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Expert PanelRasik RavindraGeologist and Secretary General, 36 IGC, New Delhi.

Sachidanand SinhaProfessor, CSRD,Jawaharlal NehruUniversity, New Delhi.

B MeenakumariFormer Chairperson,National Biodiversity Authority, Chennai.

Ajit TyagiAir Vice Marshal (Retd) Former DG, IMD,New Delhi.

Saraswati RajuFormer Professor, CSRD,Jawaharlal NehruUniversity, New Delhi.

K J RameshFormer Director General, IMD, New Delhi.

Prithvish NagFormer Vice Chancellor,MG Kashi Vidyapeeth,Varanasi.

B SenguptaFormer Member Secretary, Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi.

GeoGraphy and youVol. 19 Issue 27 No. 138 2019

G’nY SINCE 2001GEoGraphYaNdYou.Com

a dEvElopmENt aNd ENvIroNmENt fortNIGhtlY

Migration and developMent4 Migrant Workers in Globalising India Deepak K Mishra The initial post-reforms period did not witness a massive increase

in the extent of migration. The 2001-2011 period however, has seen a substantial increase in migration.

12 Climate Instability and Labour Migration in India Manoj Jatav & Deepika Jajoria Pre-existing regional inequalities, prevailing poverty levels, scattered

and partial nature of existing labour laws, etc. alert us about further worsening of the vulnerable conditions of climate migrants.

18 Rural Migrants in the City Amrita Datta Rural migrants in urban India contribute to economic growth

and development. Yet, they remain invisible and are particularly vulnerable in certain contexts.

29 Migration and Upward Mobility in the Labour Market: The Case of Kerala

Pooja Batra Using the Kerala Migration Survey (KMS), 2018, this study

attempts to examine the relationship between migration and upward mobility.

36 Trans-South Asian Diaspora Philanthropy: A Driver for GCM?

Binod Khadria The deployment of humanitarian philanthropy which the trans-

South Asian diasporas exhibit can support micro-economic policies and help in the countries of their origin in education and health.

42 Gender and Skilled Migration: Women in the Indian Tech SectorGunjan Sondhi and Parvati Raghuram

While women make up nearly 35 per cent of the labour force in the Indian tech sector, a proportionally smaller group takes up international assignments.

In BrIef2 Letters; 3 Editor’s Note; 11 Term Talk; 48 Books & Website

IN CONVERSATION WITH PC Mohanan

24 Migration will have a Bearing on Citizenship

Fmr Chairperson of the National Statistics Commission

Women are the largest subset among migrants in India—in most instances relocating their place of residence.

Phot

o Co

uRte

Sy: P

RASA

D

Write Editorial Office: IPP Ltd, 501, Bhikaji Cama Bhawan, R K Puram, New Delhi - 110066. Letters may be edited for clarity and length. Include name, address and telephone. Phone 011-46014233, 26186350 e-mail editor@geographyandyou.comFacebook http://goo.gl/eIeaH, linkedin http://in.linkedin.com/pub/geography-and-you/5a/b32/b24 Website www.geographyandyou.com. subscriPtions For institutional subscriptions of print copies you may write to subscriptions@geographyandyou.comto contribute an article: Kindly send the abstract of your article in not more than 200 words to info@geographyandyou.com.The abstract will be reviewed by our peers. Once selected we shall respond for the procurement of full article. The length of the final article may range from 1000 to 1500 words. Please visit our website for publication and peer review policy.The Editorial Advisor.

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Vol. 19, Issue 25-26, No. 136 &137. 2019 titled ‘India’s Spectacular Geoheritage Sites’ was simply wonderful. I have visited Udaipur, Rajasthan and Leh, Ladakh in the recent past but had no idea about Zawar or Ladakh’s tectonic significance before reading the articles, ‘World’s Oldest Zinc Mining and Metallurgy Site’ and ‘Ladakh: The Land of Two Continental Plates’ . Had I known about it I would have made it a point to visit these fascinating sites with such a rich cultural and geological heritage.—ASHUTOSH KUMAR, via Customer Feedback.

holistic develoPment of the reader’sbody of knowledge has been the goal of this unique publication and G’nY is always spot on. G’nY publishes content without any preconceptions or assumptions about the reader and builds the reader’s command on any and every theme gradually. I simply love reading it.—AKASH GUPTA via Customer Feedback.

the veracitY oF Facts presented in each issue of G’nY has been one of the most remarkable features. Only the latest and most reliable data is presented, which reinforces our belief in truthful publishing.—MOHAMMAd AfZAL via Customer Feedback.

comPlex scientiFic content is made palatable and intriguing by G’nY. It is one of the major USP’s of this publication. I would love to see more attention being given to contemporary problems affecting the masses such as energy consumption, affects of refrigeration on the environment, etc.—PRIYANKA via Customer Feedback.

rigorous academic screening is a time consuming process but the magazine should reach readers at the earliest possible timeframe for the content to hold contemporary relevance. I request the management to look into the matter, as delay in publication timeline can hamper access to good quality content.—ANUPAM KARAN via Facebook.

the diversitY oF contributors on any given theme of G’nY helps the reader form his

own nuanced opinion about the views presented. The multiple perspectives presented warrant serious contemplation from the reader to arrive at their own original opinions. I request the team to come out with more issues on physical geography.—dIPANSHU SHARMA via Customer Feedback.

Food imPeratives issue carried an article titled ‘Poshan Abhiyaan for a Malnutrition free India’ which reminded me of a similar initiative undertaken by the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu M G Ramachandran in the 1980s. The present day nutrition programmes running in Tamil Nadu have evolved from this very initiative. It is no wonder that MGR is still remembered fondly in his home state.—JeYASeLVAN CHeLLAIAH via Facebook.

the erra matti dibalu article was very interesting and will go a long way in raising awareness about Andhra Pradesh’s unique geological heritage. It was very reassuring to me as a native of Andhra Pradesh to see our monument getting a platform on a national stage like G’nY. I would request you to focus on high quality photographs, as doing so will further uplift the quality of the articles. – Kancharla Vijay Sagar, Andhra Pradesh via Customer feedback.

immersive laYout and Presentation of the content in G’nY makes for a wonderful reading experience. The vivid photographs accompanying the articles stimulate the eyes along with the mind.—VIVeK SINGH via Customer Feedback.

2 2019 GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 27 no. 138 GeoGraphy and you april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 3

Sulagna ChattopadhyayFounder-Editor, Geography and You,editor@geography andyou.com

Policy on migration needed in IndiaMigration involves differentiated patterns. On one hand, migrants may have better lives at destination—on the other, they may not be particularly better off when compared to the host population. Such variations are because of differential levels of educational attainment, employable skills and surviving tactics. Of late, climate instability involving extreme climatic events have created stumbling blocks in providing productive employment for all. It is such vulnerable segments of migrants who need supportive actions by state and non-state organisations. Paradoxically, however, there exists no coherent policy on migration in India. Although international assignments are marked by professional workers, gendered locations of women continue to obstruct them from taking full advantage. For instance, women make up a sizable proportion of the workforce in the Indian tech sector, yet they are a proportionally smaller group in terms of international assignments. This is essentially because of the familial and domestic tasks added with work responsibilities. Finally, can there be a balancing act between the countries- both the host and receiving—in terms of humanitarian philanthropy? The response is affirmative as the trans-Asian migrants can invest in education and health in the countries of their origin.

Migrant contributions to the economyMigration is the key to development. Migrant workers are more willing to take on low paid, low skilled jobs that entail long hours of engagement as opposed to resident populations. They use little of the destination areas resources, with limited access to basic amenities of housing, education, health care, water etc., while contributing significantly to the destination’s economy. The more skilled the migrant stream the better the economy—and vice versa, in an unending loop of cause and effect. However, this ancient process of human movement is often halted by nations big and small on grounds that range from religious and cultural resistance, to gleaning for proficiency in specific skill sets in the migrating population. This issue of G’nY is dedicated to how migration is inevitable and important. I would also like to thank Dr P C Mohanan for his insightful responses that point towards the qualitative issues of data documentation.

Saraswati RajuFormer Professor, CSRD, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhisaraswati_raju@ hotmail.com

Guest Editor

Editor’s note

24 2019 GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 27 no. 13824 2019 GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 27 no. 138

PC Mohanan, former Chairperson of the National Statistics Commission, discusses the relevance of recording migration through different data sources and offers solutions for creating better documentation practices.

Migration will have a bearing on citizenship

G’nY. If people were to work on NSSO or Census data what are the primary difficulties of data compatibility would they face?In India we have two major sources of migration data at the national level; the decennial Population Censuses and the not so frequent nationally representative sample surveys of the erstwhile National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) under the Ministry of Statistics. Briefly the Census asks (i) if the birth place of the person was outside the village/town of enumeration and (ii) if the persons had come to the present place from elsewhere, usually called the last place of residence. So you have migration status according to place of birth and by place of last residence. Census also records the reasons for changing the place of last residence, like work/employment, business,

education, marriage and moved with household etc.

The Census data provides the number of migrants and their flows to different locations enabling one to understand migration patterns. However, it has limitations in relating migration to household or individual socio-economic characteristics. If researchers were to relate migration to socio-economic characteristics of migrants, they would need more detailed data on these characteristics before and after migration. These are possible in detailed household surveys and not in population censuses.

Sample Surveys on migration and related aspects conducted by the NSSO have been a major source of data accessed by researchers mainly due to its flexibility for analysis and

I n c on v er s at I on

24 2019 GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 27 no. 138 GeoGraphy and you 2019 25

Marriage migration may shift women away from workforce

just as it may also improve their chances of entering

workforce in the new place.

26 2019 GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 27 no. 138

easy access to the micro data collected from households. Unlike the census, these surveys do not have a fixed periodicity. Migration surveys with comparable definitions and coverage were done in 1983, 1987-1988, 1993, 1999-2000 and in 2007-2008. The last survey, for example, collected data on household migration, out-migration, in-migration and seasonal short-term migration. The details of location of last usual residence, nature of migration and reason for migration, duration, economic activity before and after migration, remittances sent and how it was used were asked from the surveyed households. In addition the short duration movements of the people for employment or in search of employment for a period of 30 days to 6 months, number of spells of duration of 15 days or more, destination for longest spell and industry of work were also collected.

The NSSO data is much more comprehensive and help understand the migration situation better within the limitations enforced by the nature of a sample survey such as sampling errors especially when one is looking at a disaggregated analysis. G’nY. Do you think that in releasing data years later (for instance the 2011 data on migration of the Census was released recently) makes the data lose much of its relevance? In the Indian geo-political context migration is a sensitive topic, especially the Census numbers. Therefore some amount of detailed examination of the data before publication is always expected. However, the final tables from Census 2011 were made available only recently. Some provisional tables

were released earlier. Questions were then raised by Prof Amitabh Kundu and myself on the inconsistencies in the provisional data and these were withdrawn and replaced later. Multiple versions of data is a challenge for researchers.

There are views that the internal migration scenario has changed substantially in recent times. This was a topic in one of the Economic Surveys

That the Census 2011 data on migration came very late and the failure of NSSO to conduct another survey after 2007-2008 are major setbacks for migration studies in India. G’nY. Can you advise whether recording only one reason for migration in the Census is insufficient? For instance, women migrate on account of exogamous marriage, but they can start work immediately. However, this would not be counted as a reason for migration. Do you think any rethinking/modification is needed in this direction? Some amount of simplification always take place while collecting data on reasons for migration. The head of household is the proxy respondent for other members in the household and the survey instrument facilitates this simplification. Migration affects people differently in the same household. Marriage migration may shift women away from workforce just as it may also improve their chances of entering workforce in the new place. The instructions given in NSSO are usually to assign the primary reason for the movement to the new place. A better solution to understand this is to record the activity status of respondents before and after migration as is done in the NSSO. G’nY. Can NSSO capture a more nuanced migration data in the future as the Census does not adequately capture seasonal and/or short-term circular migration? The period of short term migration is gradually changing from the lean period in the agricultural season to irregular

The Census 2011 data

on migration came

very late and the failure

of NSSO to conduct

another survey after

2007-2008 are major

setbacks for migration

studies in India.

of the Government. Indirect estimation using advanced data analytics from alternate data sources like rail ticket sale, were cited as evidence for this. These estimation procedures depends on a lot of assumptions. A combination of decennial census and periodic surveys are essential to track the migration scene more effectively.

GeoGraphy and you 2019 27

My primary concern

is the manner in

which national

statistics is losing its

independence and

public trust

leading to loss of

credibility in the

numbers put out by

statistical agencies.

episodes of circular migration. Should such complex migration episodes be meaningfully captured?One cannot expect the census to capture very detailed data in view of the scale of operations. But even the NSSO has limitations due to its sample size in capturing all possible instances. The complexity of migration may not be adequately represented in the selected sample due to its small size.

Large number of micro level studies have documented the prevalence of short term migration in India. The Census enumerates people on change of place of residence and no data on their mobility pattern are collected. While the NSSO does attempt to collect information on short term migrants, there are constraints in covering the entire range of short term migrants. Large number of migrant workers may go out of their villages and towns for work for periods more than six months without planning to change their place of residence permanently. Theoretically, they should be enumerated in their new place of residence since the stay exceeds six months. This would happen only if such a place of stay is fixed for the entire period of migration and the structure that house them are listed in the survey operation. For migrant workers, especially in construction sector or having mobile work places, the place of stay may not be fixed although the stay away from home is more than six months. Since they are staying away from their households exceeding six months, they cannot claim to be members of the household or their place of origin as the usual place of residence. The population census does cover the

houseless population, but the surveys usually do not. G’nY. A segment of the migrant labour live at worksites - from construction sites to makeshift labour camps. Is it relevant to capture such mobile but invisible workers (and their families)?A problem in household surveys and also to an extent in population census, is locating migrants who do not set up independent households. It is known

that many migrants live in temporary structures around construction sites or in labour camps that are not usually registered as households in records. They are not easily accessible to enumerators. To an extent NSSO overcomes this problem by asking the surveyed households if any member has out-migrated for work. This is possible only when the entire

household has not moved to such temporary living facilities. Temporary migration such as for casual or temporary work has a time dimension that may not be easy to specify in surveys.

Identifying migrant labour or itinerant artisans living in temporary facilities or taking shelters in purely temporary structures along highways etc. is extremely important as they constitute the most deprived sections of migrants. Most often they fail to avail welfare entitlements due to migration and lack of portability of these schemes across states. As noted earlier, there are practical issues in national level surveys to locate and list migrant workers. The basic difficulty arises due to the need to survey ‘households’ which presume a structure of certain permanency. With some effort they can be identified from the household of origin as out-migrants, provided the entire household has not shifted.

National surveys have the object of providing valid estimates at national and regional levels. Micro studies of different industries and locations are useful to provide corroborative evidences on labour migration that national level surveys cannot provide.

G’nY. Reasons of migration should have multiple choices. For instance--natural disasters, including floods and drought, which may be added as also social and economic tensions - what are your views?No doubt these are important reasons but many a time these are localised making it difficult to be sufficiently represented in national level studies. Many a time we see that certain categories of migrants like short term

28 2019 GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 27 no. 138

migrants are rather small but quite significant for some states. The census would be a better place to record them. As per the 2011 Census, 53.3 million migrants had moved due to reasons not specified in the census questionnaire (viz. employment, business, education, marriage, birth and accompanying household movement). Between 2001 and 2011 about 20 million migrants belonged to this unspecified reason category. It may be difficult to expect a sample survey to produce reliable numbers when these reasons are broken down further. We have to depend on area specific studies to understand and highlight these situations.

G’nY. Significantly, NSSO’s consumer expenditure data seems to be facing some difficulties in the current context. What seems to be the primary concerns?Consumer expenditure data have always been at the centre of critical debate ever since it came to be used to derive poverty estimates. Many of the issues like the growing divergences with the private consumption expenditure derived from national accounts are well known. Besides technical issues, practical issues like its ability to capture the consumption of those in the high income bracket have been in radar of critics. There has been an increasing feeling among survey practitioners that collecting consumption expenditure data on all items of goods and services consumed by the household are getting very difficult due to respondent resistance and the recall issues. Thus nobody would be surprised if the data showed up some inconsistencies

with other sources. If we are looking at the distribution of households by expenditure classes then this problem is a little less serious compared to aggregate level expenditures.

While these issues are nothing new, the decision to junk the survey altogether on the basis of issues regarding data quality without specifying the details create doubts as it follows a series of similar steps in respect of other official data. Alternatively it is likely that the survey done immediately after the demonetisation exercise shows a drastic decline in consumption. In any case, the most desirable action would have been to release the report and data for researchers to examine it scientifically, paving the way for methodological improvements if necessary.

Unfortunately data related issues have acquired a political dimension as we saw in the reluctance of the Government to release the labour force survey results before the elections. We have also seen the caveats under which the estimates of households having access to toilets from another survey has been released recently. The survey estimates were significantly lower than the claims of the government. Independent surveys are necessary to validate administrative data and are not meant to defend the official figures.

My primary concern is the manner in which national statistics is losing its independence and public trust leading to loss of credibility of numbers put out by statistical agencies. Statistical agencies should not be immune to criticisms. But this should not be an excuse for them to supress statistical reports and data. Transparency can

only strengthen them and the autonomy of these agencies need be safeguarded through legislative measures.

G’nY. Has there been any methodology change suggested or undertaken in the consumer expenditure data set that might affect the comparability of consumer expenditure over the previous years?There were many methodological studies to improve the collection of consumer expenditure data. The most discussed were the studies on reference period (recall period). Yet another study was done to collect data for different groups of items from different households to reduce survey time and respondent burden. The comparability of data was the main factor for not making substantial methodological changes as that would have raised debates on the resulting poverty numbers either way. This actually happened in 1999-2000.

Household consumer expenditure is usually accepted as a proxy for household income, which is admittedly more difficult to collect. But given the present context it may be worthwhile to attempt to collect income data from households in place of consumption.

G’nY. Is there any relationship between migration and citizenship?Migration reporting including period since migration is also likely to be affected if the respondents have concerns of their ultimate use by government agencies for possible administrative and political purposes. Exercises to establish citizenship or prepare citizen registers for the population will have a bearing on the reportage of migration related issues.

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