm.htm)

3.

^ Zubair Fattani. "The meaning of Tasawwuf" (http://www.islamicacademy.org/html/Articles/English/Tasawwuf.htm). Islamic Academy.

4.

^ The New Encyclopedia Of Islam (http://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC&pg=PA499&dq=susm+tariqah+orders+encyclopedia&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KtQ3UeJKxPzIAf3dgPAG&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=susm%20tariqah%20orders%20encyclopedia&f=false) By Cyril Glass, p.499

5.

^ a b Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham (2004). Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi SuTradition. Islamic Supreme Council of America. p. 557. ISBN 1-930409-23-0.

6.

^ http://bektashiorder.com/excerpts-from-babas-book7.^ http://www.spiritualfoundation.net/fatherofsusm.htm8.^ http://khawajamoinuddin.wordpress.com/hazrat-ali-the-father-of-susm/9.^ a b The Jamaat Tableegh and the Deobandis by Sajid Abdul Kayum, Chapter 1:Overview and Background.

10.

^ Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson. The Principles of Susm.Amal Press. 2008.

11.

^ An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba's biography has been published by FonsVitae.

12.

^ Insights into Islamic Esoterism and Taoism (Sophia Perennis 2003)13.^ The New Encyclopedia Of Islam (http://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC&pg=PA498&dq=encyclopedia+of+islam+su&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7Q4xUbuCH-GCyAGT24HwAw&ved=0CFsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=su&

14.


35 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

f=false) By Cyril Glass, p.500^ Munn, Richard C. (JanuaryMarch 1969). "Reviewed work(s): The Sus by IdriesShah". Journal of the American Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 89 (1):279281. JSTOR 598339 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/598339).

15.

^ "Susm, Sus, and Su Orders: Susm's Many Paths" (http://www.uga.edu/islam/susmwest.html). Uga.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

16.

^ Idries Shah, The Sus, ISBN 0-385-07966-417.^ A Prayer for Spiritual Elevation and Protection (2007) by Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi,Suha Taji-Farouki

18.

^ a b Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The rst dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad CaliphateAD 661-750. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24073-5. See Google book search(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-wFp_Gv8GDYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Umayyad+Caliphate+661+750).

19.

^ Michael Sells, Early Islamic Mysticism, pg. 120.^ The Naqshbandi Su Tradition Guidebook of Daily Practices and Devotions, p. 83,Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, 2004

21.

^ "Susm in Islam" (http://mac.abc.se/home/onesr/f/Susm%20in%20Islam.htm).Mac.abc.se. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

22.

^ "Origin of susm - Qadiri" (http://www.suway.net/1sec4=ORigSUF811326.html).Su Way. 2003. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

23.

^ a b Rashid Ahmad Jullundhry, Qur'anic Exegesis in Classical Literature, pg. 56. NewWestminster: The Other Press, 2010. ISBN 9789675062551

24.

^ Al-Brn: commemorative volume, Hakim Mohammad Said, Pakistan. Ministry ofEducation, Unesco, Hamdard National Foundation, Pakistan, 2010

25.

^ The memoirs of Sus written in India: reference to Kashaful-mahjub, Siyar-ul-auliya, and Siyar-ul-arin, Mahmud Husain Siddiqui, Dept. of Persian, Urdu, andArabic, Faculty of Arts, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, 2009

26.

^ Introduction to Su Doctrine, p.3, Titus Burckhardt, Kazi Publications, ISBN978-1-56744-217-5, 1976

27.

^ Susm, Sus, and Su Orders: Susm's Many Paths (http://www.uga.edu/islam/susmintro.html)

28.

^ Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One:Orisons, ISBN 977-00-1830-9

29.

^ Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Su Path,Shif Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6

30.

^ Cavendish, Richard. Great Religions. New York: Arco Publishing, 1980.31.^ Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One:Orisons; see also Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and the

32.


36 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Naqshbandi Su Tradition, ISBN 978-1-930409-23-1, which reproduces the spirituallineage (silsila) of a living Su master.^ a b An Introduction to Shii Islam: The History and Doctrines of Shi'i(https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=introduction+to+shia+qutb&btnG=&surl=1#hl=en&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=introduction+to+shi%27i+su+qutb&oq=introduction+to+shi%27i+su+qutb&gs_l=serp.3...9734.11093.3.12578.3.3.0.0.0.0.78.234.3.3.0.cpsugrccpqgame..0.0...1.1.5.psy-ab.6H1T6Q6h2mo&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.&bvm=bv.43148975,d.aWc&fp=b1df2ad3f5ce4741&biw=1024&bih=552) Page 209

33.

^ See Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the SuPath, Shif Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, for a detailed description ofthe practices and preconditions of this sort of spiritual retreat.

34.

^ See examples provided by Muzaar Ozak in Irshad: Wisdom of a Su Master,addressed to a general audience rather than specically to his own students.

35.

^ Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi SuTradition, ISBN 978-1-930409-23-1

36.

^ a b http://www.alim.org/library/biography/khalifa/content/KAL/79/137.^ IslamOnline.net (http://www.islamonline.net/english/Contemporary/2002/08/article03.shtml)

38.

^ Massignon, Louis. Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystiquemusulmane. Paris: Vrin, 1954. p. 104.

39.

^ Imam Birgivi, The Path of Muhammad, WorldWisdom, ISBN 0-941532-68-240.^ Hodgson, Marshall G.S. (1958). The Venture of Islam, Vol 1: The Classical Age ofIslam. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. p. 394.

41.

^ Lloyd Ridgeon, Morals and Mysticism in Persian Susm: A History ofSu-Futuwwat in Iran, p. 32. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge, 2010.

42.

^ Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by William McGuckin de Slane.Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Sold by Institut deFrance and Royal Library of Belgium. Vol. 3, p. 209.

43.

^ Ahmet T. Karamustafa, Susm: The Formative Period, pg. 58. Berkeley: Universityof California Press, 2007.

44.

^ J. Spencer Trimingham, The Su Orders in Islam, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-512058-5.

45.

^ The most recent version of the Risla is the translation of Alexander Knysh,Al-Qushayri's Epistle on Susm: Al-risala Al-qushayriyya Fi 'ilm Al-tasawwuf (ISBN978-1859641866). Earlier translations include a partial version by Rabia Terri Harris(Su Book of Spiritual Ascent) and complete versions by Harris, and Barbara R. Von

46.


37 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

Schlegell.^ Several sections of the Revival of Religious Sciences have been published intranslation by the Islamic Texts Society; see http://www.fonsvitae.com/susm.html.The Alchemy of Happiness has been published in a complete translation by ClaudField (ISBN 978-0935782288), and presents the argument of the much larger Revivalof Religious Sciences in summary form.

47.

^ For the pre-modern era, see Vincent J. Cornell, Realm of the Saint: Power andAuthority in Moroccan Susm, ISBN 978-0-292-71209-6; and for the colonial era,Knut Vikyr, Su and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad B. Oali Al-Sanusi andHis Brotherhood, ISBN 978-0-8101-1226-1.

48.

^ Leonard Lewisohn, The Legacy of Medieval Persian Susm, Khaniqahi-NimatullahiPublications, 1992.

49.

^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization,HarperSanFrancisco, 2003. (Ch. 1)

50.

^ Dina Le Gall, A Culture of Susm: Naqshbandis in the Ottoman World, 14501700,ISBN 978-0-7914-6245-4.

51.

^ Arthur F. Buehler, Su Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and theRise of the Mediating Su Shaykh, ISBN 978-1-57003-783-2.

52.

^ Victor Danner, The Islamic Tradition: An introduction. Amity House. February 1988.53.^ Masatoshi Kisaichi, "The Burhami order and Islamic resurgence in modern Egypt."Popular Movements and Democratization in the Islamic World, pg. 57. Part of theNew Horizons in Islamic Studies series. Ed. Masatoshi Kisaichi. London: Routledge,2006. ISBN 9781134150618

54.

^ "Susm and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal", Babou, Cheikh Anta, TheInternational Journal of African Historical Studies, v. 40 no. 1 (2007) pp. 1846

55.

^ Susm and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal, Khadim Mbacke, translated fromthe French by Eric Ross and edited by John Hunwick. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener,2005.

56.

^ See in particular the biographical introduction to Michel Chodkiewicz, TheSpiritual Writings of Amir Abd Al-Kader, ISBN 978-0-7914-2446-9.

57.

^ From the article on Susm in Oxford Islamic Studies Online(http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2260?_hi=6&_pos=2)

58.

^ a b Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the SuOrder, Shif Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6

59.

^ For a systematic description of the diseases of the heart that are to be overcome inorder for this perspective to take root, see Hamza Yusuf, Purication of the Heart:Signs, Symptoms and Cures of the Spiritual Diseases of the Heart, ISBN978-1-929694-15-0.

60.


38 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

^ Concerning this, and for an excellent discussion of the concept of attraction(jadhba), see especially the Introduction to Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The Schoolof the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons, ISBN 977-00-1830-9.

61.

^ Muhammad Emin Er, al-Wasilat al-Fasila, unpublished MS.62.^ Realities of The Heart (http://nurmuhammad.com/HeartLevels/coverLataif5levelsofheart.htm) Lataif

63.

^ Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, ISBN 978-0-8078-1271-6 .64.^ See especially Robert Frager, Heart, Self & Soul: The Su Psychology of Growth,Balance, and Harmony, ISBN 978-0-8356-0778-0.

65.

^ Hakim Moinuddin Chisti, The Book of Su Healing, ISBN 978-0-89281-043-766.^ For an introduction to the normative creed of Islam as espoused by the consensusof scholars, see Hamza Yusuf, The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi, ISBN 978-0-9702843-9-6,and Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Maghnisawi, Imam Abu Hanifa's Al-Fiqh Al-AkbarExplained, ISBN 978-1-933764-03-0.

67.

^ The meaning of certainty in this context is emphasized in Muhammad Emin Er, TheSoul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs, Shif Publishers, 2008, ISBN978-0-9815196-0-9.

68.

^ See in particular the introduction by T. J. Winter to Abu Hamid Muhammadal-Ghazali, Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires:Books XXII and XXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences, ISBN978-0-946621-43-9.

69.

^ Akbar Ahmed, Diiscovering Islam, Making sense of Muslim History andSociety,ISBN 0-415-28525-9(Pbk)

70.

^ Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4 (Pbk)71.^ Abdullah Jawadi Amuli, "Dhikr and the Wisdom Behind It"(http://islamiceducationcenter.org/pdf/dhikr_and_the_wisdom_behind_it.pdf)

72.

^ Hakim Moinuddin Chisti The Book of Su Healing, ISBN 978-0-89281-043-773.^ Naqshbandi Way of Dhikr (http://www.naqshbandi.org/dhikr/dierence.htm)74.^ Touma 1996, p.16275.^ What is Remembrance and what is Contemplation? (http://goharshahi.net/images/books_les/menar-e-noor_les/What%20is%20Remembrance%20and%20what%20is%20Contemplation.htm)

76.

^ Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Su Path,ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, p. 77.

77.

^ a b c Sala intolerance threatens Sus (http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/belief/2010/may/10/islam-su-sala-egypt-religion)| Baher Ibrahim| guardian.co.uk|10 May 2010

78.

^ Mir, Tariq. "Kashmir: From Su to Sala" (http://pulitzercenter.org/projects79.


39 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

/kashmir-su-resurgence-sala-islam-belief-conict-rising-salasm-muslim-islam).November 5, 2012. Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Retrieved 20 February 2013.^ a b "Sala Violence against Sus" (http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-prole/egypt/salasts/sala-violence-against-sus). Islamopedia Online. Retrieved 24February 2013.

80.

^ Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shii Islam: The History and Doctrinesof Twelver Shiism (http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=Introduction+to+Shi%CA%BBi+Islam+Majlisi&btnG=&surl=1#hl=en&gs_rn=5&gs_ri=psy-ab&ds=bo&pq=introduction%20to%20shi%CA%BBi%20islam%20majlisi&cp=40&gs_id=40&xhr=t&q=Introduction%20to%20Shi%CA%BBi%20Islam%20Majlisi%20su&es_nrs=true&pf=p&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&oq=Introduction+to+Shi%CA%BBi+Islam+Majlisi+su&gs_l=&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.&bvm=bv.43148975,d.aWc&fp=f79f47bc6dd80ec5&biw=1280&bih=609). Yale University Press,. pp. 115116.

81.

^ Yadav, Rama Sankar (2007). Global Encyclopaedia of Education (4 Vols. Set)(http://books.google.com/books?id=6XCRmgig69MC&pg=PA406&dq=Senussi+mecca+1843&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SRgxUZzrMMLZyQGkooDoBw&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Senussi%20mecca%201843&f=false). GlobalVision Publishing House. p. 406.

82.

^ Dalrymple, William (5 November 2005). "What goes round..."(http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2005/nov/05/featuresreviews.guardianreview26).The Guardian (London).

83.

^ Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Momen, Moojan, Yale University Press, 1985 p.14-1684.^ a b "Sala destruction of shrines and public property unacceptable"(http://www.ikhwanweb.com/article.php?id=28330). Ikhwanweb. 3 April 2011.Retrieved 24 February 2013.

85.

^ a think-tank based in Rawalpindi86.^ a b Sunni Ittehad Council: Sunni Barelvi activism against Deobandi-Wahhabiterrorism in Pakistan by Aarish U. Khan (http://criticalppp.com/archives/239339)|criticalppp.com| Let Us Build Pakistan

87.

^ John R. Schmidt states, "although most Deobandis are no more prone to violencethan their Christian fundamentalist counterparts in the West, every jihadist groupbased in Pakistan save one is Deobandi, as are the Afghan Taliban". The Unraveling:Pakistan in the Age of Jihad (http://books.google.com/books?id=P_Px5TdHx1YC&pg=PT55&dq=barelvi+deobandi+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=DncmUdi0BMmCqgHamoGQBQ&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBA) | John R. Schmidt|2011

88.


40 of 49 2014-05-14 09:33

^ a b "Sects Within Sect: The Case of DeobandiBarelvi Encounter in Pakistan"(http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09700160801886330). Tandfonline.com.1 January 1970. Retrieved 24 February 2013.

89.

^ Chakrabarty, Rakhi (Dec 4, 2011). "Sus strike back"(http://articles.timesondia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-04/special-report/30474274_1_susm-wahabism-su-shrines). The Times of India. Retrieved 5 March2013.

90.

^ Researcher Amir Rana (a researcher and editor quarterly research journal Conictand Peace Studies. What is young Pakistan thinking? (http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/auth

Sufism

Documents

Transcript of Sufism