SUFI THOUGHT OF MUHIBBULLAH

ALLAHABADI Abstract Thesis

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Boctor of $f)ilos(op})p

I I Jn M

I

MOHD. JAVED A N S ^ J .

t ^

Under the Supervision of

Prof. MUHAMMAD YASIN MAZHAR SIDDiQUi

DEPARTMENT OF ISLAMIC STUDIES ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA)

2006

Abstract

The seventeenth Century of Christian era occupies a unique place in the history

of Indian mystical thought. It saw the two metaphysical concepts Wahdat-al

Wujud (Unity of Being) and Wahdat-al Shuhud (Unity of manifestation) in the

realm of Muslim theosophy and his conflict expressed itself in the formation of

many religious groups, Zawiyas and Sufi orders on mystical and theosophical

themes, brochures, treatises, poems, letters and general casuistically literature.

The supporters of these two schools of thought were drawn from different

strata of society. Sheikh Muhibbullah of Allahabad, Miyan Mir, Dara Shikoh,

and Sarmad belonged to the Wahdat-al Wujud school of thought; Shaikh

Ahmad Sirhindi, Khawaja Muhammad Masum and Gulam Yahya belonged to

the other school. Shaikh Abdul Haqq Muhaddith and Shaikh WalliuUah, both

of Delhi sought to steer a middle course and strove to reconcile the conflicting

opinions of the two schools.

Shaikh Muhibbullah of Allahabad stands head and shoulder above all the

persons who wrote in favour of Wahdat-al Wujud during this period. His

coherent and systematic exposition of the intricate ideas of Wahdat- al Wujud

won for him the appellation of Ibn-i-Arabi Thani (the second Ibn-i Arabi).

Shaikh Muhibbullah AUahabadi was a prolific writer and a Sufi of high rapture

of the 17* century. Sheikh Muhibbullah played a prominent role in developing

speculative mysticism and theosophico religious thought during Shahjahan's

reign (1627-57A,D.) but unfortunately literaturelists, historians and biographers

have not paid much attention to this great Sufi writer. An attempt has been

made in this chapter to present a brief accoimt of his life and times.

Shaikh Muhibbullah was bom at Sadrpur, a village in vicinity of Khairabad in

Awadh province in 996 A.H./1587 A.D. during Akbar's reign. As Allahabad

became the main centre of his preaching where he passed his last twenty years

of life therefore he was called AUahabadi. He belonged to a pious and learned

family. His father Mubariz was a descendent of Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i

Shakar and his mother was the daughter of Qazi Ismail of Hargam. Qazi Abul

Waiz of Hargam, a tutor of Aurangzeb, was his maternal cousin. Shaikh's

linage goes to Hazrat Umar, the second Caliph of Islam.

Shaikh Muhibbullah was a prolific and voluminous writer. As a great scholar

and Sufi, Shaikh Muhibbullah has covered almost all the aspects of Tasawwuf

in his works in Arabic and Persian language. The exact number of writings of

the Shaikh has been not counted finally till today. The biographical works on

the Shaikh have given different number of his books. We are giving here a list

of the Shaikh's works classifying them on the basis of their theme in the larger

context, with brief remarks about their subject matters. Shaikh Muhibbulah is

the author of the following works: Tarjamatul Quran, Sharah Fusus al-Hikam,

Anfas al-Khawas, Risalah Haft Ahkam, Aqaid ul-Khawas, Taswiyah, Manazir

Akhassul Khawas. Ibn-i Arabi, like other wujudi considers God to be the only

existence. He exists above all times. His existence of self proved and self

evident. To him no proof of existence is required for it stands Indispensable

and proved. He thinks what proof can be required when we know that He exists

in every thing or, in other words, all the objects are His manifestation. He is

present in the essence or ayn of everything. Owing to this, no proof of His

existence is required. He existed all times and shall over be. There is not even a

'there' 'where', the essence of all things is one. It means that God alone exists

and there is no existence apart from His. The muhiplicity of existence is simply

the modes of the Reality. God alone is the ultimate reality. He is infinite,

eternal and real.

Ibn-i Arabi tries to base his doctrine of wujud in Islam, but there is undoubtedly

a difference between God of Islam and doctrine of Wahdat of Ibn -i Arabi.

Islam proposition that there is God and God exists alone. He is eternal, infinite

and real. The difference is seen in proposition of Wahdat- al Wujud that God is

in every thing. To be is difference from to be in everything. The doctrine of

Wahdat- al Wujud is based on the philosophical speculations of the unity of the

universe with God. Like other Wujudi Ibn-i Arabi also believes in only one

existence and it is the existence of God. There is something more which

distinguishes him from other wujudi like "Hallaj". Before coming to this, let us

make it clear that wujud is either looked upon from a philosophical point of

view or a Sufi pomt of view. A Sufi arrives at wujud with the help of his

experience. The philosopher infers wujud from the unity of the universe with

God. Ibn-i Arabi reaches it with the help of both. Having perceived the essence

of the universe, he concludes its unity with God. Unlike other wujudi Sufis, he

defies the belief in the union with God. Contrary to this he holds that for a Sufi

to become one with Him, has to realize himself. He has to see what exist in

Him. It means that there is nothing like becoming one with Him as it shows the

duality of existence. He is the only existence and is present in Him as well.

What is required on the part of a Sufi is to realize his own essence (ayan)

through which he manifests Himself Thus there is no question of union with

Him for He is in everything. This belief makes Ibn-i Arabi distinguished from

other wujudi. What he shares with others is the belief in the unity and

absoluteness of God. The wujudi advocate the belief in 'tauhid- al mutlaq\

God is one and absolute.

Sharah Fusus al-Hikam is the explanation and summary of Fusus al-Hikam of

Shaikh Ibn-i Arabi. It was considered to be a standard work. It is as close to the

original text of the Shaikh Ibn-i Arabi. Shaikh Muhibbullah does not

sometimes stick to one subject in each Fas: he reiterates it in other Fusus. The

threads of his arguments run into one another with connecting links. Instead of

takmg a title for his heading. Shaikh Muhibbullah has taken the name of the

Prophet for the same. Shaikh Muhibullah not observed chronological order in

his treatment The Prophets are not taken m the order of their advent, but

according to characteristics of their 'Hikma', partly based on the mentality of

the people to whom they were sent, and partly on their own suluk; one Hikma

leading to another. Sharah Fusus al-Hikam is only a commentary on the lives

of the Prophets mentioned in the Qur'an; in fact, it is a commentary in a Sufis

tic interpretation of verses of the Qur'an dealing with the lives and teachings of

these Prophets. Shaikh Muhibbullah has sometimes given rationalistic basis

also to his themes before giving his kashfi (illuminative) expiations for them,

which latter more or less intended for people with a grounding in the subject or

who have undergone a courses of suluk (spiritual practice under a Shaikh).

Shaikh MuhibbuUa AUahbadi, like other thinkers, has developed his Sufi

Thought on two major planes (a) Metaphysical, in which he deals with the

problem of the nature of God, imiverse and man, and the position and status of

man, as the only rational being in Universe, and the relationship of man with

both universe and God; (b) Epistemological, in which he deals with the nature,

source and the basic problem of knowledge and its validity. But we should not

neglect the fact that his philosophy is basically that of a Sufi not of a

philosopher even though he did his best to explain "his doctrines" in a

philosophical way. His Sufi thought is deeply embedded in the Muslim

philosophy, religious doctrines and cultuie. The chief source of his doctrine is

the philosophy of Ibn-i Arabi. He particularly makes use of the Quranic verses

and traditions and interprets them in a way that happens to suit his system of

thought. He is strict follower of Wahdat-al Wujnd like Ibn-i Arabi. His

metaphysics is based on his ontology in which he deals with the nature and

attributes of God.

Therefore, we may rightly conclude that Shaikh MuhibbuUah presents a system

of thought in which God is one, the Absolute Creator, unparalleled and unique,

and the entire universe is His manifestation out of His Power and Will. The

relation between the creator and created is never of duality but always an

Identity,

Shaikh Muhibbullah's teachings and thoughts show that he is firm in faith and

practice. He is very much conscious of his moral responsibility and observance

of religious, laws. He thinks that Tasawwuf teaches us how to purify self,

improve one's moral and build up one's iimer and outer life in order to attain

perpetual bliss.

SUFI THOUGHT OF MUHIBBULLAH

ALLAHABADI

Thes is *:•»»->

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Boctor of $i)tlos(op})p

Mamie ^tubiesi/ \ 'T

,A^ ">. ^~'- ^ I -z- By - ' / '^

MOHD. JAVED ANSARI

Under the Supervision of

Prof. MUHAMMAD YASIN MAZHAR SIDDIQUI

DEPARTMENT OF ISLAMIC STUDIES ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA)

2006

T6923

Fax: 0571 -2700528 r(i^J^W\i Phones' External: 2701131 2702607 / 2700087 lUU C | t t i ? W / Internal: 1365

Department of Islamic Studies Aligarh Muslim University Aiigarh - 202002 (India)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Sufi Thought of

Muhibbullah AUahabadi" is an original work done by Mohd.

Javed Ansari under my supervision. The thesis is suitable for

submission for the award of Ph.D. Degree in Islamic Studies.

Prof. Muhammad Yasin Mazhar Siddiqui (Supervisor)

Dedicated

To those whom the

Glorious Quran refers

as

Oii^ (ii 'i j oi^i^

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express heartfelt thanks to my Research Supervisor Prof. Yasin

Mazhar Siddiqui, Department of Islamic studies, A.M. U. for his constant

guidance and accomplishing this work.

I express my thanks to Prof. Syed Ahsan, Chairman Department of

Islamic Studies for providing the research facilities.

My sincere devotion to Shaikh Syed Muinuddin Allahabadi and Qari

Zahiruddin Ahmad Thanwi (Sufi) for introducing me the Metaphysical

and Spiritual world of Sufis and extending constant encouragement.

I am also highly grateful to my respected teachers Prof Abdul AH, Dr.

Zafarul Islam, Dr. Ubaidullah Fahad, Dr. Abdul Majeed Khan and Dr.

Ahsanul Haq.

I am thankful to Mr. Kabir Ahmad Khan, Assistant Librarian,

Department of Islamic Studies and his staff for their cooperation.

Mohd. JavedAnsari

CONTENTS

Titles Page No.

Introduction 1-6

Chapter-I 7-21

Life and Times of Shaikh Muhibbullah Allahabadi

Chapter-II 22-36

Thematic Analysis of his works

Chapter-III 37-72

Concept of Wahdat-al Wujud as developed by Ibn-i Arabi «

Chapter-IV 73-101

Commentaries of Shaikh Muhibbullah Allahabadi on Ibn-i

Arabi's works

Chapter-V 102-132

Sufi Thought and Philosophy of Shaikh Muhibbullah

Allahabadi

Chapter-VI 133-146

Critical Analysis of Shaikh Muhibbullah's Sufi Thought

Conclusion 147-151

Bibliography 152-156

Introduction

Tasawwuf is the most vibrant yet the most controversial dimension of Islam;

vibrant because it deals primarily with the life, vigour and activity of the

inward, and controversial because right from definition to ultimate vision, and

from origin to theories and practices there are controversies continuing since

the 3' '' century A.H. The central object of Tasawwuf is Allah. Sufi's quest is

in fact a quest for the centre from which everything emerges and to which

everything returns, and this journey takes place in the heart where the divine

mysteries are unfolded.

Tasawwuf is a particular method of approaching reality and calls into play the

contemplative, intuitive and spiritual faculties through strenuous training

carried on under an experienced preceptor who helps the aspirant removp the

veils lying between the self and the real in order that the aspirant may be able

to behold reality, absorb and interiorize the epiphanies and attain divine

contentment (ridaX or achieve love (mahabbah) and gnosis (ma'rifah), or

realize servitude ('abdiyyah), as the final object.

A natural development within Islam and firmly routed in the Qur'an and the

Prophetic precept, Tasawwuf aims at attaining direct experience of communion

with Allah^ ensuring that Islam was neither confined to a legalistic directive

nor to a systematic theology, nor to institutionalized forms of religion, nor to a

formal codes of ethics. It did receive radiations from the mystic life and

thought of other religions, yet the Qur'anic spirit of God-consciousness

(taqwa), self-purification (tazkiyah), self-surrender (taslim), truthfulness {sidq),

rectitude (istiqamah), permanent remembrance and recollection (zikr),

stimulative reflection (fikr), disinterested love (jmahabbah/hubb) constant

struggle {jihad) and strife for excellence {ihsan) flowed into the lives and

modes of expression of the Sufi devotees and ascetics.

The real Sufis had never thought of fi^eing themselves firom the legal

prescriptions of Islam as these constituted the mmimal declared expectations of

then: Beloved. They rather tried to fi-ee their souls fi-om the confines of the

illusory prison of ego, and tearing its roots fi-om the outer world plunged their

souls in the Divine nature which resides at the centre of their heart. They

interiorized the rites and underwent a transformation from within, subscribing

scrupulously to the entire gamut of Shan'ah at both the outward and the inward

levels.

The tradition of Tasawwuf in the Indian subcontinent is as old as the coming of

Islam in it. The "'Muballigirf' or the propagators of Islam in India were the

Sufis like Malik Bin Dinar, Ali Bin Usman al-Hujiwiri (d.481/1089),

Moinuddin Hasan Chishti, Bahauddin Zakariya Multani (d.l262A.D.), etc.

These Sufis, who were the embodiment of Islamic Ideology and culture,

influenced the Indian mind in many ways.

Chishti order in India was introduced by Shaikh Muniuddin Hasan Chishti (d.

1235 A.D.). It was propagated by Shaikh Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (d. 1236

A.D.) and Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar (d. 1265). But it reached its zenith

at the time of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (d. 1325 A.D.). After the death of

Baba Farid, the Chishti order was divided into two main subdivisions; known

respectively as the Nizamiya and Sabiriya order. The Sabiriyah order was

founded by Alauddin AH Ahmad Sabir (d. 1291 A.D.) This contemporary of

Shaikh Nizamuddin Awliya was a great mystic in his own way. Sheikh Ali

Sabir isolated himself from the world and lived the life of a reclue. But the

Sabiriya suborder reached its zenith by preaching and teachmg of Ahmad

Abdul Haqq (d.l434A.D.) in the valley of the Gangas in the fifteenth century.

The end of the 16* Century brought with itself an outstanding personality and

Sufi named Shaikh MuhibuUah AUahabadi (1587-1648 A.D.), the disciple and «

Khalifa of Shaikh Abu Said Gangohi (d.l640A.D.), the grandson of Shaikh

Abdul ^uddus Gangohi (d.l537A.D.). The credit of preaching and expansion

of the Sufi thought of Wahadat-al Wujud in India mainly goes to Shaikh

MuhibbuUah, who finally settled at Allahabad in the early seventeenth century.

When at attempt is made to knows whether the eminent Chishti saints ever

wrote any book on Wahdat-al WuJud; we fined they did not take to vmting

then: ovm thought. Thus we see that amoi^ the Chishti saints, it is Shaikh

MuhibbuUah for the first time took to writing on Wahdat-al Wujud. He was a

prolific writer and had written a good number of books both in Persian and

Arabic. It would be interesting to see the view point of Shaikh MuhibbuUah

and how far he accepted and rejected the approach of Shaikh Muhiuddin Ibn-i

Arabi and what he said about the latter's doctrine of Wahdat- al Wujud.

The books written by Shaikh Muhibbullah are still untouched. No work, so far

as my knowledge goes, has been done in any language on this illuminating

personality of the Chishti-Sabri order.

Further, the characteristic feature of the thought of the 16* century was that

Sufi philosophy of Wahdat-al Shuhud was predominant over Wujudi

philosophy. In this period great emphasis had been laid on Shuhudi philosophy

as the summum bonum for Sufi, as advocated by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.

Shaikh Muhibbullah with the help of his writings and discussions tried his best

to refute their arguments in order to purify Wujudi philosophy of Ibn-i Arabi, «

From this point of view, this humble attempt to present the Sufi thought of

Shaikh Muhibbullah is very significant and occupies an important place in the

development of Sufi thought in India.

For the sake of systematization, precision and brevity, the present work has

been divided into six chapters apart fi-om introduction and conclusion. The first

chapter concerns with brief history of life and times of Shaikh Muhibbullah

Allahabadi. Shaikh Muhibbulah was bom at Sadrpur, a village of Khairabad in

Awadh province in 996A.H./1587A.D.during Akbar's rein. As Allahabad

became the main center of his preaching where he passed his last twenty years

of life therefore he was called Allahabadi.

The second chapter deals with the thematic analysis of his works. Shaikh

Muhibbulah was a prolific and voluminous writer. As a great scholar and Sufi,

Shaikh Muhibbullah has covered almost all the aspects of Tasawwuf in his

works in Arabic and Persian language. Shaikh Muhibbullah is the author of the

following works: Tarjamatul Quran, Sharah Fusus al-Hikam, Anfas al-

Khawas, Risalah Haft Ahkam, Aqaid al-Khawas, MaghalU al-Ammah, Ibadat

ul-Khawas, Taswiya, Manazir Akhassul Khawas.

The third chapter deals with the concept of Wahadat-al Wujud as developed

by Ibn-i Arabi. Ibn-i Arabi, like other wujudi considers God to be the only

existence. He exists above all times. His existence is self-evident and self-

proved. He is present m the essence or ayn of everything. It means that God

alone exists and there is no other existence apart fi-om His. The multiplicity of

existence is simply the modes of the Reality. God alone is the uhimate reality.

He is infinite, eternal and real.

The fourth chapter describes the commentaries of Shaikh Muhibbullah

AUahabadi on Ibn-i Arabi's works. Shaikh Muhibbullah wrote many

commentaries on Ibn-i Arabi's works. In these Arabic and Persian books he

tried to elaborate, interpret and elucidate the Sufi thought of great celebrity.

Most of the commentaries of Shaikh Muhibbulah are related to various

discussion of the Fusus al-Hikam. Apart firom this, he also tried to provide to

theological basis for the thought of Ibn-i Arabi firom the Quran. The Shaikh is

basically interested in the principal doctrine of Ibn-i Arabi i.e. Wahdat-al

Wujud.

Chapter fifth highlights the Sufi thought and philosophy of Shaikh

Muhibbullah. Shaikh Muhibbullah like other thmkers has developed his Sufi

thought on two major planes (a) Metaphysical and (b) Epistemological. But we

should not neglect the fact that his philosophy is basically that of a Sufi, not of

a philosopher even though he did his best to explain his doctrines in a

philosophical way. The chief source of his doctrine is the philosophy of Ibn-i

Arabi.

Chapter six has been devoted to the critical analysis of Shaikh Muhibbullah's

Sufi thought. Shaikh Muhibbulah's teachings and thoughts show that he is firm

in faith and practice. He is very much conscious of his moral responsibility and

observance of religious laws. He thinks that Tasawwuf teaches us how to

purify self, improve one's moral and build up one's iimer and outer life in order

to attain perpetual bliss.

Life and Times of Shaikh Muhibbullah Allahabadi

The seventeenth Century of Christian era occupies a unique place in the history

of Indian mystical thought. It saw the two metaphysical concepts Wahdat-al

Wujud (Unity of Being) and Wahdat-al Shuhud (Unity of manifestation) in the

realm of Muslim theosophy and his conflict expressed itself in the formation of

many religious groups, Zawiyas and Sufi orders on mystical and theosophical

tiiemes, brochures, treatises, poems, letters and general casuistical literature.

The supporters of these two schools of thought were drawn from different

strata of society. Sheikh MuhibbuUah of Allahabad, Miyan Mir', Dara Shikoh ,

and Sarmad^ belonged to the Wahdat-al Wujud school of thought; Shaikh

Ahmad Sirhindi^, Khawaja Muhammad Masum^ and Gulam Yahya^ belonged

to the other school. Shaikh Abdul Haqq Muhaddith' and Shaikh Walliu^ah^

both of Delhi sought to steer a middle course and strove to reconcile the

conflicting opinions of the two schools.

Shaikh MuhibbuUah of Allahabad stands head and shoulder above all the

persons who wrote in favour of Wahdat-al Wujud during this period. His

coherent and systematic exposition of the intricate ideas of Wahdat- al Wujud

won for him the appellation of Ibn-i-Arabi Thani (the second Ibn-i Arabi).

Shaikh MuhibbuUah AUahabadi was a prolific writer and a Sufi of high rapture

of the 17* century. Sheikh MuhibbuUah played a prominent role in developing

speculative mysticism and theosophico religious thought during Shahjahan's

reign (1627-57A.D.) but unfortunately literaturelists, historians and biographers

have not paid much attention to this great Sufi writer. An attempt has been

made in this chapter to present a brief account of his life and times.

Family and Birth

Shaikh Muhibbullah was bom at Sadrpur, a village in vicinity of Khairabad in

Awadh province in 996 A.H./1587 A.D. during Akbar's reign. As Allahabad

became the main centre of his preaching where he passed his last twenty years

of life therefore he was called AUahabadi.'

He belonged to a pious and learned family. His father Mubariz was a

descendent of Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar and his mother was the

daughter of Qazi Ismail of Hargam. Qazi Abul Waiz of Hargam, a ttitor of

Aurangzeb, was his maternal cousin. Shaikh's linage goes to Hazrat Umar, the

second Caliph of Islam. *°

Education

According to the Shaikh's statement he received his early education in his

village. His teacher was a Sufi who not only instructed him in traditional

sciences but also .taught him some basic mystical techniques." Shaikh

Muhibbullah was a studious student who successfully completed basic course

of religion and literary education. When the Shaikh was in his twenties heavy

family and other responsibilities fell on his shoulder after his fathers death

therefore his progress in fiuther studies and meditation was stopped. He went

to Lahore along with his cousins where he became a disciple of renowned

Scholar Shah Abdul Salam Lahori.'^ After completing his education the Shaikh

returned to his hometown and strove for livelihood here and there and

ultimately he started teaching in his village. He regularly delivered lectures on

the subjects of Islamic sciences and though he achieved reputation in this noble

profession but he was not contented with it. His mind and spirit wanted

something more. So he visited renowned centers of learning and religion to

meet great scholars and saints.

Spiritual Training

Reports say, while he was walking down the streets of Delhi, Nawab Sadullah

Khan, his old friend and prime minister of Emperor Shahjahan, happened to

pass in his palanquin and he spotted the Shaikh, but the Shaikh immediately

averted his gaze and entered a nearby shop. Nawab Sadullah Khan was not a

person to ignore his friend, so he told his men to bring the Shaikh to his house

with respect and when the latter reached the Nawab welcomed him warmly.

Sadullah Khan told Emperor Shahjahan (1627-57 A.D.) about his friend's

amazing intellect and talent and, praising him to the extent that he deserved to

be Prime Minister, he infect was only fit to be his assistant. Shahjahan was

greatly surprised to hear such an admission from his learned Prime Minister, as

result he became to be impatient to meet the man. The emperor asked many

questions which always baffled him. The Sheikh's answers satisfied him and he

immediately appointed him as a court minister. According to court's customs

he was brought to the tomb of Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki'"' with a guard of

honour. When the Shaikh reached the Qutub Minar he got down and asked the

guards to wait as he would go to the tomb on foot and alone. The guards waited

a day and night then they became restless. The commandant of the troop went

to the tomb and enquired, the caretaker told him that yesterday he had sea a

richly dressed gentleman who put off his rich clothes inside and borrowed a

lungi and shirt and went back. The soldiers searched him everywhere with no

avail. It is reported while he was praying inside; the mystically inclined

Minister heard a voice which told him that he had not been bom for worldly

affairs but for higher things. He immediately set out to the place where the

voice told him to go. He went to Gangoh, Saharanpur, to obtain his formal

Sufi's training.'* Ultimately, he came into contact with Shaikh Abu Said,' a

grandson of Shaikh Abdul Quddus'^, at Gangoh in Saharanpur District, ancl he

was so deeply impressed by his spiritual sagacity and scholarship that he

decided to join the circle of his devotees. Sheikh Abu Said was a notable saint

of the Chisti-Sabri order, and, like his eminent grandfather, was a great

follower of Wahadat- al Wujud.

Sheikh Muhibbullah developed a firm faith in the validity of the doctrine of

Wahdat-al Wujud under his guidance. Shaikh Abu Said was also deeply

impressed by his scholarship and spiritual vision. One day he took to him to

the prayer cell and taught him all the rules and regulations of Chishtiya Silsilah.

Sheikh MubibbuUah prayed and deligently practiced the mystic exercises and

performed all the mystical rituals in a very short time."

10

Shaikh Abu Said sharpened Muhibbullah's interest in asceticism and Wahdat-

al Wujud. However after completing his mystical course and getting Khilafat

from Shaikh Abu Said he returned to his home town. He stayed there for some

time and engaged himself in writing some works but soon he found that place

unsuitable for him, so he left Sadrpur and came to Rudauli and visited the tomb

of Shaikh Abdul Haqq" where he met Maulana Abdur Rahman Chishti'^.

Apart from his scholarship, Sheikh Muhibbullah was a man of great personal

charm. Maulana Abdur Rahman was deeply impressed by his charming

personality and rare gift of eloquence and exposition.

After staying a few days there both of them left Rudauli together and Abdur

Rahman Chishti took him to his house where Shaikh stayed for a few days.

After visiting some saints and tombs he fmally reached Allahabad in 1038

A.H./1628 A.D. at the age of forty two and made Allahabad his permanent

abode and centre for his preaching.^"

This was the period when Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi had vibrated and echoed the

whole atmosphere with the doctrine of Wahadat-al Shuhud. Sheikh

Muhibbullah made his mission to preach and popularize the mystical

philosophy of Ibn i-Arabi ' which had gained popularity in Sufi circles long

before him. Ibn i-Arabi's works had been introduced in India by Shaikh

Fakhruddin" Iraqi, a disciple of Shaikh Bahauddin Zakaria Multani."

11

Ulama's Criticism

Some of the views of the Shaikh Muhibbullah however, evoked orthodox

criticism. Once the Ulama of Allahabad issued a fatwa against him and

condemned him on a charge of heresy. When his friend Shaikh Abdur Rashid

of Jaunpur came to know of it, he rushed to Allahabad and used all his

argimientative powers and influences to defend him. Shaikh Abdur Rashid

argued that Shaikh Muhibbullah had used mystical and not philosophical

terminology which had a different connotation altogether. His defense of the

Shaikh Muhibbullah was successful and the Ulama withdrew their fatwa of

execution, but throughout his whole life Shaikh Muhibbullah had to face bitter

opposition from the Ulama?^

Shaikh Muhibbullah's thought his associations and his attitude towards many

problems of religion provoked Emperor Aurangzeb's criticism. When his

treatise Taswiyah came to his knowledge, he found many things in it highly

objectionable. By that time the Sheikh was aheady dead. Aurengzeb (1658-

1707A.D.) called upon his Chief disciple Shaikh Muhammadi to give a

satisfactory explanation of those objectionable statements or to renounce the

discipleship of the Shaikh Muhibbullah and to bum the copies of the book.

Shaikh Muhammadi, who was a man of sturdy independence and had a saintly

character, replied that on that account he was ready to renounce his discipleship

but he also argued that he could not comply with the imperial order as he had

not yet reached that spiritual stage from which the Shaikh had made those

12

utterances, and that when he achieve that higher position he would send the

Emperor a commentary on those statements. He also added that if the Emperor

had decided to have the copies of the said treatise burnt, there was enough fire

in the royal kitchen for this purpose. The Emperor kept quiet after receiving

this outspoken reply. ^

Disciples

Shaikh IVIuhibbullah's greatness can also be judged by the qualities of his son

and disciple who were the tourch bearers of his thoughts and doctrines and who

hold high positions. Here the short descriptions of some of his disciples:

Shaikh Tajuddin^®

Shaikh Muhibbullah had a son named Tajuddin who was brought up with all

care and was taught esoteric as well as exoteric subjects. The Shaikh was an

accomplished saint and scholar who carried on his father's tradition in and

around Allahabad.

Qazi Sadruddin^^

Sadruddin, Qazi of Allahabad, commonly known as Qazi Ghasi was the first

disciple as well as one of the Chief Khalifa of Shaikh Muhibbullah and was

considered as his great disciple who fiirthered and enriched the legacy of his

mentor and propagated it in the area especially when he succeeded the post of

his Sheikh.

13

Shaikh Muhammadi Fayyaz^ (d. 110 A.H./1695 A.D.)

Shaikh Muhammadi Fayyaz was a famous saint of very high repute. He

enjoyed the company of the Shaikh for fourteen years. The Shaikh had great

regard for him. After receiving khirqa-e-khilafat (robe of succession) from

Shaikh Muhibbullah he went to Agra and lived there permanently and devoted

all his life to prayer and practice of Tasawwuf. He was an authority on the

subjects of Tqfsir, Hadith, Fiqh and Ilm i-Kalam. He was a reputed author of

many books and treatises.

Qazi YusuP (d. 1084 A.H./1673 A.D.)

Qazi Yusuf another disciple of the Shaikh, was a great theologian and jurist.

After the death of his father he became the Qazi of Bilgram in the reign of

Shahjahan (1627-57A.D.). He wrote two treatises in Arabic and Persian in

reply to the questions sent by Dara Shikoh to Shaikh Muhibbullah.

Qazi Abdul Rashid^

Qazi Abdul Rashid belonged to Delhi. He had received traditional education as

well as spiritual guidance firom Shaikh Muhibbullah and then became the Qazi

of Sambhal.

Nulla i uhsin FanP^ (d. 1081 A.H./1670 A.D.)

MuUa Muhsin Fani Kashmiri, the controversial author of Dabistan-e-

Mazhahib, was famous for his great learning and accomplishment. Muhsin Fani

14

was the Sadr of Chief justice of Allahabad during Shahjahan's reign. He

became a disciple of Shaikh MuhibbuUah AUahabadi. Later he became spiritual

guide and teacher. He was also a poet of repute and has left a collection of

poems.

Shaikh Ahmad^^ (d. 1088 A.H./1677 A.D.)

Shaikli Ahmad the son of Ishaque Nasirabadi, was bom and brought up in

Nasirabad (Allahabad). After completing his traditional education he became a

disciple of Shaikh MuhibbuUah. He was an eminent theologian as well as a

great Sufi. He is said to possess the power to perform miracles. He was a man

of letter and authored many books.

Syed Muhammad QannaujP^(d. 1101 A.H./1689 A.D.)

Syed Muhammad of Qarmauj also known as Mir Kabir Qannuji was a great

mathematician and a good scholar of Arabic. He was in the service of

Emperor Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. Aurengzeb regarded him as his teacher

and used to discuss with him on Fiqh (Jurisprudence) and Hadith

(Traditions) thrice a week.

Besides these, there were several other disciples of Shaikh MuhibbuUah. This

great Sufi and exponent of Tawhid passed away on Thursday, the 9 '' Rajab,

1058 A.H./20*^ July, 1648 A.D.

15

References

1. Mian Mir Muhammad (d. 1045/1635), an ardent follower of the

Wahdat al-Wujud. Mian Mir considered it so profoundly esoteric that

he refused to divulge any of its secrets to ordinary Muslims, which is

the best and established tradition of the Wujudi Sufis.

2. Dara Shikoh was the disciple of Mia Mir Muhammad. He was the

seeker of the reality of the religion and Tariqat and tried to synthesize

them. He wrote Majma-ul-Bahrain, the mingling of the two oceans. In

this work he tried to reconcile the doctrines Brahamvidya and the

tenets of the Qur'dn. He also translated Upanishads under the title

*Sir-i-Akbar' and maintained that this book referred to in the Qur'an.

He regards Adam as Brahma. Cf. Qannugo, K.R., Dara Shikoh: Life

and Works, Calcutta, 1952.

3. Muhammad Said Sarmad (d. 1071/1660-61) was an Armenian Jew,

who came from (Kashan) Iran, converted to Islam by MuUa Sadra. He

was strongly obsessed with the tradition of Wahdat al-Wujud.

4. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624 A.D.), the great seventeenth

century Indian Naqshbandi saint and religious reformer. In the field of

mystical philosophy he is better known for his theory of Wahdat-al

ShuhudvAdch was presented as an explanation of Wahdat- al Wujud.

16

5. Shaikh Muhammad Masum (1007-1079/1599-1668) was the third son

and Khalifa of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. Sheikh Masum urged Sufis to

adhere strictly to the Sharia, as mystical perfection was otherwise

incomplete.

6. Shaikh Gulam Ali Yahya (d. 1190/1776), wrote a treatise, Kalimat al-

Haq or the word of truth in which he stated Sirhindi's philosophy,

highlighted the points on which it differed from the philosophy of Ibn

' i-Arabi and disagreed with Shah WaliuUah's effort to synthesize

them.

7. Shaikh Abdul Haq (958-1052/1551-1642), a great scholar of hadith,

wrote a commentary on the most popular selection of hadith, Mishkat

al-Masabih. The Shaikh was a prolific writer; his books include

among others a work on the life of the Prophet Muhammad, Madarij

al-Nubwwah, a commentary on the Futuh al-Ghayb of Shaikh Abdul

Qadir Jilani, and a biographical work on latter Sufis, Akhbar al-

Akhyar. Cf. Prof Khaliq Ahmad Nizami, Hqyat Shaikh Abdul Haq

Muhaddis Dihlavi (Delhi, Nadwat al-Musannifin, 1964).

8. Shah WaliuUah (1114-1176/1702-1762), a great renovator {mujjaddid)

of Islam in the eighteenth century, was bom into a distinguished

family of Delhi. An eminent scholar oi Hadith, a great Sufi and social

thinker, Waliullah expounded the whole system of Islam in his Hujjat

17

Allah al-Baligah, and elaborated its ethics and polity in Budur al-

Baz'igah, and wrote on Islamic theology and philosophy. He also

wrote on flqh, tafsir and hadith. In Tasawwuf he tried to introduce a

stronger transcendental element in the frame work of Wahdat al-

Wujud. For Waliullah's life Cf. Anfas al-Arifin (Delhi, 1879);

Muhammad Rahim Baksh, Hayat Wall, Lahore, 1955; G.N. Jalbani,

Life of Shah Waliullah (Delhi, Idarh-i-Adabiyat-i-Delhi, 1980); Rizvi,

S.A.A. Waliullah and His Times (Cenberra, Marifat Publishing House,

1980).

9. Muhammad Tahir AH. Shaikh Muhibbullah of Allahabad - Life and

Times. Islamic Culture, No. 3, 1973. p. 242.

10. Ibid,243.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid. Cf. Tazkira-e-Ulama-i-Hind, p. 298.

13. Khawaja Kutubuddin Bakhtiyar (Ahmad b, Musa) was a native of Ush,

a town in Eastern Farghana. He was the disciple and successor of

Mumuddin Hasan Chisti. (d.634/1236), the founder figures of the

Chishti order in India.

14. Muhammad. Tahir. Shaikh Muhibbullah of Allahabad: Life and

Times. Islamic Culture, No. 3,1973, p. 244.

18

15. Shaikh Abu Said Gangohi (d. 1049/1639-40); a grandson of Shaikh

Abdul Quddus Gangohi, was a leading Khalifa of Shaikh Nizam

Thaneswari of Chisti Sabri order founded by Shaikh Alauddin Ali

Ahmad Sabir(d. 1291 A.D.).

16. Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi (1456-1537 A.D.), came from Radauli.

Sheikh Abdul Quddus was drawn to life of asceticism and although he

obtamed a formal education from eminent Ulama his absorbing

interest was the in Wahdat al- Wujud.

17. Muhammad Tahir Ali. Shaikh Muhibbullah of Allahabad - Life and

Times. Islamic Culture, Vol. 3,1973, p. 244.

«

18. Shaikh Abdul Haqq (d. 1434 A.D.), was the most perfect Sufi of the

Sabiri branch of the Chishtis. The haqq was the most perfect of many

names and attributes of Allah, believed Shaikh Abdul Haq. To his

disciples in Khanqah he showed great devotion to pas-i-anfas (breath

control) and the key word before and after prayer was haqq. Whether

they were talking or buying and selling in the Bazaar, the Shaikh's

disciples walked in front of him crying haqq. Many people were

critical of such a custom, calling it pir- worship, but the Shaikh

justified it by quoting from the Futuhat al-Makkiyyah of Ibn i-Arabi.

19. Maulana Abdur Rahman Chisti, who succeeded to the leadership

of the Chisti order (in 1032/1622), was an interesting personality.

19

A great scholar of Sanskrit, he gave new explanation to the Bhagaved-

Gita in light of Islam. Maulana Abdur Rahman's monumental work

was the Miratul-Asrar, which covered the biographies of Sufis from

the early days of Islam to the time of Husammuddin Manikpuri

(d. 853/1449).

20. Muhammad. Tahir Ali. Sheikh Muhibbullah of Allahabad-Life and

Times. Islamic Culture, Vol. 3,1973, p. 245.

21. Abu Bakr Muhiuddin Muhammad b. Ali al-Tai, commonly known as

Ibn i-Arabi (560/1165-638/1240), was bom in Murcia (Spain) and died

in Damascus (Syria). A Sufi of vast learning, great intellect and

unlimited imagination, he expounded and elaborated the philosophy of

Wahdat al-Wujud that has dominated the Islamic world for centuries

and still exercise a considerable influence. Cf Syed Hussain Nasr:

Three Muslim Sages (Haward, Cambridge, 1964), pp. 92-102. The best

work on his philosophy is Dr. A.E. Affifi, The Mystical Philosophy of

Muhiuddin Ibn i- Arabi, Lahore, Ashraf Press, Pakistan.

22. Shaikh Fakhruddin Ibrahim Iraqi (the end of the f^/U^ century), was

an eminent Iranian poet and mystic. Iraqi traveled in Asia Minor and

put himself under the authority of Sheikh Sadruddin Qunavi, a

distinguished Khalifa of Ibn i-Arabi,

20

23. Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya Multani (1183-1262 A.D.), was the

founder of Suhrawardiya order in India. He was bom in Multan. He

memorized the Qur'an and then went to Khurasan for further studies.

After performing the hajj, he went to Medina where for five years he

studied under Maulana Kamaluddin Mahmud, the greatest scholar of

Hadith in his days. Then he went to Jerusalem and later to Baghdad

where Shaikh Shabuddin Suharwardi initiated him into his order and

niade him his iCfbj/i/ jf in India.

24. Muhammad. Tahir AIL Shaikh Muhibbullah of Allahabad - Life and

Times. Islamic Culture, Vol. 3, 1973, p. 251.

25. Khan, Yusuf Hussain. Shah Muhibbullah of Allahabad and his

hfystical Thought. Islamic Culture, Vol. 38,1964, p. 318.

26. Ibid.

27. Muhammad. Tahir Ali. Shaikh Muhibbullah of Allahabad - Life and

Times. Islamic culture: Vol. 3,1973. p. 255.

28. Ibid, p. 256.

29. Ibid,p.255.

30. Ibid, p. 256.

31. Ibid, p. 255.

32. Ibid, p. 256.

33. Ibid

21

Chapter - II

Thematic Analysis of his ivorks

Shaikh MuhibbuUah was a prolific and voluminous writer. As a great scholar

and Sufi, Shaikh MuhibbuUah has covered almost all the aspects of Tasawwuf

in his works in Arabic and Persian language. The exact number of writings of

the Shaikh has been not counted finally till today. The biographical works on

the Shaikh have given different number of his books. We are giving here a list

of the Shaikh's works classifying them on the basis of their theme in the larger

context, with brief remarks about their subject matters.

TaijamatuI QuKan^

Shaikh Muhibbullah's Tarjamatul Kitab is a commentary on Qur'an. The

purpose of the book is to provide Qur'anic justification for the doctrine of

Wahdat-al Wujud. At several places he interprets Quranic verses in such a way

contrary to the belief of the orthodox ulama. The Shaikh later added a glossary

to the book under the title of Hashiya-e-Tarjumatul Kitab}

Sharh-e-Fusus- al Hikam^

Shaikh Muhibullah wrote a commentary on Fusus al-Hikam in Arabic

Tajalliyat al-Fusus. Later on he abridged it and brought out a Sharh-e-Fusus-

al Hikam in Persian for the use of the Persian knowing Ulama. The whole book

is fiill of Mystical discussions and the doctrine of Wahdat-al Wujud. In the

commentary, the commentator does not mention his own name or the date of

composition in the usual places. The date of completion is added on the

margin, against the colophon, the name of the author is added by a different

22

hand as Shah MuhibbuUah AUahabadi. The commentary begins immediately

with the explanations of Bismillah.

Anfas al-Khawas^

This work is on the lines of the Fiisus al-Hikam by Shaikh Ibn-i Arabi and is

divided into 81 sections, called anfas (meaning sayings). Each nafas is named

after the Prophet or the Saint, the esoteric interpretation of whose teaching and

life it contains. The book begim with al-nafas-al Ahmadi, named after al-

Haqiqatul-Ahmadiyyah (the reality of Muhammad). Then follow the anfas of

the Prophets fix)m Adam, Idris, Nuh and Ibrahim to the last Prophet

Muhammad and anfas of the first four caliphs and then came to the anfas of

some important saints of various places. The last is devoted to the author's own

spiritual teacher Abu Said Gangohi. Each nafas begins with the sayings of the

Prophets; their sayings are those which occur in the Qur'an. The whole book,

like Fusus-al Hikam, is fiill of mystical discussions and theosophical

speculations and advocates the doctrine of Wahdat- al Wujud.^

Risalah-e-Haft Ahkam^

This is a small treatise on Gnosis of God. This was written in 1053 A.H./1641

A.D. It contains seven cardinal principles of the Wahdat-al Wujud. Shaikh

Muhibbullah writes that the true gnosis of God depends on seven things. The

subjects of the treatise are: Names of God, His emanation in the world, His way

of addressing men, perfection and imperfection of being knowledge of the self,

23

the world of imagination, the knowledge of spiritual diseases and their

remedies. This is small but an important work of the Shaikh.''

Aqaid al-Khawas°

This book, as suggested by it's very title; describe the beliefs of learned men

and the Sufis. It is divided into 21 sections called daqa 'iq. They contain sufistic

and esoteric expositions of some religious responsibility, reward and

punishment, commands and prohibitions, human actions. Divine will, prophetic

office, angels, bodily resurrection, the essence of faith, retribution, mercy,

Punishment in the grave and Hell, Imamat (caliphate) etc. The author has

suggested that because of the daqa 'iq that it contains, the book also may be

QxAitiGd daqa'iq al-urafa?

Maghalit al-Ammah^°

It is a huge book consisting of a long introduction and 164 sections magalit

(meaning fallacies). In this book Shaikh MuhibbuUah discusses misconception

of the people regarding mystical beliefs. Shaikh MuhibbuUah says that when he

explained his Sufi ideas and beliefs to the people, they requested him to expel

the fallacies committed by those who are ignorant of the real truth (Wahdat- al

Wujud) and so he wrote this book."

24

Ibadat ui-Khawas^^

It is also a huge book consisting of Introduction and 537 sections. The subjects

of the book are: Gnosis of God {Marifat Allah), Islamic Sharia (origination and

practice), Sufi's love for Prophet Muhammad and his Sunnah, Un- Islamic

practice of Ulama i-Bidah or Ulama i-Rusum, Contribution of four Imams of

Fiqh (Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Shafai, Imam Malik, Imam Ahmad Ibn

Hambal) and reason for Taqlid, Zuhd, Tark i- Dunya, Wazaif of Sufis, Khilwat,

Hal (Spiritual Ecstasy), Story of jinnat and their conversion to Islam by

Prophet Muhammad, Tauha (Repentance), Karamat (Miracles), Iman (Faith),

Jahannum (Hell), Jannat (Paradise), Usool-i Fiqh, Taharat, Salat, Sawm, Hajj,

Qurb i- Nawafil}^

Taswiyah"

The most controversial work of Shaikh MuhibbuUah is his Taswiyah in which

he ardently defended the theories of Wahdat-al Wujud. This short treatise

asserts that the Shaikh is firm belief in Wahdat- al Wujud and invites Sufis to

submerge themselves in thoughts of the unity of being. This treatise provides

valuable information regarding Wahdat-al Wujud. Taswiyah establishes the

identity between God and the world. The most controversial doctrine of this

short and provocative treatise is that "Jibrail was in Muhammad himself Every

Prophet has his Jibrail in him. Jibrail speaks to every Prophet in his own

language". Taswiyah was vehemently opposed by a group of Ulama. The

25

reputed scholar Mulla Mahmood Jaunpuri wrote in refutation of Taswiyah a

treatise entitled ^Hifzul Imanfi Raddil Taswiyah".

Neither the opposition of the Ulama nor the threat of Emperor Aurengzeb

could affect the popularity of the work which was commented by a number of

eminent persons like Muhammadi Fayyaz, Shaikh Abdullah Dihelvi Bin Abdul

Baqi Naqshbandi, Ali Akbar Dihlavi, Ali Anwar Qalander Kakorwi, Maulana

Muhammad A&al Bin Abdur Rahman Abbasi Allahabadi, Shah KalimuUah

and Amanullah Banarasi etc.'

Manazir-e-Akhassul Khawas ^

Shaikh Muhibullah completed this monumental work in 1050 A,H./1640 A.D.

It is a very important Persian work on Tasawwuf written by him. It also deals

with a brief description of his mystical career and spiritual experience. In this

monumental work he discusses the basic concepts of Tasawwuf and

systematically defines and defends the theory of Wahdat-al Wujud and

differentiates between the knowledge gained by the Ulama and Sufi intuitions,

and goes on to discuss various categories of the Sufi elite and their

achievements. It emphasizes the importance of divine mercy and invites Sufis

to inculcate in themselves of love for entire creation. This book is confined to

Ibn- i Arabi's ideals based on his Futuhat-i Makkiyah and Fusus-al Hikam and

is replete with the verses firom the Qur'an and Hadith. The Shaikh quotes in

this book other Sufis also but only to support and prove the philosophy of Ibn-i

26

Arabi. This book is divided into 27 chapters'* called Manazir, (i.e., views or

doctrines). Manazir-i-Akhass al-Khawass means the doctrines of most selected

ones. A chapter-wise gist is given below to show the importance of the book.

In the first manzar he tries to establish that the doctrines of the Sufis about

God, His Essence and Attributes, Being (wujud) and the relation between the

necessary and the contingent beings etc. The second manzer discusses the

gnosis of God which, it says, is the summum bonum. The third manzar deals

with the causes of increase and decrease in knowledge. The fourth manzer

explains the highest stage of spiritual development is union with God. The

theme of the fifth manzar is night vigils and vision of God. The sixth manzar

deals with the importance of fasting. The theme of the eights manzar is the

control of the self. The ninth and tenth manzars refer to Ibn- i Arabi's doctrine

that all things turn to God because God is the essence of all.

The eleventh manzar defines the meaning of nearness and remoteness. The

twelth manzar discusses the vicegerency of God. The thirteenth manzar deals

with God's max;y. The fourteenth manzar discusses love and mercy among

himian beings. The fifteenth manzar discusses respect; since everything is a

manifestation of God, it deserves respect. The sixteenth manzar is concerned

with respect for the saints. The theme of the seventeenth manzar is love. The

eighteenth manzar discusses yearning. The nineteenth manzar is concerned

with the reality of Tasawwuf.

27

The twentieth manzer describes the stage that lies between Siddiquiat and

Nubuwwat. The twenty first manzar discusses Truth, and its realization. The

twenty second manzar discusses the problem of sima (audition) from legal as

well as metaphysical point of view. The twenty third manzar deals with

karamat (miracles) of the saints. Love of the family of the Prophet Muhammad

is the subject of the twenty-fourth manzar. Faith of the last moment (jchatima)

of the dying person is the theme of the twenty-fifth manzar. The twenty-six

manzar discusses the concept of Qutb (lit. the pivot). The last and twenty-

seventh manzar discusses Ibn-i Arabi's concept of Khatim-i-Wilayat (the seal

of the saintship).

Maktubat-e-Shalkh Muhibbullah^^

Sufis like other individuals wrote letters to their teachers, disciples, friends and

relatives, and most of them knew that their letters would subsequently be

compiled so they were cautious in describing different situations and problems.

Nevertheless, the letters are more valuable for an understanding of the stages in

the development of their theories they wrote on their teachings. They also offer

a valuable background to some historical events and social and religious

controversies. Shaikh Muhibbullah's letters in particular deal with the concepts

of Wahdat- al Wujud and answer questions asked by his Sufi friends or critics.

He wrote letters to several of his contemporaries to explain his understanding

of Wahdat-al Wujud. Their number is quite meager; only eighteen and were

written to Mulla Mahmood Jaunpuri, Shaikh Abdul Rashid Jaunpuri, Shaikh

28

Ataullah Jaunpuri, Mir Muhammad Qamiuji, Mir Syed Abdul Hakim, Shaikh

Abdur Rahim, Shaikh Taj Muhammad, Shaikh Abdur Rahman and Shahzada

Dara Shikoh.

Dara Shikoh's appointment as Governor of Allahabad in 1645A.D. brought

him into direct contact with Shaikh MuhibbuUah. Although it appears that

during this period Dara Shikoh visited neither Allahabad nor the Shaikh, he

began a correspondence with him, posing complicated questions on the

Wahdat-al Wujud. In a letter Dara Shikoh wrote that the greatest pleasure

given to him as Governor of Allahabad had been the Shaikh MuhibbuUah

residing in the same province. Some of the questions posed by Dara Shikoh in

his letters to Shaikh MuhibbuUah and the corresponding answers follow:

Dara Shikoh: What is the beginning and end of the Sufi path?

Shaikh MuhibbuUah: The beginning is liberation from a belief in unreality and

the end is the realization of the Essence of the Absolute.

Dara Shikoh: What is the significance of the statement "Return to the

beginning", made by Junaid Bagdadi to a question on the culmination of the

Sufi path?

Shaikh MuhibbuUah: Fu^tly, in the beginning the Sufi excludes the ayn

(essence), imagining the c^n as different (ghayr); in the end he absorbs himself

m the quest for the ayn. Secondly, the begiiming of the Sufi journey occurs in

the nasut (world of bodies) and proceeds to the seat (arsh) of the merciful

29

(Allah). The completion of the Sufi path involves descent from ascent. Leaders

among Gnostics (arifin) are conscious of this and realize this spiritual sphere

resemble the movement of time. The point which is at the extremity of the

circle is in fact its focus.

Dara Shikoh: What is the true significance of the Hijab i-Akbar (Great Veil)?

Shaikh Muhibbulah: If knowledge strikes (influences) the heart, it is welcome.

If knowledge strikes the body, it is a burden. I believe that all knowledge is the

hijab, for His attributes are the hijab of the essence. It is for this reason that in

their teachings Gnostics (arifin) do not insist that those who seek Reality

should attain any particular type of knowledge.

Dara Shikoh: Were the pre- Islamic prophets aware of Tawhid?

Shaikh Muhibbullah: According to Sufi a perfect form of Gnosticism is

indispensable to prophethood (nubuwat) although prophets themselves may be

unaware of this. All prophets are endowed through Divine mercy with

Gnosticism, although all the pre- Islamic ones were not Gnostics of equal

stature. It has been imequivocally ascertained that their ayn (essence) perceived

the self manifestation of the Absolute without bemg valid by attributes. In

short, they themselves were followers of Tauhid. Prophets were forced to

disseminate Divine secrets symbolically, according to the general

understanding of their times, and therefore did not openly preach on certain

esoteric matters.

30

Dara Shikoh: Are there some devotional exercises which Sufi performs

involuntarily?

Shaikh MuhibbuUah: My dear! All living beings are involuntarily concerned

with their own devotional exercises. Gnostics (arifin) who occupy a high status

indulge in devotional exercises with a full understanding of the meaning of

their actions.

Dara Shikoh: How it is possible to perform namaz-i be khatra (Undisturbed

fcoTD. external thoughts)?

Shaikh MuhibbuUah: In these circumstances when the Sufi's love for Allah

uproots all hope and fear existing in his heart and also when the exoteric and

esoteric eyes become so engrossed in enjoining the sight of the waves of the

Wahdat (Unity of Being), that they are totally unconscious of the fact they are

doing so. The waves appear because the ocean exists. The straw (wrongly)

considers itself the cause of the motion. Secondly, thoughts on the Wahdat-al

Wujud should be fi^ee fi-om anxieties relating to the waves of the creation. The

form of namaz-i be khatra is a misnomer; what actually occurs is that different

type of spiritual satisfaction are experienced by the changes in the form of the

anxiety. A perfect namaz devoid of anxiety, consequently it is the mir'aj

(highest point of ascent) for the faithful. The anxieties are internal. In a sense

Gnostics perform namaz-i be khatra through an awareness that all anxieties

emanate from the Bountiful Origmator (Allah).

31

Dara Shlkoh: Are all men equally capable of recognizing God?

Shaikh MuhibbuUah: If the rain can grow sugar-cane on all types of plots, all

human beings can recognize God in equal degree. Since there is a difference of

degree in all fundamental principles, (human beings) too are full of differences.

Dara Shikoh: How can the Infinite merge with the (human) heart?

Shaikh Muhibbullah: Those who know about the heart understand that it

belongs to the category of the Infmite.

Dara Shikoh: Does the lover (Sufi) obtain union with the Beloved (Allah) after

death?

Shaikh Muhibbullah: Death resembles a bridge which imites friends. Perfect

saints make their statement on the basis of their perfect knowledge and they say

man carmot obtain perfection without death.

Dara Shikoh: What is the difference between love and affliction?

Shaikh Muhibbullah: Affliction is a staircase leading to love.

Thus, the Sheikh's letters are very important for a proper evaluation and

explanation of Wahdat-al Wujud and puritanical reforms of the Islamic faith

and Tasawwuf His letters are exceedingly fixmk and militant in the assertion of

the superiority of Wahdat-al Wujud. Therefor, it can safely be said that these

letters explain Sheikh's ideas about Wahdat-al Wujud firmly and without

32

inhibition. The letters explain the Shaikh's concepts on Wahdat-al Wujud and

make apparent his broadly based humanitarian outlook. However, the

importance of the Sheikh's letters is far reaching, though no new mystical and

religious outlook can be glanced from the Sheikh's letters. However, his letters

answer both theological and mystical questions and shed full light on the

cultural, religious and social aspects of the 17* century Indian life.'*

33

References

1. Muhibbullah Allahabadi, Shaikh. Tarjamat-ul-Qur'an MSS (Persian).

India Office Library 1357.

2. Alvi, Muhammad Masud Anwar. Shah Muhibbullah Allahabadi.

Ma'rif, Darul Musannifin, Azamgarh, 1984. p. 13 9.

3. Muhibbullah Allahabadi, Shaikh. Sharah-e-Fusus-al Hikam MSS

(Persian), Maulana Azad Library, Abdul Hai Collection 52, A.M.U.,

Aligarh.

4. Muhibbullah Allahabadi, Shaikh. Anfas al-Khawas. MSS (Persian).

India Office Library, 1279.

5. Alvi, Masud Anwar. Shah Muhibbullah Allahbadi. Ma'rif, Darul

Musannifin, Azamgarh, 1984. p. 145.

6. Muhibbullah Allahabadi, Shaikh. Risalah-e-Haft Ahkam. MSS

(Persian). India Office Library, 1024. Cf. Syed Ather Abbas Rizvi.

History ofSufism in India, vol. 2. New Delhi, Munshiram Memorial,

1978, p.270.

7. Alvi, Masud Anwar. Shah Muhibbullah Allahabadi. Ma'rif, Darul

Musannifin, Azamgarh, 1984. p. 144.

34

8. MuhibbuUah Allahabadi, Shaikh. Aqaid al-Khawas. MSS (Persian).

India Office Library 1392.

9. Rizvi, Syed Athar Abbas. History of Sufism in India. New Delhi:

Munshiram Memorial, 1979, p.271.

10. Muhibbullah AUahabadi, Shaikh. Maghalit al-Ammah. MSS

(Persian). India Office Library 1395.

11. Alvi, Masud Anwar. Shah Muhibbulah AUahabadi. Ma'rif, Darul

Musannifin, Azamgarh .1984, p. 144.

12. Muhibbullah AUahabadi, Shaikh. Ibadatul Khawas. MSS (Persian).

India Office Library 1002.

13. Alvi, Masud Anwar. Shah MuhibbuUah AUahabadi Ma'rif, Darul

Musannifin, Azamgarh. 1984, p. 143.

14. Muhibbullah AUahabadi, Shaikh. Taswiyah. MSS (Persian). Maulana

Azad Library, A.M.U., Aligarh.

15. Alvi, Masud Anwar. Shah MuhibbuUah AUahabadi. Ma'rif, Darul

Musannifin, Azamgarh. 1984, p. 145.

16. Muhibbullah AUahabadi, Shaikh. Manazir-e-Akhassul Khawas. MSS

(Persian). Maulana Azad Library, A.M.U., Aligarh.

35

17. MuhibbuUah Allahabadi, Shaikh. Maktuhat. MSS (Persian). Maulana

Azad Library, A.M.U., Aligarh. Cf. Nizami, K.A. Fikr-0-Nazar (Urdu),

Aligaiii Muslim University Press, A.M.U., Aligarh, 1964, p. 25.

18. Alvi, Masud Anwar. Shah MuhibbuUah Allahabadi. Ma'rif, Darul

Musannifin, Azamgarh. 1984, p.140-142.

36

Chapter — III

Concept of Wahdat-al Wujud as developed by

Ibn-i Arabi

To understand the Ibn-i Arabi's doctrine of the Unity of Existence {Wahdat-al

Wujud) first we should study the meaning and connotation of the Existence

(wujud) itself The etymology of existence suggests two different meanings.

First, it means the concept or Uie idea of 'Being' existent. Secondly it means

that it has an existence. Absolute existence (wujud-i mutlaq) or universal

existence (yvujud-al kulli) is the reality to which all existence ows its existence.

Ibn-i Arabi, as Affifi points out, uses the term existence in both the senses.

Absolute existence has been used by Ibn-i Arabi to communicate at least four

senses, which are mentioned below:

(i) Absolute in the sense that it is limited to no form and common to all «

forms (Immanence).

(ii) Absolute in the sense of not being in any form but transcending all

forms (transcendence).

(iii) Absolute in the sense of not being the cause of anything, self

subsisting.

(iv) Absolute in the sense of reality of realties (Supreme).^

Sometimes Ibn-i Arabi uses absolute existence in different misleading

metaphors like blmdness (al-ama), diacritical point {al-nuqtah) or the centre of

the circle {markazul da'ra). We here reproduce an extract from Fusus-al

37

Hikam, which is suggestive of the different meanings of absolute existence,

"were it not for the permeation of God by means of this form, in all existence,

the world would have no existence, just as, were it not for the intelligible

universal realities {al haqaiq al ma'qual al kulliyah) no predications (ahkam)

for external objects would be possible."

Let us now understand the different meanings to which extract leads us.

(i) Itmaymeantheunityofall individual beings in the past, present and

future in one being whether it be the universal substance, primary

matter of God.

(ii) It may mean that the absolute being manifests itself in all form and

discourse.

(iii) It may mean as the source of all existence that has a being

(iv) It may mean the universal and the beings of any other existence to a

particular mode or manifestation.

Being in the modem sense is an adjectival or substantial which deteimines or

manifests itself in different modes, colours, shapes, and space and time etc.'

The different meanings of absolute being create a confusion. It begins when

Ibn-i Arabi says that being as existence is separable in the mind from the

concept. Let us make it explicit by an example. The universal concept is

separable from the existence like the concept of man is mentally separable from

38

the existence of man, but the concept and existence are inseparable in the

external world, so is the case with the being. The concept of being as Ibn-i

Arabi says is separable in the mind from the existence but it stands inseparable

in the world of objects. The existence as a concept and mahiyat are separable in

the mind but identical in the world of objects.'

Ibn-i Arabi envisages that the absolute reality is the source of all existence.

Existence as concept is Identical with the existence in the external world. From

it follows that all existence owes its existence to one which is an absolute

reality. We know only the limited existence which Ibn-i Arabi regards cannot

origin in themselves and so must have a source and cause of all existence.^

There has been a controversy regarding the essence and existence (zat and

wujud). Some believe them to be Identical and others separable Ibn-i Arabi

agrees with the former. He says the absolute existence whose existence and

essence are Identical or whose existence is necessary is the source of all being

in the sense of a reality. This essence is all realized or realizable with the

properties and accidents. Upon the manifestations of existence and essence, the

mind exerts the notion of abstract existence.^

With it we come to the problem of the separation of existence in thought. The

absolute existence is separable from the absolute existent in thought. The

quality of a thing separated in the mind is mere conception. The existence

cannot be conceived in any thing other than * mahiyat' of a thing. According to

39

Affifi, Ibn-i Arabi, when separate the existence and concept of a thing commit

a logical contradiction by making an existential proposition a predication

proposition. In this way Ibn-i Arabi seeks to prove that the absolute existence is

the source of all that exists.* With this we come to the problem of being and not

being. According to Ibn-i Arabi, all that has a bemg must exist in one form or

the other, to tiiis he calls 'awo/zw' or 'maratib' (Planes or stages). According

to him there are four types of being:

(1) Being in the external world.

(2) Intelligible being.

(3) Being of a thing in spoken word and

(4) Being of a thing in script.

All that exist must manifest itself in one or the other of these stages. Existing

in none of them is not being. If a thing exists in one of these planes and does

not exist in the other is a being in the plane in which it exists and is not a being

in the plane in which it does not exist. Here it seems, as if Ibn-i Arabi were to

prove that a thing may exists conceptually and may not exist as a concrete

object.'

Regarding Allah Ibn-i Arabi thinks that He has the knowledge of things prior to

their existence in the external world. Thus things exist in two planes:

(1) Intelligible being

40

(2) Concrete being (being of a thing in the external world).

To us they may exist in the concrete form in the external world. The intelligible

being of them is in God. On it he bases his concept of universe and man. He

regards the universe to the eternal and temporal simultaneously. It is eternal

because, it is hi the knowledge of God and temporal because it has a concrete

being, that is, it exists in the external world. °

Relative 'being' may either be actual external world or potential. To this, he

sometimes calls possible being. By not being he means, a thing exiting in

neither of the planes. A thing existing in one and not existing in the other plane,

for existence in the external world is not being. Pure non- being is not possible,

it can only be imagined. We can conceive its opposite, logical contradiction or

a reason of its non-existence.''

There are three types of being:

(1) Necessary being

(2) Contingent being

(3) Impossible being.

Necessary being means the being whose existence is itself necessitated or

which exists itself. It is Allah alone. A contingent being is one whose existence

is not essential. Its bemg and not being are equally possible. An impossible

being is one whose non existence is derived from some reason.'^

41

In the doctrine of Ibn-i Arabi, there is no place for possible or contingent being

except that he calls Ayan-i thabita as possible. In reality they exist as

potentialities which must necessarily be actualized. The categories of

contingent being are denied because an existence must either be necessary or

be made necessary (wajibul wujud- i til ghayr). In this way Ibn-i Arabi comes

to conclude that there are two types of beings, mainly the necessary being and

the impossible being.'^

Ibn-i Arabi considers that there is only one reality but it is viewed from two

angels. In the sense of reality we call it Khalq, manifesting its essence. Both are

Identical. There is a unity in diversity. *Haq' and 'Khalq' are two subjective

aspects of one. The diversity is empirical. When we regard him through him,

He is all essence. When we regard Him through ourselves, He is in things or

He is in His manifestation.

The existing difference between one and many is actually no difference

multiplicity is due to different points of view not to an actual dimension in one

essence (Ayn). In the philosophy of Ibn-i Arabi, ontologically speaking, there

is a reality' transcending the phenomenal world and a multiplicity of

subjectivities fmding their explanation in the grounds of essential unity. ^

Ibn-i Arabi explains this duality on logical grounds. The objects in the

phenomenal world are contingent beings, but it is necessary that they should be

self subsisting and thereby necessary beings. Their eternity is affirmed on the

42

same ground. Logically speaking the contingent beings must have their

existence in a necessary being in the form of potentiality or they could not have

come in the existence.

Let us recall as we have said before, that Ibn-i Arab! reduces all into one

reality, one stands as a continuant to its occurants or a substance to its

accidents. The one is logically different from them but actually one with them.

It is due to our finite mmds that v e make a distinction between one and many

and consider that there is plurality of beings. According to Ibn-i Arabi, a Sufi

can transcend into a super mental state - intuition and see the underlying reality

of many. We multiply the one due to ahkam (prediction). The fact regarding

the difference of colour shape, and spatio-temporal relation are actually

nothing.''

All that has been written till know beings us to some paradoxes like 'He is V

and 'I am not He'. Haq is fJialq and Khalq is not Haq. These paradoxes are

seeming paradoxes. In reality there is nothing like that. According to Ibn-i

Arabi, there is a complete reciprocity and a mutual dependence between one

and many. None of them has a without the other.

Ibn-i Arabl's concept of Tauhld

In his Wujudi or Tawhidi doctrine, we find a unity of Hallaj's doctrine of

'Lahuf and 'Nasut\ Hallaj's doctrine of form and essence seems to have paved

the way for Ibn-i Arabi's wujudi doctrine, but there is a fundamental difference

43

between the two, for Hallaj's Lahut and Nasut (spiritual and material) are of

the different nature, but for Ibn-i Arabi, they are the two aspects of the one, in

the form and the essence the are one; different names for the one.'^

Like Hallaj, Ibn-i Arabi never admits the theory of Hulul. He neither separates

man from reality nor believes in the fusion of reality in man. Repudiating

Hallaj, Ibn-i Arabi says, "the two are always there and there is no sense of

saying that one becomes the other".'^

Relation between the real and the phenomenal

Ibn-i Arabi often explains the relation between the real and the

phenomenal world metaphorically. Since these metaphors are ambiguous,

much care should be taken in interpreting them, else He may be understood

contrary to what he is.

First, he explains the relation between the real and the phenomenal with the

help of the metaphor of the mirror and the Image. The one as an object sees its

image in many mirrors appearing different in each of them. The world is a

screen on which the shadow falls, whatever is seen on the screen is nothing but

real. Secondly, he offers the metaphor of the permeation. The many permeates

the one in the way as the qualities and colour permeate the substance, the one

permeates the many as the food permeates the body. God is, as Ibn-i Arabi

conceives, our spiritual food for He is our essence and through us He is

realized. Thirdly, he offers the metaphor of 'Vessel'. The many springs from

44

the one and shall return to it. The one is like a vessel to the many in which its

essence subsists. Fourthly, he explains the relation with the metaphor of

number like mathematical one. The one is a diacritical point. The relation

between the one and the many is like the relation between one and other

infmite numbers coming from it. Fifthly, we come to the analogy of the body

and its part. The body is an organic whole. Its parts though possessing an entity

of their own, have none if departed from the body. The phenomenal world is

like the parts having no entity without the organic whole, the one the parts are

important for without them the body cannot be conceived. The phenomenal

world thereby even after being the parts is important and necessary for the

realization of the one. In spite of these metaphors the unity remains

unexplained. Finally, Ibn-i Arabi conceives that the super mental state or

intuition alone is able to perceive the unity.'*

Ibn-i Arabi shoxild not be mistaken. He never regards the phenomenal world to

be real in the sense the One is - He, of course, calls it Haqq, the reality but

never considers it to be, Al-Haqg, the real. According to him, the many has

two aspects namely (i) the aspect of difference and (ii) essentially oneness with

one another, actually, this is one aspect of unity. The former aspect is summed

up in what Ibn-i Arabi calls contingency (Imkan), Slavery {Ubudiyyah) and

temporal ness (Huduth). The latter is what he calls necessity (wujub) lordship

(rububiyyah) and eternity (gidam) and so on, and now we know what sense the

45

slave in the lord and the apparent is the real and in what sense we should

interpret Ibn-i Arabi's paradoxes 19

It has been clearly explained that the duality of Haq and Khalq, the real and the

material, is not actually any duality in Ibn-i Arabi. This duality may be

comprehended as Identical to what we call differentiating the attributes. As

regard to this, Ibn-i Arabi uses two Arabic terms 'tanzih' and 'tashbih'. For

him, God hears and sees not because He has eyes or ears, but because He is

immanent and hears and sees in the beings capable of these attributes. In this

sense. He is immanent. He is transcendent because His essence lays above all

beings and in spite of being everywhere and in everything He is on par. Thus

His essence can not be individualized and so He is transcendent. In this way he

reduces the term Uanzih' and ^tashbih' to mean absoluteness and limitedness.

Ibn-i Arabi asserts, it is true that God has hands and feet as the Qur'an

describes but When the Qur'an ascribes these attributes to Him, it means that

he is hands and feet of all those having hands and feet. The very being of God

is beyond all limitations. He is in every thing and yet above all things. On the

same contention Ibn-i Arabi rejects the Christian doctrine of incarnation

'HuluV To him, it is true that God is Christ but he is Christ in the sense in

which He is in everything. To make it e^qjlicit we may say that He is Christ and

He is other created beings either but to say that Christ is God is identical to

limit Him to one form which according to Ibn i Arabi is Infidelity. Ibn-i Arabi

envisages that complete reality can be understood only when it is viewed by

46

taking the transcendence and immanence both into account. He adds that Islam

is the only religion which treats the both of reality at par.

Ibn-i Arabi whenever says that God is in everything treats it as a logical

proposition but always denies the compares of it that everything is 'God'. The

two aspects transcendence and Immanence constitute reality. The Haq

constitute transcendence and Khalg constitute immanence. Let us see all the

possibilities by which transcendence can be comprehended and asserted.

There can be three possibilities. In the first a man asserts God to be

transcendent. Now man has his own limitations so Ibn-i Arabi holds the view

that man's assertion of his (his God) transcendence is limited whatever abstract

form man may apply, it will remain limited and God's transcendence is beyond

all limitations. The other possibility of admitting His transcendence is created

by our intellect. According to Ibn-i Arabi our intellect cannot perceive anything

beyond the phenomenal world, for its knowledge in based on it. The intellect

conceives the unity (Tawhid) but as Ibn-al Arabi says it is of 'Muwahid'

(Unitarian) and not of God. 'God's' unity in the sense of complete

transcendence is not possible to be understood by the Intellect which has its

own limitations. Another possibility of its comprehension is correct in the

unaided intellect. Ibn-i Arabi's view of transcendence is an echo of Hallaj's

view. A Sufi can understand the complete unity in ecstatic flight otherwise God

alone knows the real transcendence. A Sufi understands it with the help of

super-mental intuition. This higher form of transcendence is beyond all

47

assertions. The unity of transcendence by Ibn-i Arabi is called 'tanzih-a\

tawhicT. Transcendence in the real sense is different from that understood by

intellect. The one comprehended by it is a logical co-relative of immanence. '

As regards to the definition of God, Ibn-i Arabi says that no complete

definition of God can be given for the higher form of transcendence

comprehended by us is one reached by our intellect, the logical correlative of

immanence. It is, therefore, whatever definition of God is given, will be on the

basis of the transcendence and immanence comprehended by us and since

human knowledge is incomplete, no real and complete definition of God can be

put forward.^

Thus there are two forms of transcendence, one belonging to the divine essence

and the other belonging to Godhood comprehended by intellect as a logical

correlative of immanence. The attributes of transcendence are predicable of the

later form. These attributes are summed up in absoluteness as contrasted with

the limitedness. The transcendence asserted by intellect assumes the following

forms. He is transcendent in the sense of being absolute or He is transcendent

in the sense of necessary being, self, begotten and self caused as contrasted

with contingent being created being or caused being of the phenomenal world.

He may he called transcendent in the sense that he is unknowable and

incommunicable and beyond all proofs. This second kind of transcendence if

taken as the whole explanation of immanence is rejected by Ibn-i Arabi.

48

According to him, reality is constituted of both transcendence and

immanance.^

Causality and its place in Ibn-I Arabl's system

It should be bom in mind that Wahdat-al Wujud hardly admits any possibility

of causality for the proponents believe that the phenomenal world is the self-

realization or manifestation of God and reality (Haq) and (Khalq) is one. Ibn-i

Arab! similarly asserts that cause and effect are more terms which, to him, are

nothing but subjective categories. If at all the causality is to be upheld, Ibn-i

Arabi says God is the cause and the phenomenal world is the effect. In this

way, he believes in it, but in the other he refutes it which we shall see later. '*

«

To begin with, he makes a distmction between the two ways of causality

(1) causality applied to the universe as a whole which would mean that the

universe is caused by something which is its cause. The question comes, what

is it that has caused it?

(2) The causality applied to the parts of the universe meaning thereby the

causal cormection perceived in the parts of the universe Ibn-i Arabi raises no

objection to it, but this kind of causality is immanent and not transcendent, the

part of the universe on an organic whole stand in a causal relation noticed in

the universe is actually a relation between one divine aspect and the other

belonging to the same, continuant. The 'Lahiit' one divine aspect is the cause

49

and the 'Nasuf in the effect. He does not admit the reality of other causes for

doing so, because it will make him a polytheist 25

This assertion of Ibn-i Arabi makes the cause and effect identical. The unaided

intellect is at a loss to understand and explain it. A Sufi by virtue of his

intuition understands the problem in the following manner. Cause and effect

both are the aspects of reality. The cause (so called) is as a being both an

essence and a form. By virtue of its bemg an essence it is a cause of some other

aspects and by virtue of its being a form it is an effect of some other aspect. In

this way cause and effect are Identical that is a cause is a cause and an effect

simultaneously. The cause factors are determined by effect factors, to say in

other words a cause is an effect of its own effect, not in the sense of being

produced but m the sense of being determined. This doctrine can be

apprehended if we believe in the impossibility of the plurality of causes,

considering a cause to be having the other cause brings us to the question as to

what is the other. If the cause and effect are taken to be one, all is then

considered as the modes of one cause or the modes of one effect. This motion

of causality helps to explain 'becoming'. All changes taking place in the world,

which Ibn-i Arabi calls creation, are thus explained. The activity and the

passivity of the form and essence run side by side. ^

At the outset of it, Ibn-i Arabi asks a question whether between the world and

God there is a causal relation or a conditional relation. If God is a cause (illat)

or a condition {shart) it means universe is taken as a contingent being as

50

contrasted with necessary being. The necessary being is self existent and self

subsistent. God is a condition to the universe, Ibn-i Arabi refutes. He thinks

that from a condition of a thing it does not follow that it must exist. For

instance to be alive is a condition to acquire knowledge or to as to have legs is

a condition to be able to walk but from the condition of life the knowledge does

not entail or the condition of having legs does not necessarily mean the ability

of walking. This condition of a thing does not necessarily entail the existence

of a thing. Of course, tiie existence of a thing presumes a condition.

A cause as cause must produce its effect. Thus existence of effect necessarily

entails from the cause. In this way Ibn-i Arabi considers that between God and

world there is a causal relation. The Shaikh argues that God had the universe in «

His knowledge and since it was in Him, it must have come into existence. He

does not share this view of creation that the universe was created out of

nothing. He refutes the creation ex nihilio. ^

Regarding the eternity of the world Ibn-i Arabi says that it is eternal because it

was never non-existent but apart from it he believes that God is the only eternal

being and the universe being the outward expression of eternal, infmite and

everlasting being is also eternal, infmite and everlasting. Regarding the next

world Ibn-i Arabi thinks that it is always in making. This world and the next

world are mere names; the things when annihilated are transformed to the next

world to come into existence again. The moment in which one from disappears

is similar to the one in which the other comes into existence. There is no other

51

process of creation apart from it. The time interval, as conceived by others in

the process of creation has no meaning for Ibn-i Arabi. He only believes in the

logical priority of cause and effect. '

Ibn-i Arabi believes that a thing is a renewed existence. He thinks that a thing

is an eternal existent in its 'Subut* and a temporal existence in its 'Zuhoor\ To

say that a thing exists is nothing more tiian to say that some one appeared in the

house today. The appearance of today does not employ that he had no previous

existence. In a passage in 'Fusm-al Hikam' Ibn-i Arabi says that God does not

create anything. Creation is the concrete manifestation of a thing and it belongs

to itself To say that something is an existence means that it has manifested

itself God only vdlls a thing to reveal itself in concrete manifestation. God

does not will and command which does not necessarily entail from the things

themselves or from the nature or laws of things. Laws of things, accordingly to

Ibn-i Arabi, are nothing but God. All things in their essence exist in one course,

that is, the divine essence which manifests itself in concrete form. To explain

causality on logical grounds, Ibn-i Arabi admits the possibility of two triads,

each coiresponding to the other. One tried consists of essence, will and word.

It is the trinity of God. The second trinity is constituted of essence, obedience

and learning. **

God is the creator or course in this sense only. The world is eternal in the same

sense. He derived the eternity of the worid in the sense that co-eternal with God

is only the essence of the world and not the forms. Ibn-i Arabi does not admit

52

the temporal interval in the process of creation. He only believes in the logical

priority or before and after. Going to step forward he says that the creator and

created are related in the way as yesterday with today. They can not be

conceived to be temporally related for they are themselves time.^'

Causality of the divine names

Ibn-i Arabi considers the divine names to be the cause of things. The divine

names are considered by him as the line of force, each of them demands. They

are the attributes of God head. For instance the knower demands something to

be known and the creator something to be created. Each of them corresponds to

an aspect of reality and in a way it is the cause of that aspect. Every aspect

iyvajah) and every reality (hagiqah) corresponds to some divine name. It hiay

be made clear that he always does not call the divine names as causes. He some

times calls them conditions. He goes on saying that God was when the world

was not. This statement should be taken to mean that God was when the world

was not and divines names express the potentialities of God. With a view to

reconciling his wujudi doctrine with the Islamic concept of Allah, he indulges

in a metaphysical paradox and asserts at one place that we are attributes of God

and that the divine names have no meaning without the phenomenal world.

And it another place, he says that God existed will all His divine names before

the existence of the phenomenal world.

53

Essence-Attributes and names

As it has already been mentioned that the divine essence is the universal

substance and the divine names are the names of the aspects of the divine

essence they are, as Ibn-i Arabi thinks, the manifestation of divine essence in

the external world {rnazhar). The attributes are the manifestation; they are

limited or determined to one or the other aspect. The divine names are the

manifestations of the divine substance in different degrees (maratib).

Ibn-i Arabi considers that the attributes of God are neither the same nor other

than the same. He considers them to be mere relations, determining the

manifestation. The attributes of Ibn-i Arabi are like the intelligible ideas. Thus

he considers attributes to be neither Identical with God nor apart from Him.

The divine names are multiplicity, determining the manifestation of the divine

essence in one aspect or the other. Each of these qualities as aspect is also

identical with God. They even after determining as aspect remain one with the

divine essence.

Reality in reiation to our Icnowledge

Reality in relation to our knowledge has three aspects (1) Reality as we know

it, we need not explain it for it stands evident and explained (2) Reality as

manifested in the external world which is limited to our senses and intellect and

in which the relations are thought of and seen. Though it is seen as multiplicity,

yet Ibn-i Arabi regards it a unity. Every part of the phenomenal world is the

54

•I \ih \ whole and thereby a unity in itself. It has the capacity i f nlaiufesting itself. The

third aspect of reality can be viewed by intuition alone. It cari^efeSized by a

Sufi but its logical existence can be inferred. It is certainly God very much

different fi*om a fictitious deity. Ibn-i Arabi admits no such conception of God

which deprives Hun of this absoluteness and makes Him a lesser unity. He

never admits any reality apart from Him.

According to Ibn-i Arabi, reality can be conceived through the phenomenal

world. A quotation to make it clear is rendered. 'The key to the mystery of

"Lordship" is (The Phenomenal). Apart from it the reality as conceived is a

logical correlative of the world. So the attributes of the phenomenal world do

demand their logical correlatives such as contingency demands necessity, 0

finitude infinity and relativeness absoluteness.

(1) Transcendental attributes are logical correlatives of immanent attributes

which have no application and the attributes of God in relation to the universe.

The latter have been already explained. Now we have to explain the

transcendental attributes and the immanent attributes. We must not predicate of

Him the attributes like hearing or seeing. Although he is the essence of all that

hears and sees. It is by way of marking out the God - head from the two

subjective aspects of reality. Let us enquire into the meaning of this proposition

of Ibn-i Arabi that we ourselves including the phenomenal world are the

attributes of God. There is nothing in the phenomenal world which can be

attributed to Him. His meaning and spirit are not found in the phenomenal

55

world. The first part of the preposition explains the eminence of God; the

second part gives an account of His transcedence. ^

The reality which is not directly perceived, but logically inferred is like a

substance perceived by its accidents. It admits no oppositions or contradictions.

It has no quality or quantity, yet all qualities and quantities come from it. Like

substance it can be perceived in the states (modes) only, which, in this case, is

the phenomenal world. This reality is often referred by vague terms as "Pure

light", or "Pure good" or blindness 'Al-Ama'?^

It is a state of complete unity. It is not an object of worship. The object of

worship is the Lord not the one. This unity admits no plurality. Though

multiplicity belongs to it, yet it is a unity. Multiplicity belongs to blindness

(Al-Ama) of which it can never be emancipated. It is the state of the 'one to

who belong the burning splendor. The manifestation of multiplicity in the

phenomenal world is to vanish; no one will remain except God. The veil of

unity can in ever be removed. To quote: "Do not hope. O my friend: the Veil of

the unity will ever be removed", limit your hope, therefore, to the attainment of

knowledge of the Oneness, the unity of the divine Names."^^

According to Ibn-i Arabi reality as explained in absolute Agnosticism and

Gnosticism meet in the essential unity. Only God knows what He really is. The

divine essence is not known even by a Sufi because he belongs to multiplicity.

Ibn-i Arabi admits no such personal God either within or outside the universe

56

controlling it extremely. This forms the nucleus of Ibn-i Arabi's Wahdat-al

Wujud. God being an object of belief is an object of our knowledge. He has

both positive and negative attributes. He is known to us by us. In this sense

God becomes only a phrase.^'

In place of ethical God of Islam Ibn-i Arabi's God is identical with the universe

who is a principle controUmg the universe. The absolute is reduced into a mere

nominal or logical relation. His attributes belongs to his rank (al-martaba,

al- daraja). God does not create but createdness belongs to His rank. In fact,

the creator and the created are one and the same. *

Explanation of ethical and personal names

§

In order to e}q)lain the ethical and personal names of God, he uses two

methods. In the first place he reduced the names in the mere logical and

psychological relations. In the second place he gives a physiology of terms.

Ibn-i Arabi does not touch those attributes which have wujudi bearing. A

common name of God, if it fits in his doctrine of Wahdat-al Wujud, he steals

the sight firom it. Only those attributes are explained which have no wujudi

bearing and interprets them in accordance with his methods mentioned above.

The explanation of such attributes follows in Futuhat-i Makkiya. The presence

of God which he calls 'Hadrat' is a state of mystic mind. A mystic realizes His

presence in the objects. Here the meanmg of 'Hazraf is different from the

meaning of five 'Hadard' which are the five states of being. The presence of

57

Godhead {al-hadrat-al illahiya) is the state in which God is revealed as 'Allah'.

The attributes of His mercifuhiess is revealed in the mercifulness in the

universe. The interpretation belongs to Ibn-i Arabi himself. '

Each of the 'Hadara' has two aspects, one transcendental and the other

Immanent we shall first consider the aspects of transcendence which is

explained with the help of philological method. The philological method

even changes the forms of the names. To illustrate it the following examples

are given:

1. The name 'Al-mumirC (peace giver) is interpreted as extinction of the

supplication of the soul, and is identified with the mystic intuition.

»

2. Al-jabbar (all compeller). Jabbar is derived from 'Jabr' which means

compulsion but this compulsion, according to Ibn-i Arabi is internal not

external. He interprets it as necessity against contingency All things

follow their law of necessity, and so compulsion on the part of God is

the necessary manifestation of Him in things.

3. Al-Mutakabbir (The proud), is interpreted to mean that he transcends

his contingent attributes.

4. Al-ghqffar (the pardoner). He derives it from Ghqffar the veil or cover

and interprets it as His veiling in the forms 'Azzahar\ the external is

the greatest form in which he veils.

58

5. Aadil (Just one) is derived from (al-adl) which he takes to mean to

incline from one thing to another. According to him, God has incUned

from His essential necessity {hazrat-ul wujub-i dhati) to that

phenomenal necessity (hadrat-ul-wajib-ul ghayr). Ibn-i Arabi explains

the will {ircuki) in a similar manner, the state unmanifested is in the

state of equilibrium (ittadal) and the manifestation is adl. The divine

essence is inclined to manifest itself in the phenomenal world.

6. Al-latif(iihe subtle, the benevolent and the most pleasant) is understood

by him us substance. The explanation that Ibn-i Arabi prefers for it is

almost materialistic God can not be more subtle than he is m the

phenomenal world. He is most obvious in the manifestations. No eyes

see anything other then He. Ibn-i Arabi quotes all the passages of

Qur'an and Hadith to support his wujudi doctrine.

7. Al-Hqfiz (All preserving one) is rendered to interpretation as the

preserver of all existence in the sense of being. He submits in all beings

to preserve their essence.

8. Al-Muqit (The provider) is interpreted to mean the feeder with all

beings.

9. Al-Raqib (The watchful) is interpreted to mean the being watchful as

the essence of all things. God is watchful of all things because He is

essence of all things.

59

10. Al-Sami (Hearing one) is often interpreted in relation all knowing {al-

alim) in the sense of revealing Himself to Himself All hearing Ibn-i

Arabi thinks, on the part of God means responding to the inner call of

the things lying in the state of latency. Hallaj and Ibn-i Arabi both agree

to this view with a difference of potentiality of multiplicity, one

believing in it and the other disagreeing with it. It is on this basis that

Ibn-i Arabi builds the edifice of *Ayan-i thabita' which shall be

considered later.

11. Al-Dahr. (Time), by him it is taken to mean infinity. Time to him is

eternity and everlastingness and in between God is extended to

infinity.*'

Similarly he interprets many other names. His interpretation is based on the

object he has in his concept. The creative of God of Islam is more creative but

remains in the infinite forms. The problem of ethical and personal attributes

comes when there is a duality of God and universe that is something other than

God, but Ibn-i Arabi's system admits no such possibility. Any kind of duality

or plurality whether it be the duality of God and universe or the plurality of

attributes is according to him subjective. But Ibn-i Arabi himself often makes

the subjective as objective inspite of his warning to us. The duality of God and

universe which is held by his as subjective often becomes more concrete and

real than his system should admit it.*'

60

The two aspects of the divine names:

The description of the two aspects of the divine name is another way of

explaining the distinction between the real and the phenomenal. One aspect of

the divine names belongs to the real unity and other to the external world.

Each of the divine names expresses one or the other activity of the infinite

activities of the divine essence. The external world being manifestation is

nothing but the divine names and it is passive. The former aspect is Al-

Tahaqquq (the point of view of the real), the later he calls Al-Takhalluq (the

point of view of the created). The way with which the manifestation becomes

possible is called Al-talluq.

The divine names are active in relation to Ayan-i thabita. They are nothing but

the phenomenal world in latency. It is a hierarchy. The higher one is active in

relation to the lower one and the lower is passive in relation to the higher one.

It is an important point in the metaphysics of Ibn-i Arabi that he is categorically

convinced that there is only one reality. Multiplicity, activity passivity

attributes and names are merely the modes of that one Reality. The fixed

prototypes are the latent realities/"*

Ayn-i thabita

It is for the first time that Ibn-i Arabi uses the term {Ayan-i thabith) in Muslim

philosophy by which he means the latent reality in the divine essence.

61

According to Ibn-i Arabi, the phenomenal world was present in the divine

essence as potentiality. Their knowledge is the divine knowledge of His

becoming in future. God knows Himself through Himself. The eternal

knowledge of Him made Him known of ''Ayan-i thabita" lying in him as

potentialities. They are expressed in the terms of divine names. The Ayn-i

thabita has a two fold nature. As Ayan, they are the intelligible Ideas of God

and they are the modes of the divine essence. This two fold nature is explained

by using the terms of'^Mahiya" and "Huwqyyah". As Mahiya the 'AyrC are the

intelligible ideas. As huwayyah they are the essential modes of the divine

essence.^

Smce tiie Ayan-i thabita are tiie potentialities m the divine essence they cannot

be regarded as separate from it. They, as states of the divine essence, have no

other existence than the divine essence. We can say so because the mental

states of own mind are nothing apart from it. In the same way the Ayn-i thabita

are the divine essence themselves. Conceptually, of course, we can separate

them from the essence as states, as we do it in case of our mind and its states.

Similarly the ^*Ayan-i thabita"^ are the parts of the divine essence as

potentialities, but as states they can conceptually be separated from the divine

essence. Ibn-i Arabi calls them as non-existents. By saying so he only means

that they do not exist externally. Having gone through his theory of Ayn-i

thabita one is led to think if Ayan-i thabita can stand apart as concrete forms

or if they are simply the intelligible ideas of God. In connection with this we

62

shall quote Ibn-i Arabi himself. Regarding the question about 'Ayan-i thabita'

Ibn-i Arabi prefers two explanations. In accordance with the first the Ayan-i

thabita are the states of non-existence transferred into existence. In

accordance with the first the Ayan-i thabita are the states of non-existence

transferred into existence. In accordance with the second, it is 'hukm' or

command through with the Ayan of God. It is the relation of the Image and

the muTor. The so called thing, the external object, the contingent 'Ayari'

must see each other in and through the mirror of Ayan of God. God manifests

them and them they see each other when He manifests Himself in the other. In

the state of latency they are mere non existents. However, in any case, Ibn-i

Arabi emphasizes on the denial of the existence of Ayan-i tabita. It is never

considered as the objective being having an Independent existence. Even as

intelligible ideas, the Ayan-i thabita are but the essence not determined of

particularized. In order to explain it Ibn-i Arabi uses rhetoric language. God

revealed Himself to Himself in the most holy emanation in the forms oiAyan

(al-faydul aqdas). Ibna-i Arabi holds that there was nothing in the beginning.

God at the outset manifested 'Himself in Aayn-i thabita" with existence. To

say it explicitly, God first manifested Himself in the essence of things and

there after bestowed the existence on it. It means that the very being of things

includmg His own being is Him and by manifesting Himself in the being of

things (ayan) and enveloping them with existence. He manifested Himself in

the world. It is for this reason that the followers of Wahdat-al Wujud

63

emphatically advocate that God is the only existence and the other existences

are nothing but the manifestation of the one 45

Ibn-i Arabi often presents 'Ayan-i thabita' as the pure and simple ideas and

sometimes he describes them to be essence of things. Not only this, but he also

calls them the spirits. ^Ayan-i thabita' as he views them, are the intelligible

forms in the consciousness of God. Because God cognizes them with the help

of their essence or spirit (Ruh). His knowledge of them is not based on

perception, but he cognizes them as they are with him in his consciousness with

their own essence. The knowledge based on perception is acquired by the mind

of man in which there is a duality lying in thinking and being thought. His

knowledge of them is based on the complete imity of them with Him.'*

Having described the Ayart-i thabita, we now come to their position in the

world. The Aayan-i thabita have an intermediary position between God and the

phenomenal world. They are the beginnings of the future manifestations to

describe it more clearly; we can say that by cognizing the Ayan-i thabita. He

revealed Himself in them and through them in the '^Ayan' of things. To Ibn-i

Arabi no Sufi can have the knowledge of the beginning of this process that is to

say when God cognized the intelligible forms, present in his consciousness.

The knowledge of Ayn-i thabita is possible for a Sufi by making efforts to

know his own essence 'ayan\ Having realized his own essence, he can attain

the knowledge of the divine essence. The Ayan-i t}iabita, being intermediary

between the divine and the phenomenal world, are at the same time passive and

64

active. They are passive as the intelligible forms in the consciousness of the

divine being and active as the potentialities to become the future existent. Ibn-i

Arabi attributes function and activity to Ayan-i thabita. This attribute makes

them potentiality, having a determination to become actuality. The

determination or {Jmkm) is only a logical determination.

HisWahdat-alWujud

We have explained the doctrine of Ibn-i Arabi to a great extent. Our

explanation was so far based on logical grounds. We shall now speak of the

metaphysical grounds of his Wahdat- al Wujud,^^

Ibn-i Arabi, like other wujudi considers God to be the only existence. He exists «

above all times. His existence of self proved and self evident. To him no proof

of existence is required for it stands indispensable and proved. He thinks what

proof can be required when we know that He exists in every thing or, in other

words, all the objects are His manifestation. He is present in the essence or ayn

of everything. Owing to this, no proof of His existence is required. He existed

all times and shall over be. There is not even a 'there' 'where', the essence of

all things is one. It means that God alone exists and there is no other existence

apart from His. The multiplicity of existence is simply the modes of the

Reality. God alone is the ultimate reality. He is infinite, eternal and real.''

Ibn-i Arabi tries to base his doctrine ofwujud in Islam, but there is undoubtedly

a difference between God of Islam and doctrine of Wahdat of Ibn -i Arabi.

65

Islam proposition that there is God and God exists alone. He is eternal, infinite

and real. The difference is seen in proposition of Wahdat-al Wujud that God is

in every thing. To be is difference from to be in everything. The doctrine of

Wahdat-al Wujud is based on the philosophical speculations of the unity of the

universe with God. Like other Wujudi, Ibn-i Arabi also believes in only one

existence and it is the existence of God. There is something more which

distinguishes him from other wujudi like "Hallaj". Before coming to this, let us

make it clear that wujud is eitlier looked upon from a philosophical point of

view or a Sufi point of view. A Sufi arrives at wujud with the help of his

experience. The philosopher infers wujud from the unity of the universe witii

God. Ibn-i Arabi reaches it with the help of both. Having perceived the essence

of the universe, he concludes its imity with God. Unlike other wujudi Sufis, he

defies the belief in the union with God. Contrary to this he holds that for a Sufi

to become one with Him, has to realize himself He has to see what exist in

Him. It means that there is nothing like becoming one with Him as it shows the

duality of existence. He is the only existence and is present in Hun as well.

What is required on the part of a Sufi is to realize his own essence {ayan)

through which he manifests Himself Thus there is no question of union with

Him for He is in everything. This belief makes Ibn-i Arabi distinguished from

other wujudi. What he shares with others is the belief in the unity and

absoluteness of God. The wujudi advocate the belief in 'tauhid- al mutlaq\

God is one and absolute.'*^

66

Inspite of the fact that all the objects are the manifestation of God, there is

bound to be a distinction between Him and His manifestations. His

manifestations are the forms, and as forms, we depend on Him. Our

dependence distinguishes us from Him who is independent. Ibn-i Arabi holds

'so on Him alone we depend on everything - our dependence on other things is

in reality dependence on Him for they are nothing but His modes. In

connection with the dependence on God Bayazid Bistani reached the similar

truth. He once asked: "O Lord, with that can I draw near to thee? Where upon

God replied: ''with that which does not belong to me, with servility and

dependence". Thus it is clear that the manifesting and the manifested are

different from one another. The manifested depends on the manifesting. In this

way the worship to God is justified. We inspite of being His manifestation,

worship Him as forms depending on Him. ° Ibn-i Arabi does not believe in

God's immanence only. He also holds the belief in His transcendence.

Although He is manifested in everything, yet He transcends the universe. He

sometimes emphasizes on His imminence and Identifies Him with the primal

substance and the phenomenal with its states or accidents. Contrary to this he

sometimes speaks of His transcendence. As a matter of fact, what he holds is

that God is reflected in the objects as He manifests Himself in them. In other

words the objects the mirror reflecting His being and perfection. It is obvious

that the reflection is different from reflects. That is to say the being reflected in

the mirror is not mere reflection but more than that. The reflection makes him

immanent. But he stands apart as being reflecting. To conclude we quote Ibn -i

67

Arabi. He says "For He, glory to Him, has no resemblance whatever to His

creation. His essence cannot be apprehended by us, so we caimot compare it

with tangible objects, neither are his actions like own etc.^'

We have spoken of the immanence and transcendence of God. Let us

understand his wujiuh philosophy. Ibn-i Arabi uses the term like {Faiz) the over

flow of the emanation of the divine being. Ibn-i Arabi propounds a theory of

manifestation, not of emanation. He does not believe that one thing at one time

was emanated from God and from it came certain other things, contrary to this,

Ibn-i Arabi believes in the infinite manifestation of God. He manifests Himself

in the infinite forms. In Ibn-i Arabi's doctrine there is a circular movement. It

ends where it begins. Ibn-i Arabi believes in the infinity of manifestation

without any temporal association. The terms like first and last are relatives.

The intelligible forms or ^Ayn-i thabita' v/ere present in his consciousness. He

cognized them, as a divine tradition explains, due to love of being known God

asserts in a divine tradition, "I was a hidden treasure, and I loved to be known,

so I created flie world that I might be known". We quote it here to assert that no

temporal possibility can be associated with manifestation, Ibn-i Arabi

propounds. It is because that we do not know, not can we know as to when He

cognized the intelligible forms out of His love to be known. This we can safely

assert that Ibn-i Arabi speaks of the degree of manifestation. The perfect most

is in man and the lowest is in the minerals. He also speaks of the different

forms of manifestation. The perfect most is in man and the lowest is in the

68

minerals. He also speaks about the different forms of manifestation. Wlien He

reveals Himself to Himself, it is 'al-Ahadiyah' (State of Unity), when he

reveals Himself in the essence or the blindness; it is 'al-Ama\ His revelation in

the phenomenal world is 'al-jism al kullV. His revelations in the state of God

head is ^al-martaba al illahiyah' or Ayn-i thabita. His manifestation, in the

state of lordship, is ''al-rubbiyyah'. His revelation in the universal conciousness

is the state called as haqiqat-ul haqaiq'. In this way he has given different

names to the states and forms of manifestation. As he ascribes these names to

Him, many of his critics are led to believe that he is following the doctrine of

emanation. Let us understand Mt clearly that in Ibn-i Arabi's doctrine there is

only one existence manifesting itself in different fonns. No other form

manifested from Him can manifest itself mto others. It is thus clear that he is

not propounding the doctrine of emanation." His wahdat- al wujud is based on

Islamic sources.

69

References

1. Afifi, A.E. The mystical Philosophy of Mohiuddin Ibn-i Arabi (Cambridge University Press, London), p. 1.

2. Ibid., p. 1

3. n)id., p. 2

4. Ibid.y p. 2

5. Ibid., p. 2

6. Ibid., p. 3

7. /&/f/., p. 3

8. Ibid., p. 3

9. Ibid., p. 4

10. Ibid., p. 4

11. Ibid., p. S

12. Ibid.,p.9

13. /WJ., p. 10

14. /W£/.,p. 11

15. /W ., pp. 11-12

16. /Wfi?., pp. 12-13

17. /Wf/.,p. 13

18. /&W., p. 15

i9. Ibid.,p.\6

20. Ibid., pp. n-2l

70

21. Ibid., pp. 21-22

22. Ibid., p. 23

23. Ibid., pp. 23-24

24. Ibid., pp. 24-25

25. Ibid, p. 25

26. Ibid., pp. 25-26

27. Ibid, pp. 21-2%

28. Ibid., p. 29

29. Ibid., p. 29

30. /WJ., pp. 30-31

31. /&W.,p.31

32. ife/flf., pp. 32-33

33. /&/</., pp. 35-36

34. /&W., pp. 37-38

35. Ibid.,p.3i

36. Ibid, p. 39

37. Ibid, p. 39

38. /Wflf.,p.40

39. /&/^..p.41

40. Z&W., pp. 42-45

41. /&W.,p.45

42. Ibid, p. 46

43. Ibid, p. 46

44. Ibid, pp. 46-47

45. /6/V/., pp. 47-48

71

46. / /f/., pp. 48-51

47. Ibid., pp. 52-53

48. Ibid., p. 54

49. /biW., pp. 54-55

50. Ibid., p. 55

51. /Wc/.,p.56

52. /6/J., pp. 62-64

72

Chapter - IV

Commentaries of Shaikh Muhibbullah Allahabadi on Ibn-i Arabi*s works

The Sufi thought of Shaikh Ibn-i Arabi was the pivotal point of Muslim

religious thought in India. His works specially the Fusus- al Hikam and the

Futuhat-al Makkiya exerted great influence on Muslim intellectuals and were

accepted in the Sufi circle as the guide books for one who set out on a journey

of the uncharted ocean of spiritual experience. It is reported that the ideas of

the great Shaikh Ibn-i Arabi reached and were introduced in India through

Shaikh Fakhruddin Iraqi, a disciple of Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariyya of Multan.

Iraqi had attended the lectures of Maulana Sadruddin Qunawi, who was

disciple and brilliant advocate of Ibn-i Arabi's thought. In the begirming many

commentaries were written on Ibn-i Arabi's thought in Arabic but thought did

not reach the spuitually immature and create an atmosphere of religious

anarchy. In the early centuries the Sufi teachers took care not to associate the

common people in the abstruse Sufi thought of Ibn-i Arabi as it was generally

believed that Wahdat- al Wujud, If not properly understood and assimilated,

could give buth to heretical movements. But in the fifteenth sixteenth centuries

this conscious attitude was abandoned and Wujudi ideas of Ibn-i Arabi became

a current coin.'

Masud Bakk, who was executed at the order of Firoz Shah Tuighlak, gave

expression to Wahdat- al Wujud in his Diwan "Nur al-Ain" and a Sufi treatise

known as "Mras al-Arifin". According to Shaikh Abdul Haq Muhaddis of

Delhi no one before Masud Bakk discussed Sufi secrets as openly he did. It

73

appears that during the time of Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi the Diwan of

Masud Bakk was widely read?

The impact of Ibn-i Arabi's thought is clearly discernible in Indo-Muslim

religious thought during the sixteenth century. Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi

started open discussions about Wahdat al-Wujud. Commentaries on Ibn-i

Arabi's works came to be written in Persian. Shaikh AmanuUah Panipati

started giving instruction to people in the Fusus-al Hikam and Futuhat-i

Makkiya. But in the seventeenth century the whole atmosphere was vibrating

and echoing with the doctrine of Wahdat al-Shuhud propounded by Shaikh

Ahmad Surhindi against the doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujud of Ibn al-Arabi.

Shaikh Muhibullah made up his mind to revive the mystical doctrine of Ibn-i

Arabi. Shaikh Muhibullah wrote many commentaries on Ibn-i Arabi's works.

In these Arabic and Persian books he tried to elaborate, interpret and elucidate

the Sufi thought of great celebrity. Most of the commentaries of Shaikh

Muhibbullah are related to various discussion of the Fusus al-Hikam. Apart

from this, he also tried to provide to theological basis for the thought of Ibn-i

Arabi from the Qur'an. The Sheikh is basically interested in the principal

doctrine of Ibn-i Arabi i.e. Wahdat-al Wujud. Shaikli Muhibbullah after

reaching Allahabad, therefore, plunged head long into a programmed of

popularizing the correct import and significance of Ibn-i Arabi's works. He had

compiled a commentary of Fusus al-Hikam in Arabic, but it was only a

74

perfunctory attempt and could hardly be of any use of Indian scholars.

Therefore he compiled a Persian commentary on the work?

Fusus al-Hikam is one of the most difficult works of Ibn-i Arabi written in

Arabic language, deals with the teachings of eminent prophets. The book is

divided into twenty seven chapters; each chapter contains an appropriate aspect

of Tasawwuf. It has been commented upon in Arabic by Sadruddin Qunavi,

Maulana Abdur Rahman Jami, Shaikh Abdul Ghazi al-Nablusi and Shaikh

Abdur Razzak Kashani. Moreover many Arabic commentaries were produced

in India also. For instance Syed Ali Hamdani wrote a commentary on Fmus al-

Hikam in Arabic. Abdul Muhsin Sharfuddin of Delhi's Ain al-Fusus, Shark al-

Fusus, Shark al-Fusus li Ibn-i Arabi, Shaikh Immauddin Arif s Shark al-Fusus,

Shaikh Ali Saghar Qannuji's Jawami al-Kalim fi Sharah Fusus al-Hikam and

Shaikh Nuruddin Ahmadabadi's Tariqat ul-Ummakfi Skarak Fusus al-Hikam and

Mulla Abdul Ali Firangi's Sharah al-Fusus un-Nabi min Fusus al-Hikam etc.'*

Shaikh Muhibbullah's Sharah Fusus al-Hikam^

Sharah Fusus al-Hikam is the explanation and sununary of Fusus al-Hikam of

Shaikh Ibn-i Arabi. It was considered to be a standard work. It is as close to the

original text of the Shaikh Ibn-i Arabi. Shaikh MuhibbuUah does not

sometimes stick to one subject in each Fas: he reiterates it in other Fusus. The

threads of his arguments run into one another with connecting links. Instead of

taking a title for his heading, Shaikh Muhibbullah has taken the name of the

75

Prophet for the same. Shaikh Muhibullah not observed chronological order in •

his treatment. The Prophets are not taken in the order of their advent, but

according to characteristics of their 'Hikma', partly based on the mentality of

the people to whom they were sent, and partly on their own sulut, one Hikma

leading to another. Sharah Fusus al-Hikam is only a commentary on the lives

of the Prophets mentioned in the Qur'an; in fact, it is a commentary in a Sufis

tic interpretation of verses of the Qur'an dealing with the lives and teachings of

tiiese Prophets. Shaikh Muhibbullah has sometimes given rationalistic basis

also to his themes before giving his kashfi (illuminative) expiations for them,

which latter more or less intended for people with a grounding in the subject or

who have undergone a courses of suluk (spiritual practice under a Shaikh),

Fas-r Hikma i-Adamiyah^

God attributed Himself with beauty (jamal) and glory (jalal); for He endowed

man with hope and fear. The pair of these attributes is called His hands. These

pairs of attributes conjoined to create the perfect man, who is the composite of

all realities in existence. God created Adam with His two hands, by bestowing

on him the garments of His attributes. Hence he said to Iblis

What prevented you from bowing before him whom I created with my both

hands?" (Surah Sad: 75)

76

v-* M,-.^" fJlii:-^

Adam therefore is the khalifa of God, and he is in the tikeness of G04. HQ//

possesses all things that the khalifa should possess from his k£d!.::Ood made

man in his own image. This khilafat is attainable only by perfect man, whose

externality is according to the forms of the world and whose intemality is

according to the reality of God. He is the composition of all external and

internal realities (haqaiq). Mark the difference between these two. God is

present in the things of the creation, according to their requirements, but not in

composite form as in the khalifa. If God is not immanent in created things, the

latter would never been existed. Thus the world is dependence on God, who

alone is independent (ghani). Every thing is correlated to every thing else, and

is not separated from the divine zat.

From the internal and external phases of the zat of Adam, it is clear that he is

the Truth as well as the created, Adam is one nafs, from which the humans

have come out.

*^J ^^JJ U^ &^ J §"^'5 o^ 6^ l iU. (J4JI jouj \jU\ JULU I L4JLJ

pLuiJj ' S ^ *^^J ^-^

"O, people feat that Providence, who created you out of one nafs; and out of

that rutfs created his consort and out of these, many men and women."(Surah

An-Nisa:l)

77

Fas-i Hikma l-Sheesiyah^

Gifts that are bestowed on creatures are of two kinds: gifts of zat and gifts of

asma, which are appreciated only by Sufis. The gift of Dhat is a tajalli

(illumination) of God, and this tajalli will be in the form, of which the

illuminated had the capacity. Hence the illuminated sees his own form in the

mirror of God, and does not see God. If you gaze into a mirror, the mirror

disappears and you see your own form. This is only an illustration of what

takes place and not of the reality. This is the highest stage, to which the

'created' can reach. In enabling you to see your nafs. He becomes your mirror;

and in manifesting His asma, you become His mirror. The mirror of the zat is

nothing less than the Reality. All the gifts of God are obtained ft-om His asma. «

Each ism is differentiated from another ism manifestation; while in its

intemality, it is the same as the other. This was the particular knowledge that

was possessed by Prophet Shees.

Fas-I Hikma i-Nuhryah^

Prophet Nuh stressed his preaching on tamih (qualitylessness) and his ummat

was engrossed in tashbih (qualityedness) i.e. in idolatry. The Qur'an has said:

*• , ^ -r.

i*rf' I Jl JA j 1^ <ii^ Juil

"He is not in tiielikaiessofanything He is the hearer and seer". (Surah Ash-Shura: 11)

78

Prophet Nuh restricted himself to tanzih, Prophet Muhammad taught tanzih in

tashhbih and tashbih in tanzih. The first part of the above quoted verse

inculcates tanzih and the second part, tasbih. Prophet Nuh directed his ummah

from individual asma towards the composite asma Allah; for the worshipper

would be ignoring the whole, if he restricted himself to particular individual

asma. The ummah of Prophet Nuh gave preference to reason over suluk

(shariat); and transcendental wonder is the outcome of suluk, which alone

cleanness the heart of the salik.

Fas-I Hikma i-Idrlsiyah'

Elevation is of two kinds: - elevation of position and elevation of rank. The

former was bestowed on Prophet Idris, when it was said

"And we have elevated him (Idris) to a high position". (Surah Maryam: 56)

The highest point in the cosmos is the one around which the skies revolve. This

is the sphere of the sun, which is the spiritual position of Prophet Idris. Then

there is the elevation of rank; which is for the Muslims (who truly understand

the mind of the prophet); for God has said in their case

"You are high of rank and God is with you". (Surah Muhammad: 35)

79

God is free from position, but He is obtained by acts and elevation in rank by

knowledge. When man attains elevation in rank, he gets into partnership with

God; but this partnership is again circumscribed by the verse,

^^i\ dijj '^^ C ^

"Declare the holiness of your Lord, who is most High". (Surah Al-'Ala)

God is high by His zat and not by comparison with anything. Shaikh-al Akbar

says that "God can not be recognized unless He manifests Himself in

contraries; and in spite of the contraries you must recognize His Oneness. He is

the first. He is the last; He is the external. He is the hidden. The reality of all is

same, although the directions or sides are different. Murors are many, the face

is one. The several faces are the reflection of one face. The place of 'fac6s' is

ayan-i thabita; on account of these, God takes varieties of shapes, and shows

up their peculiarities.

Fas-i Hikma i-Ibrahimiya^°

Prophet Ibrahim was called Khalilullah ( friend of God); because he had

permeated all the attributes of God or he was called Khalillullah, because God

had permeated the appearance of Ibrahim.

When one thing permeates another, the first becomes hidden in the second and

thus its internal {batin) if the Creator is manifest; the created is hidden m Him:

m this case all the asma of God like Seer and Hearer become the asma of the

80

created. The names of these asma become khalq (creation). If the khalq is

manifest, than God is hidden m it. When Ibrahim, the Khalil or friend of God,

knew the secret of this fact, he adopted the practice of hospitality. Food

permeates every part of the body; Prophet Ibrahim had permeated all the asma

of God like food in the body.

Fas-i Hikma r-Ishaqiyah^^

Prophet Ibrahim said to his son "O son, I saw in a dream that I was sacrificing

you". Dream is a thought world. The tajalli that dawn from the thought world

(alam i-mithaT) requires to be interpreted in other forms. A dream requires an

interpretation but Prophet Ibrahim did not give any credit to interpretation.

Prophet Muhammad said: "Whoever sees me in a dream, sees me in actuality,

the Satan cannot assume my shape". The body of the Prophet Muhammad is

interred at Medina; no body has seen his soul and mithali bodies. When one

sees him in dreams, he sees him only in the casual body that he had the time of

demise. Satan can not assume the shape of that body; neither can he assume the

shape of his mithali body. God safeguard the sanctity of prophethood. When

therefore one receives a command from the prophet Muhammad, he must carry

it out literally.

Fas-i Hikma i-Ismailiya"

The name Allah indicates Oneness of the zat with its innumerable asma

(names) which are really aspect of zat. There is no room for multiplicity in the

81

zo/, while there is room for the same in asma. The name Allah thus indicates

pure zat with the totality of asma or its own aspects. There is a rab for each

object that is manifest and Allah is the rab of all the rabs (Rab-ul-Arbab).

Prophet Ismail had the cognition of his rab, which was hadi, in fact every one

who has attained nafs i-mutmainna, has secured the approval of his rab; for it is

said of this nqfs,

"Enter into the assembly of my servants and enter into my paradise". (Surah

Al-Fajr: 29)

Fas-i Hikma i-Yaqubiya^^

According to the Shaikh, religion is of two kinds; one; direct from God through

the prophets, which is the religion of submission to God (Islam); and it contains

shariat to guide the people towards God. Quran said

^i:uVi5JJii^6dP6l

"The religion of God is Islam" i.e. submission of the created to the creator.

(Surah Xl-i Imran: 19) Religion from God is the shariat of the God. One

becomes blessed, if he adopts this shariat and mould and directs his actions

accordingly. Religion is from God but its existence is from abd. Thus religion

is proved from your actions, just as the asma of God are proved from the

82

actions of God, you yourselves are the asma of God. If you are submissive to

the shtiriat, you will attain elevation towards God. But asceticism is from man.

"They innovated asceticism of their own accord" (Surah Hadid: 27) and many

of them became fasig (those outside the law). Religion gives good rewards,

which brings happiness. Plence it was said,

J J J it

"God is pleased with them and they are pleased with Him". (Surah Al-

Bayynah: 8) These rewards are tcgdlliat (illuminations) in the mirror of

existence of God.

Fas-i Hikma l-Yusufiyah^^

Hazrat Ayesha Siddiqa said that it was with true dreams that revelations began

to come to the Prophet Muhammad; and these dreams were as clear as the early

morning, and continued for sbc months, after which the angel came. Hence the

Prophet Muhammad said that "people are asleep; and when they die, they

awake."

Everything seen in a dream requires interpretation; and the life of a man is a

dream within dream. Things in dreams are in one form and they appear in

83

another. Knowledge appeared in the form of the milk; the Prophet Muhammad

interpreted accordingly.

Prophet Yusuf said:

fi^jij S* l3 J«iLliJIj \l^i^ JAc 1L\ CulJ ^\ ^Z <i V u^jj Jli Jl

"I saw eleven stars and the sun and moon bowing before me"; (Surah Yusuf: 4)

he saw his eleven brothers and father and mother in these forms. This dream

did not emanate from his will or from the will of those concerned in the dream.

Prophet Yusuf finally said, when the dream came to pass,

"This is the interpretation of my old dream, which God has made true" i.e.

materialized in the sense world it has existed in the thought world. (Surah

Yusuf: 100) This is like the interpretation that a man gives to a dream in a

dream and when he awakes says he had given such an interpretation to the

dream and God had made it veridical in the sense world. But the Prophet

Muhammad called this world a dream and the next world a reality. Thus the

world has no existence of its own, while it is not merely a fancy of thought.

Fas-i Hikma i-Hudiyah"

Ulum-i Zauqi (the phases of the knowledge of God obtained from observation

of His manifestations) are different in different persons according to their

84

temperaments, although their source is one and the same, like water is one and

its taste are many according to soils. This is obtained from knowledge of suluk,

and which gives food to the soul.

The first limitation of the unlimited was Ama. It was like "a cloud above which

there was no air, and below which there was no air". God was in it before the

creation. The second limitation was the Arsh (the throne), on which He had

taken His stand. Then He is said to have descended to the sky and to the earth:

and He is said to be the reality of us all. The Quranic verse:

jl*^^ ^ i ^ ^ l jAj p ^ « 4 ^ o^

"He is not like the likeness of anything" or it may mean "He is not like

anything" i.e. He is the reality of all things. (Surah Ash-Shura: 11) If He were

not the reality, nothing would have existed. Everything in the world is His face.

He is the soul of the world. He who sees God in him is an on/(Gnostic). God

will manifest Himself to His devotee in the forms of his beliefs. But you do not

confine Him to any particular form; He is above limitations; so became a

believer in all forms of beliefs:

"Whenever thou turn thy face, there is the face of the Lord; the face refers to

the zat of God, which is His reality, and which is everywhere and in

everything. (Surah Al-Baqarah: 115)

85

Fas-I HIkma l-Swalahlyah"

God has said: "When we resolve (to create) a thing, we say unto it, 'Be' and It

becomes. (Surah Ya Sin: 82) Thus the zat is inclination to manifest a thing by

means of the word 'Be'. The three aspects of God manifested themselves was

composed of the ayn (reality) of the obeying the same to become manifest.

Thus the three aspects of the 'created' become the three aspects of the creator;

the reality of shay (thing) which was established in adm, the zat of its creator;

had not these aptitudes, it could not have come into existence. Thus God

created the thing which was adm (nothingness). The reality of the external and

internal manifestations is triunes and this was the Hikma of Swalah.

Fas-i Hikma i-Shuaibiyah^^

Prophet Shuaib preached justice and observance of God in all things, great and

small. His teaching is based on galb which is the center of zahir (external

world) and batin (internal world) i.e., between asma and their extemalization.

The galb of arif recognizes the manifestation of Divine forms and the

tanazzulat (devolutions) of God. God manifests Himself in /a/a///, according to

the aptitude of the Gnostic. When the tajalli of Ahdiyat dawns on an arif, he

becomes ;&w (annihilated), i.e. become unconscious of self and others, and all

things disappear from his sight; zat alone remaining. When duality disappears,

the consciousness remains that God is. This is the state of baqa.

86

Fas-i Hikma-i-Lutiyah^^

In this chapter, the Shaikh discuss the origin of good and evil and the necessity

for prophets to come into the world. Existence is God's; the "created" has no

existence. The origin of the 'created' is weakness.

4 n u)« Uiuo

"God is one who has created you a weak creature". (Surah Rume: 54)

Weakness and humility are therefore inherent in man. For forty years, man's

power wax strong, and with the advent of grey heirs on his head they wane.

»

God sends prophets to nations to show them the distinction between right and

wrong and not to compel anybody to adopt the one, and reject the other. The

Prophet Muhammad had simply to deliver his message to his uncle Abu Talib,

and was not be aggrieved at its ineffectiveness. The conduct of a man is

according to the nature of co^n-i thabita (forms in God's knowledge). Some

ayan consists of good aptitudes and some of evil. God does not command

contrary to the requirements of these aptitudes. Another reason of sending

prophets is to enable man to reach the perfection.

Fas-I Hlkma-r-Uzariyah^'

In this chapter, Shaikh discusses the resuh of attempting to pierce into the

UMeen viz., the aycm-i thabita^ the knowledge of which is possessed by God

87

alone and by those few of his saints. Hiis knowledge is called sir-i-qadr (secret

of qadr). Prophet Uzair said in surprise when he passed by a village "How

could God resurrect these people after death". The secret of qadr consists in

having knowledge otayn and their aptitudes.

The secret of qadr is known only through tajalliyat and wahi and not through

cogitation and contemplation; and hence the Prophet Muhammad prayed, "O

Lord, increase my knowledge" i.e. my ''tajalliyat.' Tajalliyat are illuminations

by means by which our knowledge of the zat (the manifest) increases.

Fas-i Hikma-i- Ayyubiyah '*

Iblis denotes distance from God. When Prophet Ayyub failed to realize the

realities of things, he was flung away from God, and was said to have been

tempted by Iblis; He therefore prayed against this temptation, and began "to

refer everything (to God)".

When one prays, he must pray God and not to the manifestation of any of His

asma; for in one aspect the asma are the ghair (other) of God; although in

another, they are His qyan (reality). There is no ghair (other) of God, but His

own asma (names) become His ghair, when they are viewed without reference

to His zat (reality) when appeal is made to His asma alone, such appeal

becomes Idolatry, though God grants our prayer only through the

manifestations of His asma, of which He is intemality.

88

Prophet Muhammad is the manifestation of all asma. It is the stage of Wahdat

(the partition between Divinity and Humanity). He is Wajhulla (the face of

God) or the conglomeration of all His attributes. In appealing through

Wajhullah, you are appealing to all the asma.

Fas-i Hikma-i-Yahya^^

This Hikma relates to an Ism-i-jalali (glorious name) of God for Prophet Yahya

was always in fear of God. This attribute of God is realized only by Ilm-i zauqi

(knowledge derived from taste); like the knowledge of sweetness obtained from

honey. The word Yahya is derived from hayat, (life) and means "He shall make

alive". This name itself shows that he was to keep alive something, which was

the remembrance of his father. Son is the secret of his father, and so Prophet

Zakariya said:

, *» ^ ^ ^

**Make this son my inheritor and the inheritor of Yaqub", so that he called the

people of God. (Surah Maryam: 6)

Fas-i Hikma-i-Zakariyah"

In this Hikma, the nature of calamities is discussed, and this Hikma is

applicable to Prophet Zakariyah who suffered calamities, so much so, that

when he was sawn in twain, he never said a word of complaint, although he

was one whose prayers were readily granted by God. He considered calamities

89

to be from God; and source of rest and consolation to his heart. Prophet

Zakariya is, however specially mentioned as blessed; because he considered

calamities to have their origin in grace.

Fas-i Hikma-i-Ilyasiyah^

Prophet Ilyas was lifted up to the sky and sent down again with prophetship.

Thus there are two ranks. In the second, salik comes down from the rank of

pure intelligence to causal world and becomes an irrational animal, so that he

sees what an irrational animal sees, and what no rational animal and Jinn can

see. He gets into two states; one in which he sees the dead person alive in the

grave, castigated or rewarded as the case may be, and the other in which he

himself becomes dumb-founded so that he could not speak, even if he tried to.

This is Ilm-i zauqi (knowledge such as one gets from relishing); in which

Nature becomes the reality of the breath of God and Sufi sees every thing as

the reality of God.

Fas-I Hikma-I-Luqmaniyah^

The Hikma of Prophet Luqman, who observed all things in God and God in all

things, consists in his observance of God in all things, called Ahsan by the

Sufis. The Angel Gibriel visited the Prophet Muhammad one day, in the form

of Arabi (Bedouin of the desert), and propounded five questions to him. One of

tiiese was what is Ahsanl

90

Gibriel said, "Pray to your God as you see Him; if you cannot do this, and pray

to Him as He sees you". Such observance (Shuhud) is called Ahsan. Sufi saw

everything as the reality (ayn) of God. The Shaikh expressed the idea that when

the world is hidden from the sight of salik, God is apparent and displays

Himself, and when God and sifat are hidden, the world is apparent.

Fas-i Hikma-i-Haruniyah^

In this Hikma, the Shaikh discuss the subjects of idolatry, the social and

political question of the ranks of men, and God's working in the world.

Prophet Musa was angry with Prophet Harun because he had not seen the

unlimited tajalli (illumination) of God in the limited Golden calf. He had not »

realized the unlimited in the limited. Gnostics see the immanence of the

unlimited existence in every limited object. To them the limited is not ghair

(other) of God. The worship of idols is made haram (prohibited) by the shariat,

because idols are considered as the ghair (other) of God.

Even if they are considered as the qyn (reality) of God, it is haram in the

shariat, because all other innumerable manifestations of God are ignored in

view of this one manifestation. Hence Prophets taught the worship of One

Absolute God only.

91

Fas-i Hikma-i-Musawiyah ''

When Prophet Musa reached the region of light in the valley of Tuwa, the command

to him was

"Remove your sandals, for you are in the sacred valley {Tuwa)" i.e. remove

your worldly encumbrances. (Surah Ta Ha: 12) Some say that the sandals of

Prophet Musa had straps of leather of a goat that was not slain in the name of

God; hence unclean.

When Pharoah was obdurate. Prophet Musa resorted to his miracle. The rod of

Prophet Musa showed itself as a serpent i.e. as the nafs-i-ammara as sinful

nature of Pharoah; and then showed itself as nafs-i-mutmaina of Prophet Musa,

the higher state of this nqfs, when it swallowed up the serpents of the

enchanters.

Pharoah had salvation in the next world; for Aasia, wife of Pharoah, said under Divine

inspiration when she found Prophet Musa in the ark

^'^l^C^^"} 6J^^ ^^J^^ S l J

"He the light of your eyes and of mine". (Surah Al-Qasas: 9) When a person

brings faith in the unity of God with his or her consciousness intact before

death, that person becomes Muslim and his or her sins are forgiven. When

Pharoah saw the children of Israel passing through the sea, he brought faith m

the Lord of Prophet Musa and became a believer and his sins were forgiven.

92

Repentance is not, however of any avail in this world in the case of calamities

that comes over one on accoimt of sins. Muslims are prohibited from calling

any one a "man of hell", for we are unaware of his last moments.

Fas-1 Hlkma-I-Isawiyah^^

The Shaikh says that Prophet Isa had three aspects; Bodily, Spiritual and

Divine. His bodily aspect had its origin from being bom of Hazrat Mariyam.

In his spiritual aspect, he raised the dead to life and put life into the images of

birds of clay. This aspect he, owes to the breath or the thought form of Gibriel,

who had taken human shape, and moisture of Hazrat Maryam; and in his divine

aspect, the light of God had predominated in him. Prophet Isa was a form of

Wahdat (the second stage of devolution of God) which in original was the* first

form of God called Haqiqat-i-Muhammadl The Sufis believe that alam-i-

ghayb (the unseen world), and alam-i-shahadat (the seen world), are all,

aspects of God. Prophet Isa was thus an aspect of God.

The Kalima or word is the word applied to Ruh or spirit which came under the

command of kun (Be). Prophet Isa was Kalimatulla or Ruhullah as he was the

direct manifestation of kun, while in the case of the rest of creation, the

manifestation is through the stages of difTerent asma.

Fas-i Hikma-i-Sulamaniya^°

When abd reaches the stage of fana than baqa (permanence in God's

attributes), in which his heart becomes illuminated, and God becomes his sight,

93

hearing and other faculties, by which he hears, sees etc. In this case, abd

becomes one of the names of God.

The knowledge of this fact was the kingdom irnulk) that was bestowed on

Prophet Sulaman. God himself was manifest in the form of Prophet Sulaman,

who was then in annihilation, just as He was manifest in the flame of the

burning bush before Prophet Musa. The essence of God is immanent in all

things in the cosmos, and sifat (attributes) cannot be separated from the Dhat;

and so all sifat are inherent in every thing. Prophet Sulaman had control of the

wind as he was in the stage offana (annihilation) and thus could command the

wind by uttering kun (Be).

Fas-i Hikma-i-Dawoodiyah^^

The first gift to Prophet Dawood was the bestowal of a name (Dawood) in

which each letter composing the word is one of the detached letters (viz., dal,

alif, wau) which are never joined to a subsequent letter, when they occur at the

beginning of a word. Thus God detached Prophet Dawood from the world. The

name of our Prophet Muhammad consists of both a detached letter (dal) and

attached letters {mim, hai). Thus God detached him from the world and

attached him to Himself So also is the case in the name Ahmed; alif and dal

are detached letters, and hai and mim are attached letters.

94

The second gift to Prophet Dawood was that mountains and birds sang the

tasbih of God along with Him. The third gift was the appointment of Dawood

as the Khalifa of God on earth to administer justice amongst His creatures.

The fourth gift to Prophet Dawood was his softening of Iron. Hard hearts are

made soft by the threat of punishment. It is difficuh to soften a stone, which

goes to pieces and does not become soft. God also made iron soft for Prophet

Dawood, so that he could make armours out of it. From this, a lesson was

taught that everything protects itself from itself.

Fas-i Hikma-i-Yunusiyah^°

This chapter explains the characteristics of nafs. Man is composed of a causal

body, nafs (desire body), and soul. The nafs of man is the manifestation of the

name of Allah which is conglomerate of all His names, which are significant of

His attributes. One perceives God in the same way as he perceives his ego. Just

as God surrounds everything, man's nafs surrounds causal and soul worlds.

Just as Prophet Yunus was hidden in the belly of a great fish, and was relieved

out of it by zikr. This zikr of Prophet Yimus relieved him from the belly of the

fish. When Sufi prays with all his heart and soul, his khatrat (affections of

heart) disappear. When he preserves in this, illuminations of God dawn upon

him, first of His asma (names); and than his zaf, and then the Zakir will be

annihilated in God.

95

Fas-i Hikma-i-Khalidiya^^

In this Hikma Shaikh discuss the importance of companionship of the

samtsisuhbat-i sufia) and says that Man after death, appears in that state, in

which he constantly and habitually indulged in this world e.g. a greedy man

assumes the forms of a rat; an avaricious man, the form of a pig, a violent man

that of a tiger. This is referred in the Hadith, ^'Man tashabbuhu qauminfa hua

min hum, 'whosoever assimilates the characteristics of a tribe becomes one of

that tribe'.

Fas-i Hikma-i-Muhammadiyah^^

This is called the Hikma of individuality, as Prophet Muhammad was the most

perfect man in the species of mankind. His mission began with nabi4wwat

(Prophetship) in the spiritual world, as per Hadith "I was Nabi, while Adam

was yet between water and mud", and it ended with nubuwwat in the material

world, as he is the exponent of all the asma (names) of Adam. His existence

displays trueness of self and existence in the beginning and manifestation at the

end. Hence he said in the matter of love, "Three things of your world have been

made beloved to me and of these three, he mentioned women, and fragrance;

and said "the coolness of my eyes has been caused in salat".

'Women' has been placed before 'salat' for women in respect of manifestation

is a part of man and the understanding of one's self is prior to the

understanding of God which is the result of the understanding of self:

96

"Whoever understood his self understood his God" says a hadith. From this

you may infer either that since you cannot understand yours self, you cannot

understand God, or that every particle of creation is an indication of the reality

which is the existence of God.

God took out of Adam another image which He called woman. When she

appeared in his own form, Adam showed inclination towards one's own self;

and the women showed inclination towards him, such as one shows towards

one's own self and one one's own native land. Women were, therefore, beloved

of the prophet Muhammad, just as one made in His own image (i.e. Adam) was

beloved to God. Thus the relationship of form was established between God

and man, and man and woman. Man became the couple of God, and women

became the couple of man. Thus three individualities appeared: God, man, and

women. Man showed inclination to God, his original, just as women showed it

towards men, her origmal. Therefore, the Prophet Muhammad's love of women

is the love of God; and this love is realized by copulation. In this act, lust

spreads throughout the body and he becomes m (annihilated in his self), but

he thinks he is deriving pleasure from women and has become fani

(annihilated) in her. Since this annihilation in other - than God was throughout

his body, the bathing of the whole body is farz (compulsory) in the shariat,

semen being an abstract of the whole body. Man breathes into woman to see

his self (his likeness) reappear; just as God breathed His breath into man to see

His self re-appear.

97

When God created the prophet Muhammad, the prophet stood before him in

passivity; and the world was created out of him, which was fragrance itself

Hence the Prophet Muhammad loved fragrance and gave it the place next to

women. Since fragrance was the essence of creation, which is God Himself; it

became beloved to the Prophet, who found fragrance in everything.

The third thing that signified individuality is salat. The prophet Muhammad

said "the coolness of my eyes is secured in salat, which is the observance of

God; it a dialogue or conmiunication between God and man. God has said

"You remember Me, I remember you."(Surah Al-Baqarah: 152) There is no

ordinance of shariat of the same kind as salat, for in salat attention should not

be diverted to anything else, even of a compulsory religious nature; so long as

it lasts. Salat is a God's tajalli (illumination). This tajalli (illumination) leads

to, mushahida (vision of God). And this vision of the beloved {Allah) brings

coolness to the eyes.

98

References

1. Nizami, K.A. Tarikhi Maqalat. Nadwatul Musannifin, Lucknowl966,

p. 19.

2. Rizvi, S.A.A. History ofSufism in India (Vol. II) Delhi Munshiram

Manoharlal Publishers, 1983, pp. 241-243.

3. Nizami, K.A. Tarikhi Maqalat. Nadwatul Musannifin, Lucknow,

1966, pp. 17-29.

4. Ibid.

5. Allahabadi, MuhibbuUah. Sharah al-Fusus al-Hikam (Persian), MS:

Maulana Azad Library, Abdul Hayy Collection, Aligarh Muslim

University Aligarh. Cf. Shaikh MuhibbuUah Allahabadi. Sharah Fusus

al-Hikam; translated into Urdu by Shah Gulam Mustafa Hervindi and

Shah Muhammad Baqar Allahabadi. Idara-i-Anesi, Allahabad, 1961.

6. Ibid, p. 32.

7. Ibid, pp. 33-57.

8. Ibid, pp. 58-68.

9. Ibid, pp. 69-80.

10. ifc/V/, pp. 81-89.

99

11. Ibid, pp. 90-99.

12. Ibid, pp. 100-106.

13. /Wf/, pp. 107-114.

14. /6/flf, pp. 115-124.

15. /&/</. pp. 125-134,

16. TJ/V/, pp. 135-141.

17. /&/i/, pp. 142-151.

18. Ibid, pp. 152-157.

19. /*/J, pp. 158-162.

20. /6/V/, pp. 210-213.

21. /Wt/, pp. 214-216.

22. Ibid, pp. 211-220.

23. /&/</, pp. 221-224.

24. 75/</, pp. 230-234.

25. /Wf/, pp. 235-241.

26. /6/rf, pp. 242-263.

100

27. /Wei, pp. 148-183.

28. /^/c/, pp. 184-193.

29. 3id,pp. 194-201.

30. T&iV/, pp. 202-209.

31. /Wfif, pp. 264-265.

32. /W</, pp. 266-280.

33. Translation of the Verses of the Holy Quran (Abdul lah Yusuf Ali. The

Holy Quran: Text. Translation and Commentary),

101

Sufi Thought and Philosophy of Shaikh

Muhibbbullah Allahabadi

Shaikh MuhibbuUa AUahbadi, like other thinkers, has developed his Sufi

Thought on two major planes (a) Metaphysical, in which he deals with the

problem of the nature of God, universe and man, and the position and status of

man, as the only rational being in Universe, and the relationship of man with

both universe and God; (b) Epistemological, in which he deals with the nature,

source and the basic problem of knowledge and its validity. But we should not

neglect the fact that his philosophy is basically that of a Sufi not of a

philosopher even though he did his best to explain "his doctrines" in a

philosophical way. His Sufi thought is deeply embedded in the Muslim

philosophy, religious doctrines and culture. The chief source of his doctrine is

the philosophy of Ibn-i Arabi. He particularly makes use of the Quranic verses

and traditions and interprets them in a way tiiat happens to suit his system of

thought. He is strict follower of Wahdat-al Wujud like Ibn-i Arabi. His

metaphysics is based on his ontology in which he deals with the nature and

attributes of God.'

Before discussing his ontology it is necessary to note the two problems which

emerge while discussing his system: (a) like Ibn-i Arabi he faces the problem

to reconcile the Wujudi doctrine of God {La Mawjuda ilia Allah) with

Unitarian God of the Quran (La Ilaha ilia Allah), The Quranic concept of God

is that "there is but one God" who is creator, the sustainer and the lord of all

the worlds and heavens. Shaikh MuhibbuUah as an advocator of Wahdat- al

102

Wujud does not consider as the universe as the creation of God but His

manifestation.^

Let us discuss in detail Shaikh Muhibbullah's explanations of the nature of

God as presented in "Taswiyah". He holds that God is one and only. There is

nothing like unto Him. He has no partner. He is eternal and absolute. He has

neitiier any beginning nor any end. His eternity has no boundaries. He is an

absolute, living or existent being. He is the manifest and the hidden. No one

can comprehend Him. He is Omniscient, Omnipresent, Omnipotent and the

most merciful. He is free from all limitations of time and space. He is such a

substance izat) that has no body, no form and no length and breath. He is

nearer to man than his spirit. One can taste his His nearness through cultivating

His divine attributes and not through argumentation or reason. His existence is

manifested through His attributes.

One can know His existence through His gnosis. Shaikh Muhibbullah, like

other Sufis holds that His nearness can be attained through His mercy. All his

worships and prayers are in vein if God does not bestow His mercy upon him

to grant him His nearness.

Now we should turn our attention to his wujudi view point, which he has

borrowed from Ibn-i Arabi, and presented in his several treatises, most notable

among them are Taswiyah and Shrah Fusus al-Hikam. Since the term ''wujud"

(Bemg) is of cardinal importance in philosophy of Wahdat-al Wujud, it is

103

necessary to begin our discussion with throwing some light on its connotation

in order to understand its philosophical unplications. The word "Being" is very

ambiguous. It can at least be understood in two different senses: (a) Being as a

concept i.e., the idea of Being and (b) that which has Being i.e., which exist or

subsists.

It is to be noted that the Wujudi do not attach much importance to the first

meaning, as it reduces the Being into an idea or a creation of reason, devoid of

all existence. But "Being" according to them is the real existence, the ultimate

groimd and source of all that is.

Jami, one of the greatest interpreters of Wahdat- al Wujud explams it as:

"Taken in the first sense", Being is an "idea of the second intention" which has

no external object corresponding with it. In the second sense "Being" signifies

the Real Being, who is self existent, and on whom the existent of all other

beings depends; and in truth there is no real objective existence besides Him.'*

By the term "weyW Shaikh Muhibbullah means wujud-i-mutlaq the absolute

Being. The Absolute Being is the only self- Existent Being i.e., the being in

itself (N(rfsi Wujud).}ie is above all forms and multiplicity. The absolute Being

is neitiier completely realized nor fully known to any one. He alone knew his

Essence (zaf).^

The Being is simple and indeterminate. Its unity, totality or absoluteness is

indeterminate. The indeterminate being is devoid of all names, attributes and

104

relations. It is bare essence which has no predicates; consequently it is

indefinable, unknowable and incommunicable.

The multiplicity or the universe and whatever is in it, is simply his

manifestation or His Lights (Tajalliyat). It exists only as His modes. He is

immanent (muhit) in everything.^ Shaikh Muhibbuallah further holds that He

transcends everything without any fusion (Hulul) with them, either on the level

of His Being (lat) or attributes {sifat)?

The Being is simple and indeterminate. Its unity, totality or absoluteness is

indeterminate. The indeterminate being is devoid of all names, attributes and

relation. It is bare essence which has no predicate; consequently it is

indefinable, unknowable and in conununicable. In its determination descent it

passes through five stages which exhaust the whole of its reality or unity. The

first two stages are conceptual and last three stages are real.

In its first descent the Being manifests itself in itself In other words it becomes

conscious of itself as pure being; the consciousness of names and attributes is

only ijmcdi i.e., general; it remains implicit in its essence. It is the state of its

utter one-ness (Ahdiyat). Shaikh MuhibuUah also calls it as the general (ijmali)

or the first cognition (Urn Awwal). It is the state of abstract unity and absolute

essence. It implies the absolute Being of God. This Being according to His

essential nature is unknown and unknowable, that is why. Shaikh MuhibbuUah

like other Sufis, has spoken of it as the incommunicable (absolute) unseen, the

105

g

pure light (Nur-i-Mutlaq), and the absolute eternity (Azaliat-i-Mutlaq). In the

second descent the Being becomes conscious of its attributes m detail (Urn

Tafsili). These attributes are names of God. These names are differentiated

from each other. In these stage of the Being descend from the state of the state

of the absolute unity (Ahdiyat) to the one (Wahidiya), explicitly in possession

of its manifold attributes. In these stages God became fully cognitive of the

Ayan (essence). Shaikh Muhibbullah state that at this stage the Being

manifested in different names and attributes, i.e., Ilm (knowledge), Qudra

(power), Mashiya (Will), Takallum (Speech), Sima (Hearing), Baser (Seeing)

and Hayat (Life). These attributes are the source of all attributes which are

innumerable. To some Sufis the attributes of Ilm (knowledge) is source of all

other attributes, because of its superiority. Before discussing the third destent,

it is necessary to make clear that the stage or descents of the Ahdiya and the

Wahdiya are identical to one another. These are suppositional ranks established

from the point view of the Gnostics. Temporal distinction is never found in

them because it is evident that the Absolute Being could never be conceived at

any moment devoid of knowledge. God almighty is never unaware of His own

Essence, Attributes Names and ideas; neither can there be implicitness and

explicitness in His Absolute knowledge. Therefore the Absoluteness of

Essence and Attributes which was found before the manifestation of things is

there even after the manifestation of things.' The third descent is called

Tayyuni Ruhi. It is the actual descent. In this stage the unity has broken itself

up into so many spirits e.g.; angels. The spirits of two types (a) those who are

106

pure spirits and have no body, namely angels; (b) those who have body e.g.,

Jin, animals and man."' Man comes last of all these descent and his rank is

inclusive of all other ranks, material as well as spiritual. So far as his material

or bodily existence is concerned, he claims no distinction from animal

kingdom. His distinctive feature lies in his spirit which is regarded as divine

element in him.

The human spuit is one of the secrets of God. It is lull manifestation of the

second descent and is like the universal reason but superior to it.*'it has been

given the knowledge of entire universe. Tlie soul of Prophet Muhammad is the

highest among the souls. It has the knowledge of all stages and descents. The

fourth stage is called Tayyuni Mithali or Ideal determination. It is in this

descent that the world of Ideas comes into being. The fifth descent is Tayyuni

Jasadi or physical determination; it yields the phenomenal or physical bemgs.

From the above discussion it may be concluded that these stages (which are

called the five planes of being) are only gradual realization of the capacities

that were all ready latent in the attributes.'^

The Perfect Man

Shaikh Muhibbullah holds man as microcosm in who are reflected all the

attributes of macrocosm. God has deposited in his heart the secrets or elements

which are neither in Arsh (Throne), Farsh (Earth) and Aasman (Sky). Shaikh

107

Muhibbullah says that he is a small Universe by appearance but in its actuality,

reality and meanings, is the macrocosm (Jahan-i-Kabir).

Like Ibn-i Arabi, Shaikh Muhibbullah attaches a high importance to the cosmic

significance of man. The universe according to him is created by God in order

to see Him, while man is a small universe, reflecting like a well-polished

mirror the objects of nature or cosmos as they really are. Man embodies all the

attributes which are found in the universe. In other words he is such a model

which reflects in itself entire universe. The Perfect man is the Khalifa of God

on earth. He is endowed with the ability to cognize or understands the whole

imiverse. All the elements of imiverse receive the munificence of God through

him and through him God beholds His creatures and has Marcy upon them.

Shaikh Muhibbullah AUahbadi is not the first Sufi to propound the notion of

perfect man. There have been many thinkers before him who had propounded

it in there writings. The mystical philosophy of Mansur Hallaj, Ghazzali and

Jili's theory of perfect man may be regarded as an attempt to describe and

depict the picture ofa perfect man."

But Ibn-i Arabi was the first Muslim thinker to put forth a synthetic and

systematic theory, or rather a group of theories, derived from different sources

and brought into one unity which one might reasonably call the first Muslim

doctrine of Logos.'^ His doctrine of logos has a cardinal importance in Muslim

thought. It has left an unshakable influence on the thinkers who afterwards

108

propounded such a theory. There has not been any other thinker after him who

has given any original ideas about the logos theory. To a great extent all the

Sufis who have propounded such a thesis have simply reproduced his ideas in

some form or the other.'^

Shaikh Muhibbullah has used the following terms to designate the perfect man:

Insan i-Kamil (the perfect man)

Ruh i-Muhammadi (the spirit of the Muhanunad)

Khalifatullah (the vicegerent)

Aql i-Awwal (the first intellect)

Nur i-Muhammadi (the light of the Muhammad)

Siraj i-Munir (the luminous lamp)

Ism i-Azam (the greatest name)

AbulAnvah (the father of the spirits)

Walid i-Akbar (the great father)

Ruh i-Azam (the mightiest spirit)

Haqiqat al-Haqayiq (the realities of the realities) '

109

Shaikh Muhibbullah has reproduced to a large extent the logos theory of Ibn-i

Arabi. We shall try to throw some light on the theory of logos produced by

Shaikh Muhibbullah into ihe following heads:

(1) The Reality of Realities, which constitute the metaphysical aspect of

logos.

(2) The Reality of the Prophet Muhammad, which pertains to the

mystical aspect of the logos.

(3) The perfect man, which symbolizes the human or ethical aspect of

logos.

The Reality of Realities: The Metaphysical Aspect of Logos

Before discussing the three aspects of the logos it seems proper to explain

briefly some technical terms, which Shaikh Muhibbullah used as synonymous

to it

It may be noted that these terms, though analogous so far as their implications

are concerned, refer to some different aspect of the logos. Shaikh Muhibbullah

has identified the fu^ descent of God, that is, the logos or the first intellect,

with the Reality or spirit of Muhammad. Being analogous to the logos or the

first mtellect, it the first manifestation of tiie real unity "Ahdiyat" while all

other existence are the manifestation of the spirit or the Reality of Muhammad.

110

Thus the logos or the spirit of Muhammad "is the creative animating and

rational principal and, as such. Realities of Realities. It is the inward aspect of

God head and the God head is its outward aspect. It God's consciousness and,

as such, contains all the ideas of existing (or potential) objects, without,

however, in itself, having multiplicity."

The manifestation of absolute ego and its aptitude is perfect in the perfect man.

For the same reason the Divine Being (which is another name for Wahdat) is

spoken of as the Reality of the essence of Muhammad and thus the other name

given to "Wahdat" was the Reality of Muhammad.' The light of Muhammad

(Nur i-Muhammad) and the Reality of Realities are used for the Reality of

Muhammad. Since the idea of Muhammad is entirely perfect, so perfect light

manifests itself in it and things are created by this perfect light only.'^

Let us now proceed to discuss three aspects of the logos keeping in view the

explanation of the terms given above. The logos in its metaphysical aspect are

identical to the first intellect. Shaikh MuhibbuUah says that, it is the agent of

the divine creativeness and the seat of all multiplicities or pluralities found in

the universe. It subsimies all His attributes through which He manifests the

universe. It is the first creation and the first manifestation of God.''

Shaikh MuhibbuUah Allahbadi holds the Reality of Realities as the Essence

(zat) of everything in the universe. The logos or "the Reality of Realities" is

the God conceived as the self revealing principal of the universe; God has

111

manifest Himself in a form of a universal consciousness at no particular

time or place, but as the reality which underlies all realities and as a being

whose consciousness is identical with His essence. Thus logos are the agent

through whom God emerges from His absoluteness, His unknowable ness

into manifestation.^"

Shaikh Muhibbullah holds him as the great secret among secrets. He is the

Reality of Realities through whom God is realized. The Reality of Realities is

perfectly and synthetically manifested in the logos or "perfect man" while as

the universe is its perfect analytical manifestation. He further says that man is

the manifestation of God. But in the perfect man Insan- al Kamil (another

name for the reality of realities) which is the perfect manifestation of God. The

universe can only be realized through him, for every thing (or part) is His

attribute. He being the perfect manifestation is the embodiment of all

attributes. He asserts that he is the divme creative principal of the universe. In

his "Taswiyah", he explain it as: He is the primary seat of manifestation of the

divine world (God).Everything is written on the Tablet (Lauh-i Mahfus) and

the tablet is nothing but the inner aspect of the mighty spirit (Batin i- Ruh i-

Azam).Jn this way he is the cause of the creation. A Hadith runs as "I am from

the Nur of God and the whole world is from my Nur.^^

112

The Reality of Muhammad: The Mystical Aspect of the Logos

Like Ibn-i Arabi, Shaikh Muhibbuliah holds the prophet Muhammad as the

spiritual head of the prophets and the saints. The spiritual of the prophets and

saints is not the prophet Muhammad, the man or prophet, but the Reality or

Spirit of Muhammad, the first intellect, the light of the Muhammad the father

of the spirits and the great name, "which is the active principal in all divine and

esoteric knowledge. He is the nucleus of their esoteric knowledge. He is the

basic agent and the source through whom the esoteric or divme knowledge is

transmitted to the prophets and saints according to their merit and capacity.

Every prophet is determined and dominated by a divine name, but the prophet

Muhammad or the Muhammad, spiritual head of saint, is under the influence of

all divine names. He is the epitome of the manifestation of the names and

attributes of being "God".^ Shaikh Muhibbuliah holds that Muhammad (the

spiritual head) comprehends all the attributes of God. He is the centre of the

universe. He is the macrocosm. In him all the manifestations are united. ^

In this way he believes in the same principal of Ibn-i Arabi, who holds that the

prophets and saints manifest the activities and perfections of the universal

logos Muhammad in a perfect degree. The difference between Muhammad (the

spirit or reality of Muhammad) and rest of the prophets and saints is some what

similar to that between a whole and its parts.

113

The Perfect Man: Human or Ethical Aspect of the Logos

The entity Muhammad, combining in it both the spirit of Muhammad and the

Muhammad the man, is for Ibn-i Arabi the link between the eternal and the

temporal, the real and the phenomenal. While Muhammad the man was bom,

and was active and died in time, the spirit of Muhammad exists in all eternity.

It is identical with the first intellect (Haqiqat al-Haqaiq). It is the depositor of

the entire world, and as such, identical with the Holy Spirit (Ruh). Muhammad

is, thus, the perfect man.^

According to Ibn-i Arabi, God is the most perfect being and His most perfect

manifestation is the perfect man. Here we should note that the metaphysical

and mystical aspect of are the theoretical aspects of the logos, while ag the

ethical or human aspect is practical aspect. That is why; he is called Reality of

Realities and the spirit of Muhammad when related to the first two aspects, and

"Perfect Man" when related to the ethical aspect.

Following the principal of Ibn-i Arabi, Shaikh MuhibbuUah explains the third

aspect in the same way. He like Ibn-i Arabi holds that every man is a

microcosm potentiality. But is the only the perfect man, who is a real

microcosm, because he is a perfect manifestation of God. It is the only perfect

man who knows Him and manifests His attributes completely. All the prophets

from Adam to Isa are the individual manifestation, but the prophet Muhammad

is the perfect man and the most "perfect manifestation of God". ^

114

He is the cause of creation. He is the preserver and maintainer of the universe.

Ibn-i Arabi explains it by saying that "the universe contmues to be preserved

so long as the perfect man is in it". * Being the perfect manifestation of the

names and attributes of God, the perfect man is His vicegerent (Khalifatullah).

Shaikh Muhibbullah further holds that all the prophets, saints, mystics, and

scholars are virtuous in relation to him. Each of them is virtuous in accordance

with his capacity to be in proximity with him.^'

Shaikh Muhibbullah like Ibn-i Arabi has approached the doctrine of logos from

many aspects. To conclude: in its metaphysical aspect the logos is the reality of

the realities; in its mystical aspect the logos is the perfect man. Naturally all the

three are identical as a man remains same, irrespective of whether we consider

him as spiritual, biological, intellectual, or any other entity.

Concept of Relation and Separation of the Universe from

Absolute Being:

God is the only necessary being (wajib-al wujud). All other beings are

contingent (Possible), because they are not self existent, their existence

depends on God. Ibn-i Arabi makes no room for "possible" or (contingent) in

spite of the fact that he calls "Ayan-i Thabita" possible beings. * He holds

them necessary in the sense that they are potentialities which must of necessity

be actualized. On this point he contradicts philosophers, who accept the

existence of possible beings. Ibn-i Arabi holds that that existences, is

115

necessary, either necessary in itself. He holds that all that exists is identical to

necessary being.^'

As against, Ibn-i Arabi, Shaikh Muhibbullah believes in "possible" or

contingent existence, as it obvious from his use of the word "Imkaniya"

possible existence or being. He holds God as the only self existent being. Other

beings are his creatures. They are the modes through which God is manifested.

The possible has existence through necessary being, God. They are given

existence by God so that the reality of the existence and the reality of possible

are proved in His unseen. "

Shaikh Muhibbullah believes like Ibn-i Arabi in the identity between God and

Universe. He argues that God is the only reality. He manifests Himself through

His attributes which are identical to His Bemg. The universe, being the

manifestation of His attributes bears identity with His Being. Thus God and

universe are identical, for: World is the manifestation of the Divine attributes

or names are the manifestation of God. In other words things manifested

Himself through different descent, world is one among them.

The identity can be shown on the following plane also. God is the prime matter

of every being or existence, scripts and words. He comprehends all that exists.

Everything has its beginning in Him and in Him. Whatever exists whether

open or secret returns ultimately to Him. They are essence (Ayn) of His secret

and He hides Himself m them. It simply means that God is in everything that

116

exists.^' In this way Shaikh Muhibbulah follows the following view of Ibn-i

Arabi, the creator is the created "I am He and He is I". ^ Since He penetrates in

the entire universe, He is the only spiritual reality behind every phenomenon:

Hence He as created is identical with His creation.

A divine attributes is a divine name manifested in the external world. They are

manifested in every phenomena and activity. Here again, we see the identity

between the universe and the divine names and the divine attributes. Again

divine attributes are identical to God who is the first and the last, the manifests

the hidden and comprehends all that is. We are again drawn to the conclusions

of Ibn-i Arabi who holds that "Zill (Adumbration) is appearance of "Asl"

(thing); It is Asl appearing, manifests itself Hence the world is identical with

God. ^ In the same way Shaikh Muhibbullah indicates that the world is real,

but he by attributing world as the existential manifestation (Mazahir i-Kharji)

of the names and attributes of God, afitinns its existence.

Shaikh Muhibbullah fully follows the wujudi doctrine that there is only one

reality (God). He does not admit the reality of the many {Khalq or World) in

terms of their substance as opposed to essence "The Reality" can only be

regarded as many when viewed solely as manifestation of that essence, i.e.,

when viewed by ourselves in an intellectual or sensory way (that is an

substance).In Ibn-i Arabi's words it can be explained as Multiplicity is due to

different points of view, not to an actual division in the one essence (Ayn)?^

117

Concept of Virtue (good) and vice (bad)

Shaikh Muhibbullah was a believer in the principal of responsibility and moral

obligation contrary to other wujudi Sufis, who had no use whatever for the play

of firee will in human affairs. He believed in discrimination between right and

wrong, good and evil without which no social order could exists. He says:

"Doubt has been expressed about the differences and diversities between

things. How has plurality emerged firom Unity? What is the Command and

who is commanded? Where are the rewarded and where are the punished? It is

admitted that in spite of the unity of himian beings, Zaid, Amar and Khalid are

different fi-om other persons. The animal world is one reality and yet there are

different species. All relationships should be understood in this manner/ The

worldly life is dependent on differentiating between a snake and a fish,

between honey and poison, and salvation in fixture life depends on

discrimination between prayer and debauchery, between sacred ablution and

drinking of wine. If one ignores these differences one will perish in this world

and will suffer in one's fixture life also".^'

Like other Muslim Sufis Shaikh Muhibbullah well realized that Tasawwuf is a

phenomenon of intense religious consciousness. It was an attempt to interpret

one's feelling of union with the divine into the language of logic that gave it

the form of Wahdat-al Wujud. Like Ibn-i Arabi, Shaikh Muhibbullah made so

many compromises with positive religion. He did not completely rule out the

duality between God and man as postulated in the Shariat which can not be

118

annihilated as Ibn-i Arabi said: "God remains God howsoever He might

descend; man remains man howsoever he might ascend".''

Concept of wahdat- al wujud and its relation with wahdat-

alshuhud

Ibn-i Arabi propounded the theory of Wahdat-al Wujud (unity of Existence).

Wahdat-al Wujud is theory which regards all finite things as merely aspects,

modifications or parts of one eternal and self existent being, and views all

material objects, and all particular minds, as necessarily derived from a single

infinite substance. This one absolute substance-the one all comprehensive

being-it is called God. '

»

Ibn-i Arabi holds that zat of Being is identical with sifat or Attributes, and sifat

express themselves in manifestation (tajaUiat)^ or modes, which are the world

and its objects.'* Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi vehemently opposes this view of

Ibn-i Arabi, and says, in plain language, that the sifat or the nature of

Attributes is not the zat or Being. They are not essentially identical.

According to Ibn-i Arabi, the world is the actual realization of God's sifat or

Attributes.^' But Sirhindi emphasizes that the Attributes by which God creates

the world are defmitely different from his zat. Right reason also demands that

the attributes must be other than His Being. Therefore, the world can never be

accepted as the tajalli (the manifestation) of the attributes of God. God's sifat

(attributes) are perfect in them, while the world is full of imperfections. There

119

for the question of identification between God and the world does not arise.

Human knowledge is different from God's knowledge. Revelation also goes to

testify that world is not the manifestation of God's attributes, for the Qvuran

says,... "Thy Lord is holier than the qualities which they ascribe to Him".

Sirhindi holds that the attributes of God can not to be said to be accidental or

contingent, because a contingent is that which is related with other, whereas zat

or Essence is that which is self-existent. Thus the attributes of God can never

be thought of as contingent, for in that case temporal ness will follow. The

attributes of God can not be treated as identical with the Essence zat of God.

Thus, it can be concluded that the attributes of God are existent with the zat of

God, and are neither identical with Him, nor other than Him.

If Dhat (Essence) and sifat (attributes) are identical as Ibn-i Arabi holds, than it

will be constructed that God has manifested His attributes in the world and

thus, the world is identical with God. ° In this sense, Ibn-i Arabi and his

followers will say that there is no other existence (Wujud) except the existent

world, and that God is completely Nature (Kulli-Tabayee).Va!c& the position of

Ibn-i Arabi is that as there is no existence other than the existence of God, so

the Nature is identical with God. Ibn-i Arabi regards the identity between God

and the world as literal and real, and otherness as hypothetical and

suppositional. Sirhindi says that the Ibn-i Arabi holds God as Kulli-Tabayee

(purely nature). This is the belief of the philosophers. It has nothing to do with

faith. No body has said this in the world of Tasawwuf, because the Sufis call

120

God as etemal-the First and Last. And the eternal can not be equated to the

temporal. "Unity" does not mean that these two, Alam i-Shuhud and God

should become one. Rather, the meaning of "Unity" is that there is "Other"

than Him (God). In the opinion of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi it is incorrect to say

that God is absolutely limited of determination, for God is all comprehensive.

His grace is absolute. To determine or limit, is the way of philosophers.

Ibn-i Arabi holds that God is purely immanent in the universe.'*' Sirhindi

differs with Ibn-i Arabi and maintains that the world is by the grace of God

and not the manifestation of attributes, to which Ibn-i Arabi gives the name of

determinateness. Sirhindi says that it is no secret that the Essence and

Attributes (Zat-o-Sifat) and names (Isma) of God are eternal, and the world

has been created by His power, and only because of this, God is called, the

creator (Mabda).

The theory of reality, as held by Ibn-i Arabi, is a pantheistic one. It is in his

own words, "Glory to be God who created things being He their essences

(ayanahu). Ibn-i Arabi assumes that God is an absolute, infmite, eternal being.

He is the source and ultimate ground of all that is, is was, and will be. In this

way, his philosophy becomes a form of a cosmism, according to which, the

phenomenal world is but a passing shadow of reality which lies behind it.

Every thing that is finite and temporal is illusory and unreal.'*^ Sirhindi

criticizes this view of Ibn-i Arabi, and holds that it is wrong to deny the

objective reality and external existence of the world, and thereby call it unreal

121

and non- existent. Sirhindi holds that the relation between the created and the

creator is one of "Otherness", and never of identities. A relation of complete

"Otherness" is found between the essence of God and the essence of things,

between the knower and the known.

Sirhindi criticize the Ibn-i Arabi when the latter says that the Zat-o-Sifat (Being

and Attributes) are identical, and that the world is the manifestation of the

attributes of God in toto. ^ Sirhindi criticizing the view, says that it is the

philosophers who take Grace (faiz) as equivalent to transformation of the

attributes as such. But this interpretation is incorrect. When the world has no

being by itself, how can it manifest or create itself? It is because of the Grace

of God, that the manifestation takes place. The world is not the actual 4

manifestation of the essence of things, subsisting in the mind of God, as His

ideas or potentialities. Therefore, we cannot deny the objective reality as well

as external existence of the world, and thereby call it unreal or non-existent.'*'*

Ibn-i Arabi holds that being-togetherness of God with the world is attributive,

because attributes can never be separated from zat. God has manifested His

attributes in the world; as such the world is identical with God.'* Sirhindi

differs from Ibn-i Arabi, saying that attributive-togetherness of God with the

world is apparent and not real.

Ibn-i Arabi calls the world (imaginary) on this basis; he tries to explain away

the objective reality and external existence of the world. Sirhindi differs with

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this view of Ibn-i Arabi, saying that it deprives God of His attributes as a

creator. It is but fact that God has created the worid, and as such, He is the God

of the entire creation.

Again, Ibn-i Arabi holds that Mansur Hallaj had the tajalli-i-dhat or vision of

God.^ Sirhindi vehemently criticize this view of Ibn-i Arabi and says that if

Mansur Hallaj had the vision of God, he could not have uttered the Anal Haqq

(I am the truth), Sirhindi maintains that in tajjali-i-iat annihilation in the zat of

Allah is necessary and when intoxication or concentration is achieved the

maximum, then, there remains no possibility of any consciousness to utter Anal

Haqq (I am the truth),for, there is no scope for any speech in tajjali-i-zat.

Thus, according to Sirhindi, it is not correct to say Anal Haqq. To speak it is

only permissible in tajjali-i-sifaU as speech is justified at this stage.

Further, Ibn-i Arabi holds that God as the only reality. He holds that there is

nothing in existence except God. Sirhindi points out that Ibn-i Arabi is

speaking of the stage of tajalli-i-zat (vision of God). This is the stage at which

the Sufi feels that he is directly apprehending the being of God. But according

to Sirhindi, the Sufi discovers his error when he surpasses that stage. Only then

does he realize that God is wholly other, and beyond the world, he cannot

approach Him, and the identity of the world with God is a mere fabrication of

his own mind. Ibn-i Arabi took the world to be identical with God, or he could

not pass beyond this stage. Had he advanced further, he would have realized

that God is beyond all gnosis and inspiration (Kashf-o-Shuhud). Sirhindi says

123

that he seems to be in the state of intoxication (Sukr), and as such he cannot

explain the oneness ofzat, because he is far too intoxicated. Sirhindi maintains

that who has the kashf of tajjali-i-dhat becomes dumb, for, there is no scope of

speech at this stage as the Prophet Muhammad has said that "one who cognize

his God, becomes dumb." It is only in tajalli-i-sifat that speech is possible, as

has been said by the Prophet Muhammad that who cognizes himself, finds a

tongue long enough for speech, i.e. he comes to a position where he expressed

himself."'

Ibn-i Arabi categorically holds that when one absorbes himself in tajjali-i-zat,

he never comes to sobriety (Sahrw) from intoxication (Sukr). But according to

Sirhindi this stand of Ibn-i Arabi is not right, because then, in that cases *

nothing can be pronounced of God. At this stage, the tongue becomes tied. It

would have better, says Sirhindi, had Ibn-i Arabi turned himself to tajalli-i-

sifat, so that he could see God beyond, and there would then have been the

possibility of expressing himself.

Ibn-i Arabi shapes his doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujud on the identity of the Asl

and Zilly and to explain the relation between one and many, he takes the help of

die metaphor of the mirror and images. The many, the phenomenal world is the

mirror-image, the shadow of the real object beyond. The whole world is like a

shadow play. To rule out any implication of duality, he (Ibn-i Arabi) states that

the source of the shadow and the shadow itself are one. Ibn-i Arabi holds that

God is the Real (Asl) and the world is His adumbration (Zill). The adumbration

124

is the appearance of the real and it is the real appearing or manifesting itself

Sirhindi challenges this view of Ibn-i Arabi, and says that the zill or

adumbration of a thing can never be identical with the Asl {zat), because the

zill can only be thought of as a copy of likeness of the Asl. As contrasted to

God, the Zill is contingent, whereas the Asl is necessary; the essence the

contingent is non- being and that of the Asl, being. Sirhindi says that though

the world acts a mirror, yet it does not reflect God as He is.'*

Ibn-i Arabi, in order to prove the identity between man and God takes the help

of the following verses of the Quran and Hadith:

1. "... We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein."

2. "God created man after His own image."

3. "One, who comes to cognize his self, comes to cognize God."

But, Sirhindi does not agree with this interpretation of Ibn-i Arabi.

Ibn-i Arabi interprets the verse, "We are nearer to him than(his) jugular vein"

in the sense that the world is the tajjali of the attributes of God, and because of

the fact that attributes are mseparable from the zat the world is the

manifestation of God Himself, i.e., God has manifested Himself in every thing

of the world. Therefore, man and God are identical. But Sirhindi differs from

Ibn-i Arabi in his interpretation of the verse. He says there is no room for doubt

that God is nearer to is than our jugular vein, but nearness is the nearness

125

through God's knowledge and power. It is not nearness in the sense of

companionship in space and time. The nearness of God refers to the immanent

aspect of God. God has manifested His power in the world, but not exhausted

Himself in it, as there is no possibility of any separation between Dhat

(essence) and Sifat (attributes). Sirhindi holds that as the attributes can never

be separated from the dhat, so this can not be said to be the actual realization

of the attributes of God. Sirhindi maintains that if the view of Ibn-i Arabi be

accepted as such, then God becomes wholly immanent and as a result, the

transcendental aspect of God is ruled out. This is against revelation, because

God has been regarded as both transcendental and immanent. Again, Ibn-i

Arabi bases the identification of man with God on the Hadith "...God created

man after His own image." He thinks that man the embodiment of all the

attributes of God. It simply means that God has not manifested Himself in

man. Sirhindi says that God's creation of man in His image, does not mean that

the essence of God is the essence of man (created thing), and for the essence of

God is eternity and infinity, where as the essence of man is temperedness and

finitude. The finite can never become the infinite. Further Ibn-i Arabi takes the

help of Tradition, "One who cognize himself, comes to cognize God", to prove

the identity of man with God. According to Ibn-i Arabi, the meaning of "he

that knows himself, knows his Lord", is that such a man is hhnself God. The

onenesses of both of them are one; identity is not that of existence; it is one of

the essences. Sirhindi criticizes the view of Ibn-i Arabi. He says that the

cognition of the self, does not mean the cognition of God, but it does not, in

126

any way refer to the identification of man and God. Man is the mirror of God.

Hence, one who knows himself knows God.^'

The identity of the divine names with God's attributes, and attributes with zat,

are brought out in another way by Ibn-i Arabi. He (Ibn-i Arabi) maintains that

divine names are identical with the named (Musamma), and the named is the

very being of Allah. Therefor, Ibn-i Arabi presents the concepts of a pantheistic

God in the whole of his system, and for this purpose, he explains away those

attributes which form the conception of ethical God of Islam. Ibn-i Arabi either

identifies the divine names with Hazrat, i.e.. Divine Presence, or completely

alters their usual significance. Ibn-i Arabi defmes Hazrat with an unusual

meaning, and thus taken away the ethical conception of God. °

Ibn-i Arabi interprets Mutakabbir to mean that God is so great that He

transcends all contingent attributes. Proud, for Ibn-i Arabi, is equivalent to

transcendenop. Ibn-i Arabi interprets Jabbar (All Compeller), one by whom

everything is compelled to proceed. He imderstands compulsion (/a6rj, as

equivalent to necessity. This compulsion is the underlying principal in all

creation. There is even compulsion in choice. Compulsion is not an external

force according to him. It is in this sense that things obey their own inner laws

of necessity, which are the laws of necessity, which are the laws of the one.^'

127

Ayan-i Thabita

In the metaphysical system of Ibn-i Arabi the Aynal-i Thabita occupy an

important position, for they have an intermediary position, for they have an

intermediary position between the one as the absolute reality and the

phenomenal world. He calls them as the first keys (al-Mafatih-al-Awwal) and

the keys of unseen (Mafatih al-Ghayb) because they were the opening chapter

in the history of creation." It is akeady said that Ibn-i Arabi does not believe

that creation has any beginning or end. To him the creation is the spontaneous

manifestation of the attributes of God.

Shaikh MuhibbuUah holds the same views regarding the creation and creator.

The Ayan-i Thabita is basically related to the second descent of God, in which

known and knower are one. It is the mysterious state which is only known to

God. Even the mystics cannot know it through their mystics unveiling

(Kashfi.lX is also not possible for a Sufi to know it, in the state of complete

annihilation (Fana) which is impossible in this world.'^

It is also impossible to know the specific relation of Ayn-i Thabita to the

divine essence, and how they are 'related to the creative power of God' and

how they 'become' external existents for a Sufi, but he can get the knowledge

of Ayn-i Thabita, themselves, particularly his own, if God reveals it to him.

128

References

1. AUahbadi, Shaikh MuhibbuUah. Taswiyah; translated into Urdu by

Maulvi Taqi Haider. Lucknow, pp.5-135.

2. Ibid, p.66.

3. Abdur Rahman Jami (d.898\1492), a great scholar, mystic,

philosopher and poet, was bom in Jam in Khurasan. Besides many

distinguished works in poetry, Jami wrote a large commentary on the

Fusus al-Hikam of Ibn-i Arabi and a short one, Naqd al-Nusus, an

exposition of the doctrines of wahdat-al wujud', Lawiah, partly in

prose and partly in verse; and an introduction to the lives and

teachings of almost 600 Sufis, Nafahat al-Uns.

4. Mir Valiuddin. The Quranic Sufism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas

Publication. 1968, pp.88-89.

5. AUahbadi, Shaikh MuhibbuUah. Taswiyah (Urdu translation),

pp. 16-17.

6. Ibid, p. 140.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid, p. 16.

9. Ibid, p. 18.

129

10. Ibid, p. 19.

11. Ibid,p.l8.

12. Ibid, pp. 15-20.

13. Afifi, A. E. The Mystical Philosophy of Muhiuddin Ibn-i Arabi.

London: Cambridge University Press, 1939. P.86.

14. Ibid, p.86.

15. Ibid.

16. Allahbadi, Shaikh MuhibbuUah. Taswiyah (Urdu translation) p.84.

17. Ibid, p. 109-112.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Rom, Landau. Philosophy of Ibn-i Arabi. Muslim World. U.S.A.;

Duncan Black, 1957. P.46-61.

130

25. Ibid.

26. Afifi, A. E. The Mystical Philosophy ofMuhiuddin Ibn-i Arabi. P.84.

27. Allahbadi, Shaikh Muhibbullah. Manazir Akhas al-Khawas .P.70.

28. Afifi, A. E. The Mystical Philosophy ofMuhiuddin Ibn-i Arabi. P.9.

29. Ibid, pp.9-10.

30. Allahbadi, Shaikh Muhibbullah. Taswiyah (Urdu translation) p. 13.

31. Ibid,p.66.

32. Afifi, A. E. The Afystical Philosophy ofMuhiuddin Ibn-i Arabi. P. 12.

33. Faruqi, Burhan Ahmad. The Mujaddid's conception of Tawhid.

Lahore: Institute of Islamic culture, 1940. P.94.

34. Afifi, A.E. The Mystical Philosophy ofMuhiuddin Ibn-i Arabi. P. 11.

35. Allahbadi, Shaikh Muhibbullah. Taswiyah (Persian) p.28-29.

36. Ibid.

37. Flint. Anti-Theistic Theories. Edinburgh: William Blackwood. 1977

pp.335-336.

38. Faruqi, Burhan Ahmad. The Mujaddid's conception ofTauhid. P.38.

39. Ibid, p.39.

131

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid,p.40.

42. Ansari, Muhammad Abdul Haq. Sufism and Sharia. United

Kingdom: The Islamic Foundation, 1986 pp.102-105.

43. Ibid, 110.

44. Faruqi, Burhan Ahmad. The Mujaddid 's conception of Tauhid. P.44.

45. Ibid, p.39.

46. Afifi, A. E. The Mystical Philosophy ofMuhiuddin Ibn-i Arabi. P. 13.

47. Faruqi, Burhan Ahmad. The Mujaddid's conception of Tauhid

pp.46-47.

48. Ansari, Muhammad Abdul Haq. Sufism and Sharia. P. 112.

49. Faruqi, Burhan Ahmad. The Mujadid's conception of Tauhid. P.48.

50. Afifi, A. E. The Mystical Philosophy ofMuhiuddin Ibn-i Arabi. P.41.

51. Ibid,p.l53.

52. Ibid, p.52.

53. Allahbadi, Shaikh Muhibbullah. Taswiyah. (Persian) p.40.

132

Chapter - VI

Critical Analysis of Shaikh MuhibbuUah's Sufi

Thought

The main opposition to the entire system of Sufis in general and the Tauhid-i

Wujudi in particular, in the 17* century, was led by Mulla Mahmud Jaunpuri

and his talented disciples. They sought to emphasize the preponderance of

rational thinking over mysticism and dogma both. Shaikh Muhibbullah, had

therefore, to fight a battle royal against this tendency which dominated an

important cultural center of Northern India, like Jaunpur. Shaikh Muhibbullah

could not refute them through logical disputation. He, therefore, undertook a

campaign of vilification of rationalism and its dialectic. "The secrets of divine

knowledge are beyond the comprehension of reason", was his battle cry. He

condemned the study of Kalam and Philosophy both lock, stock and barrel. He

drew upon the works of those Muslim scholars of repute who held fast to the

Wujudi principles.

According to him there was a world of difference between a Sunni who had

mastery over Kalam and one who possessed divine knowledge. Philosophy

was nothing but a source of sin and damnation to him. He wrote letters to

Mulla Mahmud Jaunpuri with the view of the limitations of the intellect and

reason as far as the attainment of divine realties was concerned. He based his

arguments on quotations firom Ibn-i Arabi's works. Similarly the Ulama who

had an acquired a formal knowledge, he argued could not appreciate the

accomplishment of the Ulama who possessed divine knowledge i.e. the Sufi.

Their criticism of the Tauhid-i Wujudi emanated from the ignorance of the

133

Sufis discipline. The importance of Ibn-i Arabi's teachings could, however, be

realized in an atmosphere free from hide-boimded prejudices.'

Among the Sufis who opposed the Tauhid-i Wujudi and criticized the works of

Ibn-i Arabi, he mentioned only Shaikh Alauddaula Simnani (1261-1336A.D.)

and Shaikh Muhammad Hussani Gesudaraz(1331-1422A.D.) He accused

Alauddaula of not following the true significance of Ibn-i Arabi's theory of

Wujud-i Mutalaq and taking it to literally. He did not attach much importance

to the criticism of Syed Muhammad Gesudaraz and explained the non-bestowal

of his Khirqa to any one of his disciples by Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh of

Delhi, to his own advantage. The remarks of Shaikh MuhibbuUah tend to show

that Gesudaraz had not thoroughly imbibed the Chishti monistic traditions;

otherwise there was no reason for his having been denied the Khirqa by his

preceptor. Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh. According to him only those scholars,

ascetics and Sufis followed Shaikh Alaud Daula Simnnani who were not able

to achieve their ultimate goal of spiritual perfection. He thus labeled all other

Sufis who opposed Ibn-i Arabi as the Sufi-i jahil (Ignorant Sufis), for they

regarded the Absolute Being who is immanent as transcendent. They followed

the dialectics of the scholars of Kalam in matters related to the highest form of

spiritual truth.

The veiy tittle of Shaikh Muhibbullah's works shows that they were meant

only for the highly elect amongst the Sufis. He wrote, "Shaikh (Ibn-i Arabi)

134

had remarked that the insight into the Wahdat- al Wujud and the Wujud-i

Mutlaq was one of the most difficult tasks. 3

Like Some other Wujudis of his times, he laid considerable emphasis on the

acquisition of mystic knowledge from the Hindus too. In one of his letters

he had quoted the Hindu theory of cosmogony (branch of science deals with

the origin of the Universe). But his knowledge of Hindu mysticism seems to

be very superficial though there were considerable opportunities to acquire

it at Allahabad.'*

He probably thought himself too old to acquire it or too busy with his scheme

of work to pay attention to it. However, one of his eminent disciples. Shaikh

Muhammadi undertook the study of Hindu mysticism with the Pandits *

systematically after acquiring a perfect grounding in Wahdat-al Wujud under

him. Shaikh Muhibbullah was satisfied with the impression which Muhammadi

was able to make on Pandits. The exchange of views must have indeed

benefited both of them. Shaikh Muhibbullah however did not fail to define the

true spirit of co-existence.^

This attitude remained a dominant tract of his character and is clearly borne out

by letters. He did not like to antagonise even his opponents and generally

preferred to avoid controversies unless he was dragged into them. He regarded

himself a humble seeker after knowledge and sought to convince his opponents

135

as politely and greatly as he could. This was the main course of his success

and swelled the ranks of his admirers and disciples.

God His Essence and Attributes

Shaikh Muhibbullah tries to establish the doctrines of the Sufis about God, His

Essence and Attributes, Being, (Wujud) and the relation between the necessary

and the contingent beings, etc., as altogether different from those of the

theologians. On account of this difference the Sufis have concealed their views

in order to avoid charges of heresy and infidelity and escape persecution. In

spite of this some Sufis have been slain and hanged. He further says that there

are there kinds of knowledge based, as it is, (1) on reason and arguments (2) on

senses and (3) on internal faculties (asrar). The last one is the highest degree

of knowledge and it is bestowed upon the prophets and the saints. Those who

have it can tell the secrets of the shariat which are beyond the reach of intellect

and are only grasped by Kashf.^

Gnosis of God

According to Shaikh Muhibbullah gnosis of God is the summum bonum for

Sufi. It asserts that the gnosis is superior to works, abstinence, devotion,

ecstasy, trance, austerity and renunciation. All worships, prayers and spiritual

practices of the Sufis are preparations for the Gnosis of God, for God has

created the world in order that men may know Him.'

136

Union with God

Shaikh Muhibbullah explains that the highest state of spiritual development is

union with God and subsequent return to the ordinary world. A perfect Sufi is

one who ascends to God by keeping away from the people till God fill his heart

with wisdom and sends him back towards people for guiding them and for

explaining the tenets of the shariat with the help of the knowledge that God has

taught him.

Vision of God

Night is not meant for praying or reciting the Qur'an, pondering over its

meaning and taking pleasure or feeling pain over the descriptions of heaven 4

and hell. For they divert the mind from communion with God which is the sole

purpose of night. A Sufi should therefore, free himself from everything and

concentrate on God, talking to Him and listening to what He says and teaches

about the real import of His holy Quran^

Importance of Fasting

Referring to the Hadith "fasting is for God and God Himself will reward it",

Shaikh Muhibbullah brings out Ibn-i Arabi's view that fasting is the highest of

all forms of worship. It is, infect, more than worship, a participation in the

transcendence of God, by abstaining from creaturely needs of eating and

drinking. With the importance of fasting, Shaikh Muhibbullah also explains

137

caution against indulgence in vigils and fasting. It reminds one that one should

also give the body its due. One should not go on fasting throughout the night,

because the Prophet did not like either. One should pray in the night and sleep

as well, fast for some days but also feed oneself*^

Control of the self

According to Shaikh Muhibbullah, the best way of controlling the self is to

follow the shariat. In following the shariat, however, one must guard oneself

against pride to which the doers of good fall easy pray. The best caution

against such pride is the belief that the real doer of all acts is God not men.''

Nearness to God

Shaikh Muhibbullah refers to Ibn-i Arabics doctrine that all things turn to God

because God is the essence of all. Moreover, as God is the essence of all

creatures there is no question of nearness and remoteness between the creator

and the created. He defmes the meaning of nearness and remoteness.

According to a tradition, man comes nearer to God by means of supererogatory

acts which produce love of God who becomes the ears, eyes and hands of the

devotee. Shaikh says that the Sufis believe that God does not become, He

rather, is the ears, the eyes and limbs of man even he loves Him. If one is

aware of it one is really near to God.'

138

God's Mercy

Shaikh Muhibbullah says that the mercy of God is unlimited; everything good

or bad owes its being to God's mercy. Whatever is in vogue is the order of

God. The sinner may go against the shariat, but he obeys God no less than the

virtuous, for everyone follows his own destiny that is of God's mercy.

Consequently, everyone, the believer and the non-believer, will be ultimately

saved. Shaikh discusses love and mercy among human beings. He says Peace

is better than war even if it is for a good cause. That is why God has ordered to

make peace with the infidels if they are inclined and to accept Fidya (ransom)

m place of vengeance. Existence is good, and everything that contributes to the

survival of human generation is commendable.

Respect

Since everything is a manifestation of God, it deserves respect. One should

have respect for (1) the shariat, (2) the king and the master, (3) God and (4) the

Truth. The respect for the shairat is to follow its injunctions. The respect for

the master is to serve him without any expectation of favour from him. The

respect for God is to carry out His will and to be conscious of His presence.

The respect for the Truth consists in giving up respect for everything other than

God.'*

139

Respect for the Saints

To reopect and honour for the saint is to respect and honour God, for the word

of the spiritual guide is the word of God. Disrespect to the saints tears one

away from God. Like the Prophets, the saints are also vicegerents of God and

the protectors of the shariat. The saints are of two kinds: (1) the Gnostics who

have profound knowledge of the Qur'an and the Hadith, and (2) the men of

spiritual trance. Both deserve respect but only the Gnostics are to be

followed.'

Love

Love is one of the qualities of God. Love for everythmg is the love for God;

thus, God is the lover as well as the beloved. Love has been divided into four

categories. (1) Love, affection, extreme love and lust. Again there are three

kinds of love: (1) Divine love (2) spiritual love and physical love. The physical

love is also of a kind called "elemental love" '

Reality of Tasawwuf

Reality of Tasawwuf is attained when love and yearning is perfect, and when

one is conscious of nothing else than God. After mentioning a number of

definitions of Tasawwuf Shaikh MuhibbuUah conclude that Tasawwuf is

affability and good conduct. The Sufi must be wise and have the knowledge of

Reality. He is the vicegerent and the trustee of God on the earth. He carries

140

out the duties of vicegerency and trusteeship and gives to everything its due.

Tasawwuf, in short, is to emulate the attributes of God. The realization of the

Truth is the knowledge of Reality which is Identical with Wujud that is

absolutely one. Those who realize the ultimate Truth are one with God: they

hear, see and act through God.*'

Sima (audition)

Shaikh Muhibbullah discusses the problem of Sima (audition) from legal as

well as metaphysical point of view. There is no proof Shaikh Muhibbullah

claims that the Prophet has prohibited Sima. On the contrary, it is proved that

he himself listened to songs on the occasion of Eid. From the metaphysical

point of view, Sima is the cause of the existence of the world. For it is by

hearing the divine word ^'Kun" (Be!) that the essence of the things moved into

the realm of existence. Sima is therefore good.

Audition is of two kinds: (i) absolute and (ii) limited. The latter is also called

physical audition, and is the audition of good songs which moves the heart.

The absolute audition is dependent on knowledge of the reality, and is of two

kinds: (1) divine audition and (2) spu-itual audition, according to their objects.

The absolute audition is indispensable. The physical audition is absolutely

unlawful for the novice, and useless for the perfect. It is only for those who

have not reached perfection.

141

Miracles (Karamat)

Miracles are not something desirable. They are evidence of the veracity of the

Prophet; hence a Sufi should not practice them. Miracles arc of two kinds: (1)

perceptible and (2) hnperceptible. Perceptible miracles are like walking over

water and flying in the air; and imperceptible miracles are like firmly practicing

the shari'at, acquisition of virtue, avoidance of immoral acts and performance

of duties and obligations. Imperceptible mu-acles are for the perfects saints, for

the perceptible ones may occur at the hands of evil persons. The highest

miracle is the knowledge of Reality that bestows upon the saint.''

Love of the Prophet's family

Love of the family of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) is essential for salvation.

The Prophet Muhammad did not ask anything fi-om the faithful in return for his

services of preaching and guiding them except the love of his family. The

believer must realize that to do justice to this love is not an easy thing and he

should always be conscious of his shortcomings. From the love of the Prophet

Muhammad's family, the Shaikh MuhibbuUah infers that love of the family of

the Murshid is also obligatory. ^

Concept of Qutb

The Qutb is the highest saint next only to the Prophet Muhammad. The Qutb is

one and he is different from those whom the common man calls Qutb. A Qutb

142

does not show miracles and tries to hide his virtues and powers. He is above

trance and ecstasy. There are seven Abdals of whom one is Qutb; two are

Imams and four Awtads. The Prophet Muhaiimiad is the essence of that Qutb

by whom God preserves and protects religion (Islam), It is, therefore,

necessary that the world should not be without a prophet. There are three

prophets who are living: Idris, Ilyas and Isa. The fourth is Khidr; the Sufis are

agreed about his prophethood, though the theologians differ. Of the seven

Abdals the one who is Qutb is the real Qutb who never dies; for he is the soul

of Prophet Muhammad ?^

Concept of Khatim-i-Wilayat

Shaikh MuhibbuUah also discusses Ibn-i Arabi's concept of Khatim-i-Wilayat

(the seal of the saintship). There are two seals of saintship: (1) absolute and (2)

the particular. The former is higher than the latter, rather higher than the whole

Ummat. He is Isa who will return and preach the religion of Prophet

Muhammad as his companion and follower. He is also the last Wali (Saint);

there will be no Wali after him. The Khatim-i-Wilayat-i-Khass is other than

Prophet Isa and inferior to him. But all the saints after him are dependent on

him. Ibn-i Arabi claims that he himself is the Khatim-i-Wilayat-i-Khass.

Shaikh MuhibbuUah notes this claim and adds Wallahualam, God knows

better.

143

The Khatim-i-Wilayat is lower than the Prophet in one sense and higher than

him in another. He is lower since he follows the Prophet's Shariat; he is higher

because he receives all that he receives directly from God, and every Prophet as

a Wall is dependent on him. Like, the seal of the Prophet, the seal of the saints

was there when Prophet Adam was between water and clay. ^

144

References

1. Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. A History of Sufism in India, New Delhi:

Munshiram Memorial, 1978, p. 268.

2. Ibid, p. 269.

3. Ibid.

4. Afifi, A.E. The Mystical Philosophy of Mohiuddin Ibn-i Arabi,

Cambridge University Press, London, 1989.

5. Qanungo, K.R. Darashikoh, Calcutta, 1959, p. 95.

6. Muhibbullah AUahabadi, Shaikh. Manazir-i-Akhass al-Khawass

(MS). Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,

pp. 30-41.

7. Ibid, pp. 45-70.

8. Ibid, pp. 74-80.

9. Ibid, pp. 82-85.

10. /Wt/, pp. 86-89.

11. /6/t/, pp. 95-97.

12. /few, pp. 97-98.

145

13. /6/£/, pp. 104-107.

14. /6/c/, pp. 109-110.

15. /W</, pp. 111-140.

16. ife/f/, pp. 143-144.

17. /&/</, pp. 145-146.

18. 7fe/t/, pp. 154-159.

19. Ibid, pp. 160-166.

20. Ibid, pp. 167-112.

21. /ft/V/, pp. 180-185.

22. /WJ, pp. 186-190.

146

Conclusion

Shaikh Muhibbullah is rightly considered as an important and influential figiire

in the intellectual life of Islam. He is an eclectic thinker. His greatness lies in

his adoption of eclectic Ideas from the classical atmosphere to his own age.

His philosophical and Sufi Ideas and their interpretation marked a

significant influence on the intellectual scene of his times. The form of his

philosophy and Sufi thought is greatly indebted to that of Ibn-i Arabi and his

Chishti predecessors but the contents are of his own which he derives from

the Qur'an and Sunnah, and applies to the situation and circumstances

prevailing in his days.

His Sufi thought is deeply rooted in the early mystical thought and the

scholastic movements of Islam. While formulating his Sufi thought he derives

much from Ibn-i Arabi. Like Ibn-i Arabi, he is strictly a follower of Wahdat-al

Wujud. Hisontology is same like that of Ibn-i Arabi. He is usually described

as Ibn-i Arabi Thani (the second Ibn-i Arabi) and is amply justifiable from his

own arguments. He faces, like Ibn-i Arabi, the same problem of reconciliation

of the concept of the 'pantheistic God' with the Unitarian and monotheistic

God of the g«r'a/I.

In his 'Taswiyah' he holds God as the creator and cause of the universe, and in

his other works, he maintains Him not as the creator or cause of universe but as

a spirit of light manifesting Himself in it. He holds, the 'Being' or Divine

essence, pure, sunple, and indeterminate and as such devoid of all attributes.

147

He is incomprehensible. "It is endowed with attributes when it manifests itself

in the universe".

In this way universe and God are Identical. But the universe has no

existence apart from God, for God is the only necessary existing Being and

it is simply his manifestation. In other words, it can be said that it has a

relative existence. But unlike Ibn-i Arabi, who negates the existence of

"possible", Shaikh MuhibbuUah believes in 'possible' existence. He holds

them as the creation of God and as such the modes, through which He is

manifested. By accepting the universe as His creation and not simply as

manifestation he differs with Ibn-i Arabi.

On the question of immanence and transcendence of God and universe, Shaikh

MuhibbuUah like Ibn-i Arabi, maintains that God is both transcendent and

immanent as Ibn-i Arabi holds. He asserts them as the two permanent aspects

of the Reality.

Though Shaikh MuhibbuUah fully accepts the Wujudi doctrine that God is the

only reality, he indicates that the world is also real, but has an attributed

existence.

He holds the imiverse both as manifestation and as the creation of God. But he

does not solve the problem of the 'time-creation' with it, when he attributed it

as created. For, If God exists, and If everything has being in Him, it follows

that the universe was not created at some moment in the distant past-ever since

148

evolving on its own-but that is manifests constantly the Divine existence of the

maker. This means that the universe is in a perpetual state of creation. Ibn-i

Arabi removes the problems by interpretmg the word creation as "creation

means simply the coming into concrete, manifestation of something aheady

existing (in God). Shaikh Muhibbullah does not succeed in removing the

difficulties implied in the problem of creation, for first he affaire Ibn-i Arabi's

position and then negates it by saying that universe is a creation. Here he

seems to be haunted by the Ideas of Imam Ghazzali, which are contradicted by

Ibn-i Arabi, that creation means "creating afresh by God from moment to

moment."

As aheady discussed, the divine means and divine attributes are Identical to

each other. A divine attribute is simply the exteriorization of the Divine name

which is the "creative element that holds within itself the potentiality of a

particular phenomenon. The divine essence embraces both these aspects in

itself.

Divine consciousness, which Shaikh Muhibbullah identifies with the Reality of

Realities, or the Reality of Muhammad or the Logos, embraces all the

intelligible forms of prototypes. It is the creative, animating and rational

principle of universe which fully manifests in the perfect man (Insan-al Kamil).

God known Himself perfectly in perfect man the divine consciousness reaches

its supreme point in him. Shaikh Muhibbullah simply represents the doctrine of

perfect man of Ibn-i Arabi. As regards the concept of perfect man both Ibn-i

149

Arabi and Shaikh Muhibbullah are to a large extent in conformity. For both of

them, he is no one except Prophet Muhammad. Moreover, the logos-

Mohammad is not the earthly person but the spirit or the reality of Muhammad

and all other prophets and saints are simply his Individual manifestation.

Therefore, we may rightly conclude that Shaikh Muhibbullah presents a system

of thought in which God is one, the Absolute Creator, unparalleled and unique,

and the entire universe is His manifestation out of His Power and Will.

The relation between the creator and created is never of duality but always

an Identity.

Shaikh Muhibbullah's teachings and thoughts show that he is firm in faith and

practice. He is very much conscious of his moral responsibility and observance

of religious laws. He thinks that Tasawwuf teaches us how to purify self,

improve one's moral and build up one's iimer and outer life in order to attain

perpetual bliss. Shaikh Muhibbullah was a believer in the principle of

responsibility and moral obligation. He believed in discrimination between

right and wrong, good and evil without which no social order could be

maintained. Shaikh Muhibbullah realized that Tasawwuf is a phenomenon of

intense religious consciousness. He criticized those Sufis who believe that

trance and ecstasy are higher them cognition; He says that trance and ecstasy

are never higher than knowledge and cognition. Therefore, real Sufis always

keep themselves with in the boundaries of Shariat and never go beyond that,

they always act according to Qur'an and Sunnah,

150

So he says that "The truth is this that for a Gnostic everything is good if the

Qur'an and Sunnah remains in his hand." Further he says that a man should

bow down before God with all humility and servitude {ahdiyat). A man can be

nearer to God with servitude only as it is the highest stage and source of all

perfection. He says, "It is necessary that it should be said to you that servitude

in the highest stage and there is no stage beyond that. Prophet Muhammad

(SAW) got absolute leadership with servitude only. As earlier discussed inspite

of firm faith in Wahdat-al Wujud he never minimized the need of adhering to

the Shariat by which the social order was safe guarded. He refers respectfully

to the Sunnah and mentions the Prophet Muhanunad always with great respect

and devotion. He refers that continuous Zikr of Kalimah awakens reality of

Tawhid (Wahdat-al Wujud) in the heart of Sufi so that apparent contradiction

between the Shariat, reason and Tawhid disappears. The performance of Zikr

is united with the heart and Sufi conceives nothing but God. Shaikh

Muhibbullah obtained a super natural perception of Tasawwuf and his whole

being was submerged in mystical intuition.

151

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