SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE ...ir.amu.ac.in/5172/1/DS 3647.pdfI am also thankful to Mr....

TYPOLOGY OF MODERNIZATION IN THE RURAL ENVIRONMENT OF

ALIGARH DISTRICT. UTTAR PRADESH

DISSERTATION

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

lllagter of ^i)ilos;opf)p IN

• Geography /

BY

TANVEERFATIMA

Under the Supervision of

Dr.Abdul Munir

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH (INDIA)

2005

I 0 JUL /uU9

DS3647

Dr. Abdul Munir / ^ ^ DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY Rg^^gj. B ^ ^ ^ ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH-202002 (INDIA;

Certificate

This is to certify that Miss Tanveer Fatima has completed her

dissertation entitled "Typology of Modernization in the Rural

Environment of Aligarh District, Uttar Pradesh" for the award of the

degree of Master of Philosophy in Geography under my supervision.

KUAMA

(Dr. Abdul Munir) Supervisor

Ph. No.: 0091-571-2700683, Fax: 0091-571-2700528 Email: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

IDedicatedl

t€ my

IPaireirts

CONTENTS

Page No.

Acl<Tiowledgement i-ii

List of Tables iii-iv

List of Figures v-vi

INTRODUCTION vii-xvi

Chapter-I Conceptual Framework 1-29

Chapter-II Methodological Framework 30-33

Data Sources

Data Collection

Statement of the Problem

Methodologies Applied

Chapter-Ill Geographical Profile of the Study Area - 34-75

Aligarh District, U.P.

Structure

Relief

Drainage

Infrastructure Facilities

Demographic Conditions

Chapter-IV Dimensions of Modernization 76-108

Agriculture

Industry

Education

Health

Transport and Communication

Trade and Commerce

Electrification and Banking Establishment

Conclusion and Suggestions 109-114

Selected Bibliography 115-122

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I bow to Almighty Allah who bestowed me with

understanding and learning and who brought me out of

ignorance and illiteracy.

I wish to express my sincere thanks and deep sense of

gratitude to Dr. Abdul Munir, Department of Geography,

A.M.U., Aligarh for his immense encouragement and

invaluable assistance he offered me in this endeavour from

time to time. Without his support it would have been

impossible to complete this arduous job.

Thanks are due to Prof. Salahuddin Qureshi, Chairman,

Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

for providing me all kinds of necessary research facilities in

the Department.

Much appreciation is reserved for exceptional help and

constant support of Miss Rifat Zehra a research scholar in the

Department which I really needed.

I acknowledge with cordial thanks to my senior scholars

for their suggestions and help. I am also thankful to Uzma,

Lubna, Shama and Safia for their help and support.

11

I am also thankful to the staff member of Research

Division, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh for their prompt action in providing me all the

available facilities of the Library.

From the bottom of my heart I am thankful to all the

teacher and non-teaching staffs of the Department for their

cooperation and valuable suggestions, particularly to the staff

members of Research Seminar of the Department.

Last but not the least, I cannot forget my family members

and near and dear for their moral support and cooperation

which they have extended to me is worthless.

I am also thankful to Mr. Kafeel A. Khan who

painstakingly typed my dissertation.

(TANVEER FATIMA)

I l l

LIST OF TABLES

SI. Table Title of the Table Page No. No. No.

1. 3.1 Administrative Division of Aligarh District 35

(2001)

2. 3.2 State and District Male/Female Population 49

3. 3.3 Residence/Sex Distribution of Population 49

4. 3.4 Decadal Growth Rate (Aligarh District, 52

1901-2001)

5. 3.5 Population Distribution by Religion, 54

Aligarh

6. 3.6 Blockwise Density of Population in Aligarh 55

District (1991)

7. 3.7 Blockwise Number of Village, Total and 57

Female Population (2001)

8. 3.8 Percentage of Employment in Aligarh 60

(1961-1991)

9. 3.9 Percentage of Employment by Major 61

Occupational Groups in Aligarh

10. 3.10 Percentage of Literates in Aligarh (1971- 62

2001)

11. 3.11 Number of Basic Schools Per Lakh 63

Population

12. 3.12 Pre and Post-Monsoon Underground Water 75

Levels in Aligarh District (1994)

IV

13. 4.1 Standard Score of Indicators for 81

Agricultural Modernization in Aligarh

District (1990-1991)


Agricultural Modernization in Aligarh



Infrastructural Modernization in Aligarh



Infrastructural Modernization in Aligarh

District (2000-2001).

17. 4.5 Standard Score of Indicators for Overall 101

Modernization in Aligarh District (1990-

1991)

18. 4.6 Standard Score of Indicators for Overall 104

Modernization in Aligarh District (2000-

2001)

V

LIST OF FIGURES

SI. Figure Title of the Figure Page No.

No. No.

1. 3.1 Aligarh District Administrative Set up 36

(2001)

2. 3.2 Aligarh District Physiographic Regions 39

3. 3.3 Aligarh District Drainage System 43

4. 3.4 Aligarh District Soil Regions 46

5. 3.5 Urban Decadal Growth Rate (Aligarh 52

District, 1901-2001)

6. 3.6 Rural Decadal Growth Rate (Aligarh 53

District. 1901-2001)

7. 3.7 Total Decadal Growth Rate (Aligarh 53

District, 1901-2001)

8. 3.8 Aligarh District Transport Network 66

9. 4.1 Aligarh District Levels of Agricultural 82

Modernization (1990-1991)

10. 4.2 Aligarh District Levels of Agricultural 85


11. 4.3 Aligarh District Levels of Infrastructural 92


VI

12. 4.4 Aligarh District Levels of Infrastructural 95


13. 4.5 Aligarh District Levels of Overall 102


14. 4.6 Aligarh District Levels of Overall 105

Modernization (2000-2001).

Vll

INTRODUCTION

This is a study of the regional patterns of modernization in the

Aligarh District of Uttar Pradesh. The study examines regional patterns of

modernization in detail in area under the study which are likely causes of

spatial variations in the levels of overall modernization. As such

variations in the agricultural and infrastructural modernization reflect

variations in the levels of overall modernization.

In the regional analysis of modernization one comes across regions

which are modernized and the people in such regions enjoy reasonable

standard of living while in others, modernization is low owing to

historical circumstances or otherwise, resulting in the underdevelopment

of the region whereby people have a poor standard of living, the problem

of imbalance in regional development thus assumes a great significance.

Modernization is commonly understood as change in economic,

social and political life of a community. The term modernization has

often been used as a synonym to westernization in sociological literature.

It is considered as a historic instance of the process of modernization. It

implies that other communities of the world have of necessity to undergo

more or less in the same direction of change to develop to western extent.

V l l l

Ishwaran (1978) clarifies that "the impact of western domination over the

countries currently known as developing countries has been profound.

Nevertheless, the actual forms of change, the ground level dynamics of

modernization in those countries must not be considered merely as

imperfect initiation of western model. The form of modernization, even

when the impact of the west is profound is always determined partly by

ongoing, pre-westem process in the local social organization or structures

which did not simply vanish in the wake of western impact; they merely

took a different shape and incorporated the consequence of impact as

dictated by the logic of local situations.

Hosetiz (1960) visualizes modernization as the change from the

traditional to a modem society. Therefore, modernization involves the

structural shift from functioning difftise economic roles to ftinctionally

specific roles that operate irrespective of the category of persons with

whom one interacts. Eisenstadt (1970) has refined this approach to take

account of the diversity of social types and to distinguish between

different processes by which modernization might be initiated; "the

process of modernization may take off from tribal groups, from caste,

societies, from different types of peasant societies and from societies with

different degrees and types of prior urbanization. These groups may vary

greatly in the extent to which they have the resources, and abilities.

IX

necessary for modernization. They may differ in their capacity to regulate

the more complex relationships between different parts of the society

which are attendant on social differentiation and in the extent to which

they are willing or able to become integrated into new, wider social

fraraeworks."

Nevertheless, modernization is a process of change which occurs in

vaPr'ing degrees in rural as well as urban areas. This process takes place

among different structures of the community which finally transforms the

style of life and other related aspects.

Concept of Rural Environment

The word rural environment has captured a world wide attention

and is now known even to common masses but is generally

misunderstood and wrongly used. Environment literally means 'what

surrounds' and surroundings consists of both organic and inorganic

elements. These constituents, genetically, fall into two categories:

(i) Natural Environment

(ii) Cultural Environment

(i) Natural Environment consists of all constituents of natural

origin, like physiography, climate, vegetation, soil, water bodies, wild

animals and minerals.

(ii) Cultural Environment consists of all elements having a human

touch in their origin such elements include all manifestations of human

activities. To a layman environment implies physiography (mountain,

plateau, plain, valley, etc.) and natural forest only. But such a narrow

view of environment is erroneous, dangerous and excludes a significant

part of the reality. A certain presence of environmental constituents, is

desirable for the well being of life and this sort of desirable environment

is termed as a balanced environment. Any excess of deficit amounts of

these variables, from the desirable proportion suitable to organisms in

general and human being in particular, threatens the existence of the latter

and are therefore called the envirormiental problems.

Meaning of the Rural Environment

'Rural Environment' refers to the sum total of conditions which

surround man at a given point in space and time' (C.C.Park, 1980,p.28).

In the beginning the environment of early man consisted of only physical

aspects of the planet earth (land, air and water) and biotic communities

but with the march of time and advancement of society man extended his

environment through his social, economic and political functions.

Rural Environment is viewed in different ways with different

angles by different groups of people but it may be safely argued that rural

environment is an inseparable whole and is constituted by the interacting

XI

systems of physical, biological and cultural elements which are

interlinked individually as well as in myriad ways. Physical elements

(space, landforms, water bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals)

determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as

well as limitations. Biological elements (plants, animals, micro-organisms

and man) constitute the biosphere. Cultural elements (economic, social

and political) are essentially man-made features which go into the making

of cultural milieu' (Savindra Singh and A. Dubey, 1983).

Components of Rural Environment

Rural environment consists of three basic components

(i) Abiotic or Physical component,

(ii) Biotic component,

(iii) Energy component.

Abiotic or physical component consists of atmospheric component,

lithospheric component and hydrospheric component while biotic

component comprises plant component, animal component (including

man as physical man) and micro-organismic component. Energy

component includes solar energy and geothermal energy.

Xll

Role of Modernization

In a developing country like India a study in rural modernization is

necessary because more than two third of its population resides in rural

areas. Moreover, it also provides a sound base for the development of

agriculture and agro-based industries. India has made a significant

progress in agriculture and crop production which has resulted in the

increased income of rural population. However, the impact of agricultural

and infrastructural modernization on rural society has not been uniform,

both in terms of spatial development and social justice. The fruits of

modernization were not uniform in various sections of the society. A

study of rural modernization and its impact on social development is,

therefore, necessary to identify such areas where the population still

remains untouched by agricultural and infrastructural modernization.

Therefore, the increased imbalances both at regional and village level

must be minimized as it has already been stated in the First Five Year

Plan. Draft the basic objective of the Five Year Plan is to remove the

regional imbalances and bring more and more social justice in our society

and the country.'

Agricultural and infrastructural modernization which is considered

a panacea for all economic ills in rural areas, is studied by geographers,

1. Draft First Five Year Plan, 1951, p. 18.

X l l l

economists, sociologist, demographers, planners and administrators etc.

Though a number of studies have been conducted on an individual and

collective basis, particularly by the Indian Scientists working at National

Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, to evolve the development

programmes, much still remains to be measured particularly in their

spatial dimension as well as the micro-level, i.e., existing inequality both

at the agricultural modernization and infrastructural modernization and

their effect on rural society.

For this purpose, as a first step, a detailed analysis of

modernization and its impact on rural society in term of social facilities

and amenities such as healthcare, education, transport, communication,

etc. have been taken into consideration. This has been done with the view

that agricultural modernization must result increased income, which in

turn should be reflected in a general improvement of the living conditions

of the people and amenities they are enjoying.

The Study Area

The Aligarh District is located in the western part of U.P. It lies

between latitude 27°34'N and 28°11'N and 77°29'E and 78°38'E longitude

to form the part of Central Ganga Yamuna Doab. It is bounded by the

district of Bulandshahar in the north, the Mathura district in the west and

southwest. The district of Hathras lies in the south and Etah in the east.

XIV

The extreme northeastern boundary is formed by the river Ganga, which

separates the Badaun district from the Aligarh, whereas the extreme

northern boundary is formed by the river Yamuna, which separates the

AHgarh from the Gurgaon district of Haryana State.

The district of Aligarh spreads over a total area of 3700.4 sq. km.

with a population of 2,990,388 persons in 2001. Out of the total area,

about 78.7 percent is under net cultivation and 298 thousand hectare is

total cultivated area of the net cultivated area, 97.6 percent is net irrigated

of which 80.6 percent is under tubewells, 18.7% is under canals and the

rest is irrigated by other sources (Statistical Bulletin, 2001).

The maximum extent of the district from east to west extends upto

116 km. and the maximum extends from north to south is about 62 km.

The shape of Aligarh district is now a east west protrusion. From the

administrative point of view the district has been divided into five tehsils

namely, Atrauli, Gabhana, Khair, Koil and Iglas. These tehsils for

administrative purposes have further been sub-divided into 12 blocks

namely, Tappal, Khair, Chandaus, Lodha, Jawan, Atrauli, Gangeri,

Bijauli, Dhanipur, Gonda, Iglas and Akrabad which include altogether

1212 villages.

XV

Aims and Objectives

The main objectives of the present study are as follows:

1. To identify the regions of relative levels of modernization

2. To study dimensions of modernization.

3. To highlight factors and processes responsible for emerging

patterns of modernization disparities and,

4. To suggest remedial measures for their minimization.

Data Base and Techniques of Analysis

The study is based on secondary sources of data collected from

census and other publications. For the analysis of data, maps and

diagrams have been prepared and systematically analysed. The spatial

dimensions of modernization have been measured using the technique of

'zi'-score. Blocks have been chosen as a unit of analysis, keeping in view

the availability of data and nature of the problem.

Organization of the study

The study on "Typology of Modernization in the Rural

Environment of Aligarh District", besides introduction and conclusion

has been organized into four chapters.

Chapter first contains conceptual framework of modernization.

Chapter second deals with methodologies applied and data base.

XVI

Chapter third tries to sum up the geographical background of the Aligarh

district, with reference to structure, relief, drainage, soil, climate,

infrastructure facilities and demographic conditions.

Chapter fourth tries to show dimensions of modernization in the rural

environment of Aligarh district.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Concept of Modernization

Modernization in fact, started first of all in England as a result of

Industrial Revolution (1760-1830) and in France as a result of Revolution

(1789-1794) when America also started modernizing herself in all fields,

then this process was called westernization. When the developing

countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America also began to industrialize

themselves and adopt modem technology, and adapt themselves in social

and economic fields to the changing needs of the time, then this process

came to be regarded as modernization. Modernization is thus a process of

change in all fields and indicates social transformation.

Meaning of Modernization:

1. A society was regarded as "more or less modernized" by Levy "to

the extent that its members use inanimate source of power and/or use

of tools to multiply the effects of their efforts."'

2. A modern society according to R.E. Ward, is characterized, "by its

far-reaching ability to control or influence the physical and social

circumstances of its environment and by a value system which is

1. Modern J. Levy, Modernization and the Structure of Societies, Princeton, 1966, 1, p. 11.

fundamentally optimistic about the desirability and consequences of

this ability."^

3. Rustow too would identify a modem society with a "rapidly

widening control over nature through closer co-operation among

men."^

4. Modernization, in its historical sense is, in the words of Eisenstadt,

"is the process of change toward those types of social, economic and

political systems that have developed in western Europe and North

America from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth and then

have spread to other European countries and in the nineteenth and

twentieth centuries to South American, Asian and African

countries."

5. However, according to M. Nash, "there seems to be consensus

among western writers on the view which described modernity, the

end-result of the process of modernization, as "the social, cultural

and psychological frame-work which facilitates the application of

science to the process of production." In brief, it is movement

towards technology in a western political frame-work.

2. Robert E. Ward, "Political Modernization and Political Culture in Japan, World Politics, XV, No. 5 July 1963, p. 570.

3. Dankwart Rustow, "^ World of Nations'', Washington, 1967, p.3. 4. S.N. Eisenstadt, 'Modernization, Protest and Change, '

Englewood Cliffs N.J. 1966, p. 1.

6. Benjamin Schwartz describes political modernization as "the

systematic, sustained and powerful application of human energies to

the rational control of man's physical and social environment for

various human purposes."

7. Huntington describes "modernization as a multifacted process

involving change in all areas of human thought and activity." Thus

modernization is a process which means a change in all the fields,

social, cultural, psychological, economic and political but still it is

essentially an economic concept. Though it is mainly an economic

concept, still it puts emphasis on social mobilization. Social

mobilization means an overwhelming change in a large population of

those countries which are moving from their traditional way of life to

the modem ways of life. Thus when an ancient society steeped in

ignorance and poverty, old and outdated beliefs and superstitions and

mainly dependent on sluggish agriculture begins to discard them and

moves forward to a new way of life and adopts the path of social

transformation, urbanization, industrialization, mechanization, new

technology, and increasing literacy, then we can say that the society

is marching towards modernization.

Basic Characteristics of Modernization

The most important characteristics of modernization are:

1. Application of technology and mechanization

2. Industrialization

3. Urbanization

4. Rise in national income and per capital income

5. Increase in literacy

6. Political participation

7. Development of mass-media techniques

8. Social mobility

9. Cultivation of national identity

1. Application of technology and mechanization

This means in other words that the people give up their old ways of

living, old methods of agriculture and travelling. Previously, the majority

of the people in India used to live in villages in old ways in kuccha

houses and they used to cultivate their lands through ploughs and travel

by means of bullock-carts. Now this has been given up entirely as the

people now live in well-buih houses, cuhivate their fields through tractors

and use other modern methods of agriculture (chemical fertilizers or

manure, good seeds, irrigation system and harvesting through machines).

Now the ordinary people prefer to travel by means of buses and trains but

more affluent section of the society i.e., the rich people prefer to travel by

super-fast trains and aeroplanes. This means in other words that the

people are using modem methods of technology and mechanization.

2. Industrialization

Previously the people used to spin cloths through spindles and live

in traditional ways and use their old patterns of occupation and places of

residence. When the industrialization of a country takes place, the people

give up their traditional rural and agricultural economy. Its place is taken

over by industrialization. New factories and mills continue to grow daily

and use latest techniques.

3. Urbanization

When the industrialization of a country takes place, then the new

centers of industries develop. Consequently, the people of villages

particularly the labourers migrate in large number to these centers in the

cities with the hope that they will return to their villages after making

enough money but well their livelihood in the villages and agriculture

cannot bear so much burden. Moreover, it is very inconvenient to them to

comic and go daily from the villages to the cities as there is much rush in

buses and trains and the travelling is very costly. So with the growing

industrialization of the country, the people in large number continue to

migrate from the village to cities and settle permanently there. This in

return cause many problems in the cities, housing, sanitation, improving

methods of communication and acquiring more and more lands for

manifold purposes.

4. Rise in national and per capital income

The agricultural economy alone cannot increase the national wealth

and per capita income as it has to support the idle members of the society

also. Therefore, in order to raise the national and per capita income, the

old economy based on agriculture has to be supplemented by industrial

growth and its income because by exporting the industrial goods the

country can make huge profits.

5. Increase in Literacy

Another prominent feature of modernization is that all-out efforts

are made by the Government and the society to wipe out illiteracy and

strenuous efforts are made not only to send every child to school but the

adults are also persuaded to learn. This education does not remain limited

only to arts, science and commerce but also spreads to higher medical

education, research, technology and crafts. Thus the avenues of higher

education are made available to every person in all fields. So every body

runs after attaining higher education.

7

6. Political Participation

When the best possible opportunities are offered to every person to

attain higher education, the people become enlightened. Economic

development and equal distribution of wealth enables everybody to share

sometime from the pressing necessity of daily wants and devote it in

political participation. Every voter begins to read newspaper and learn

something about politics. The voter ultimately becomes enlightened and

votes for that party which is likely to solve economic problems and take

the country to further heights unattained so far. Therefore the political

participation is made possible in a democracy through political parties,

interest groups, and various other organizations. They influence the

government for the welfare of citizens and equal opportunities are made

available in services to everybody irrespective of caste, colour, religion or

such other considerations.

7. Development of mass-media techniques

The modernization brings in its wake development of mass-media

techniques. These mass-media techniques include newspapers,

broadcasting, postal facilities, movies, road, rail and air services,

electricity, and T.V. Through all these facilities, the citizens become

enlightened and well-informed and these in turn enable the citizens to

serve the state in a better way.

8. Social mobility

When the modernization of a country begins to take place, then the

people go on migrating from the villages to cities in search of better

amenities and jobs. The role of village Sarpanch becomes insignificant

and is replaced in the cities by the role of the leaders of various political

parties and the unions. As the people become conscious, so they rally

round that leader, who is likely to deliver them goods.

9. Cultivation of national identity

When the modernization of any country takes place, then the

people begin to give up their narrow loyalties and parochial

considerations of caste, colour, sex or creed. Their interests become

identified with the interests of the nation.

Modernization does not necessarily mean discarding all traditional

values and cultural or political heritage

Modernization does not necessarily mean that the people may

discard all their traditional values or cultural and political heritage. For

example, the British are traditionally conservative but still they have

retained their old institution like kinship and House of Lords. Though

their powers have been sufficiently curtailed, yet they have been made

useful institutions which could serve the growing needs of the society.

Therefore the British are considered as one of the most modern nations.

Similar, is the case with the Japanese, the French and the Germans. We,

in India are also doing the same. Without losing our cultural or political

heritage, we are adopting latest technology and modem scientific

techniques. Thus we are marching towards modernization with a great

speed.

Agents of Modernization

The things that helped in the modernization are as follows:

1. Colonialism

The first and foremost agency that brought about modernization is

colonialism. Whatever be the motives of the colonialists, they built a

network of roads, railways, telegraphs and telephonic services, banking

system, processing plants and the like. First of all they did these things in

order to strengthen their hold on the countries which they had conquered

by means of brute force. They established processing plants in order to

use the raw material of the dependent countries for their motherland. The

swift means, of communication which the colonialists established in their

own interest were also used by the nationalists in order to establish

contacts among themselves and forge unity. Thus the colonialism help

each dependent country towards modernization in its initial stages. When

10

the country become free, then the tasks of modernization is taken up by

the national leaders.

2. Elites

The second most important part played in the modernization of the

country are the elite of the country. The colonialists establish schools and

colleges in order to impart education in their language and literature, so

that the people of a colonial country may give up their own cultural

heritage and ignore their own history and literature but the students

trained in those schools and colleges go up for higher training to the

ruling country. They come into contact there with the democratic

institutions and men of modern outlook. When they return home, they are

pained to see the plight of their own countrymen. Therefore, they press

for reforms and start national agitations, when their demands are not

conceded. We are well familiar with the role of Shri Gopal Krishna

GokJiale, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, M. Gandhi, P. Jawaharlal

Nehru and many others who first of all went to England to get higher

education and then took a leading part in the national movement.

3. Revolutionary Leaders

It has been observed that in certain backward countries military

leaders capture power by means of force and then adopt the path of

11

modernization in order to stabilize their regimes. We are familiar with the

history of Turkey, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Nigeria, Algeria, Sudan

and many Latin American countries. In those countries, the military

coups occurred and the topmost Generals captured power and then they

started the process of modernization. For example, Kamal Ataturk

modernized Turkey. Ayub Khan and Zia-ul-Haq started the same process

in their own country. In Bangladesh, though there was strong opposition

to the autocratic rule of General Ershad, yet he was modernizing the

country in his own interest (this was the position on 1 ' July, 1986). In

Iran, Ataullah Khomeini after capturing power did the same thing.

4. Political Parties

The political parties in a democracy play a prominent role in the

modernization of the country. They develop a spirit of patriotism and

secular outlook among the masses. The Indian National Congress

acquired power in 1947 and after that it has launched the country on a

path of progress. A huge network of schools, colleges, roads, railway,

bridges, telephones, steel plants and industries in public sector has been

spread. Huge dams have been constructed in every state to provide

facilities of irrigation and generate electricity. No efforts has been spared

to improve agriculture and modernize it.

12

5. Military

When in any country civil government becomes unable to control

the public unrest and the conditions of civil war take place, then the

military intervenes and assumes the reigns of the government. The

military authorities curb the disintegrating tendencies with a strong hand

and launch the country on a path of progress. Thus the military

modernizes the country. This has happened in Turkey, Egypt, Burma,

Pakistan and a host of other countries.

6. Bureaucracy

The party-in-power in a democracy is always most anxious to

modernize the country in order to prolong its rule. The ruling party has to

implement, all its development programmes through bureaucracy.

Therefore, bureaucracy play a significant role in modernizing the country.

When these bureaucrats retire, they take with them a progressive outlook

which they spread amongst the masses.

Factors which Help in Modernization

There are various factors which help in modernization. The following

main points figures in this connection.

13

1. Development of Science and Technology

There cannot be two opinions in this respect that the development

of science and technology play a major role in the process of

modernization. Due to this factor a mad race is going in various countries

of the world for developments of science and technology. If some latest

development takes place in the field of science and technology in nuclear

or space field just like star wars, then it becomes a prestigious question

for the U.S.S.R. also. China first of all was not recognized by U.S.A. as a

great power but when China developed nuclear device, then Mr. Nixon,

President of U.S.A. went himself to seek the hand of friendship of China.

India also exploded her first nuclear device on the 18 May, 1974 at

Pokhran in Rajasthan in order to prove to the world that she does not lag

behind the other countries in this respect. Thus India entered as sixth

member of nuclear club.

In the field of technology, China has caught up with U.S.A. and

U.S.S.R. She has developed intermediate range ballistic missiles. In the

air, she has now developed inter-continental ballistic missiles capable of

delivery at longer distance. India is also going ahead with its research

programme in space with a great speed. India shot her first satellite in

space known as Arya Bhatta. Then, it threw into space Apple. After that it

sent into space Insat-A and Insat-B. These satellites have helped India a

14

lot in gathering information especially about coming rains and gathering

storms in sea. India is still making progress by leaps and bounds in the

field of technology by using computers, but as the same time we cannot

overlook this factor that while plenty of labour is available in our country,

there is a scarcity of capital. Therefore the technology has to be different

in India. As Mahatma Gandhi once put it, what is needed in developing

societies is production by the masses rather than mass production, for

which it may be more necessary to develop what has been variously

called "intermediate technology," "self-help technology" or "appropriate

technology" - a technology which is appropriate to the requirement of the

developing countries. Therefore, the economy may be provided to the

labourers and the educated youths.

2. Development of Industrial Civilization

It is most important to industrialize a backward country in order to

lead it on the path of modernization. That is the reason Pandit Jawaharlal

Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India established many steel plants in

the public sector. He started a factory for making railway coaches at

Peramur (Tamil Nadu). He started Chittaranjan Locomotive Works. He

established Bhopal Heavy Electricals. He built many dams in order to

provide more facilities for irrigation and generate electricity. Like

U.S.S.R., India has also launched many Five Year Plans in order to

15

accelerate the growth of economy. Therefore, whatever political system

may prevail in any country, it cannot afford to ignore the industrial

development because it brings economic prosperity in the country.

Consequently, we see that England, France, West Germany, Japan,

U.S.S.R. and China are highly industrialized countries.

3. Successful working of democratic institutions

Democracy is regarded one of the best means to modernize a

country. England, France, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Belgium, West

Germany, U.S.A., Japan and India have modernized themselves in this

way. The westerners believe in this institution thoroughly and they regard

it as the key to modernization but the communists regard this political

democracy as the rule of few bourgeoisie and through there is

dictatorship of the communist party in U.S.S.R., East European countries,

China, Vietnam, North Korea etc., yet they consider it a socialist

democracy. Dictatorship of the communist party in these countries has in

turn become a dictatorship of the politbureau or General Secretary in

these countries. It is altogether a different thing whether we may agree

with this political system or the other political system but it is true that

these communist countries have also modernized themselves to a great

extent and compare favourably with the industrialized countries of the

west. So far India is concerned, it has adopted democratic system and

16

through its Five Year Plans, it has made rapid strides in economic

development and marching ahead with a terrific speed towards

modernization but in spite of that about 40% people living below poverty

line. This situation must be remedied by means of equal distribution of

wealth.

Process of Modernization

Modernization in India started mainly with the western contact,

especially through establishment of the British rule. This contact had a

special historicity which brought about many far reaching changes in

culture and social structure of the Indian society. After the establishment

of British rule in India, modem cultural institutions and forms of social

structure were introduced. These modernizing structures had a uniform

character throughout the country.

The growth of this process was selective and segmental. It was not

integrated with the micro-structure of Indian society, such as family, caste

and village community.

Following independence, modernization process in India has

undergone a basic change from its colonial pattern. As an integral part of

developmental strategy now modernization has been envisaged for all

levels of cultural and structural systems.

17

As the process of modernization becomes all in compassing, it also

generates inter-structural tensions and conflicts between traditions (part

and contemporary). In many developing countries in Asia modernization

contributed to a structural and cultural breakdown in society.

Modernization is not the same as Industrialization

Industrialization, leading to economic development and a certain degree

of affluence (which promotes other development), is an important

component of modernization but it is not the whole of it. Industrialization

focuses attention mainly on the ever-increasing link between science and

technology of economic life; it does not adequately convey the

concomitant, social, psychological and structural changes which along

with economic constitute the phenomenon of modernization. Similarly,

though many of the west European countries and the U.S.A. present

models of modernization, modernity is neither confined to them nor is it

identical with the socio-cultural character of these countries. Countries

like Russia and Japan have achieved modernization while maintaining

their own ideality and ethos, and several more countries of Asia and

Africa are in the process. To become modem they do not have to ape the

west in every respect.

18

Modernization is not the same as Sanskritization

Sanskxitization is the process by which a "low" Hindu caste, or

tribal or other group, changes its customs, ritual, ideology and way of life

in the direction of a high, and frequently, "twice-born" caste. Generally

such changes are followed by a claim to a higher position in the caste

hierarchy than that traditionally conceded to the clamant caste by the

local community. The claim is usually made over a period of time, in fact,

a generation or two, before the "arrival" is conceded.

Sanskritization is generally accompanied by, and often results in,

upward mobility for the caste in question; but mobility may also occur

without Sanskritization and vice versa. However, the mobility associated

with Sanskritization results only in positional changes. That is, a caste

moves up above its neighbours and another comes down, but all this takes

place in an essentially stable hierarchical order. The system itself does not

change.

Sanskritization is not confined to Hindu castes but also occurs

among tribal and semitribal groups such as the Bhils of western India.

The Gonada and Oraons of central India and the Pahadis of the

Himalayas. This usually results in the tribe undergoing Sanskritization

claiming to be a caste, and therefore, Hindu. In the traditional system the

19

only way to become a Hindu was to belong to a caste, and the unit of

mobility was usually a group, not an individual or a family.

The mediation of the various models of Sanskritization through the

local dominant caste stresses the importance of the latter in the process of

cultural transmission. Thus if the locally dominant caste is Brahmin or

Lingayat, it will tend to transmit a Brahminical model of Sanskritization,

whereas if it is Rajput or Bania, it will transmit Kshatriya or Vaishya

models. Each locally dominant caste has its own conception of Brahmin,

Kshatriya or Vaishya models.

Sanskritization has been a major process of cultural change in

Indian history and it has occurred in every part of the Indian

subcontinent. It may have been more active at some periods than at

others, and some parts of India are more Sanskritized than others; but

there is no doubt that the process has been universal. The function of the

Sanskritization was to bridge that gap between secular and ritual rank.

Modernization is not the same as Westernization

British rule produced radical and lasting changed in Indian society

and culture. It was unlike any previous period in Indian history as the

British brought with them new technology, institutions, knowledge,

beliefs and values. The new technology, and the revolution in

20

communications which this brought about, enabled the British to integrate

the country as never before in its history.

During the 19* century the British slowly laid the foundations of a

modern state by surveying land, settling the revenue, creating a modem

bureaucracy, army and police, instituting law courts, codifying the law,

developing communications, railways, post and telegraph, roads and

canals - establishing schools and colleges, and so on. The British also

brought with them the printing press and the profound and many-sided

changes this brought about in Indian life and thought deserve a volume in

itself. One obvious result was that books and journals, along with schools,

made possible the transmission of modem as well as traditional

knowledge to large number of Indians - knowledge which could no

longer be the privilege of a few, hereditary groups - while the

nev/spapers made people in different parts of the far-flung country realize

they had common bonds, and that events happening in the world outside

influenced their lives for good or ill.

The term "westemization" to characterize the changes brought

about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British

rule, and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels -

technology, institutions, ideology, values. There is need for such a term

21

when analyzing changes that a non-western country undergoes as a result

of prolonged contact with western one.

It is necessary to distinguish conceptually between westernization

and two other process usually concomitant with it - industrialization and

urbanization. On the one hand, there were cities in the pre-industrial

world, though they differed significantly from the cities of the Industrial

Revolution in the west. For one thing, they needed large rural populations

for their support, so that ancient and medieval countries remained

dominantly agricultural in spite of a few great cities. Again, while the

Industrial Revolution resulted in an increase in the rate of urbanization

and "highly urbanized area are generally highly industrialized areas,

urbanization is not a simple fiinction of industrialization." Finally, while

the most westernized groups are generally found in the big cities, a

caution must be uttered against equating westernization with

urbanization. Even in a country such as India, it is possible to come

across groups inhabiting rural areas which are more westernized in their

style of life than many urban groups.

A popular term for the changes brought about in a non-western

country by contact direct or indirect, with a western country is

"modernization," Daniel Lemer for instance, after considering the

suitability of "westernization" as well as "modernization" has opted for

22

the latter. According to him, "modernization" includes a "disquieting

positivist spirit" touching "public institutions as well as private

aspirations." But the positivist spirit is not enough a revolution in

communications is essential. Modernization is also marked by increasing

urbanization which has, in turn, resulted in the spread of literacy.

The term "westernization," unlike "modernization" is ethically

neutral. Its use does not carry the implication that it is good or bad, where

as modernization is normally used in the sense that is good. But there are

other difficulties in westernization; as we have seen, it often involves, on

the part of westernized individuals, political or cultural hostility to the

west.

Concept of Rural Environment

The dictionary meaning of the word 'environment' is a

surrounding, external conditions influencing development or growth of

people, animals or plants; living or working conditions etc.

The word rural environment has captured a world wide attention

and is now known even to common masses but is generally

misunderstood and wrongly used. Environment literally means 'what

sun-ounds' and surroundings consists of both organic and inorganic

elements. These constituents, genetically, fall into two categories:

23

(i) Natural Environment

(ii) Cultural Environment

(i) Natural Environment consists of all constituents of natural

origin, like physiography, climate, vegetation, soil, water bodies, wild

animals and minerals.

(ii) Cultural Environment consists of all elements having a human

touch in their origin such elements include all manifestations of human

activities. To a layman environment implies physiography (mountain,

plateau, plain, valley, etc.) and natural forest only. But such a narrow

view of environment is erroneous, dangerous and excludes a significant

pan; of the reality. A certain presence of environmental constituents, is

desirable for the well being of life and this sort of desirable environment

is termed as a balanced environment. Any excess of deficit amounts of

these variables, from the desirable proportion suitable to organisms in

general and human being in particular, threatens the existence of the latter

and are therefore called the environmental problems.

Meaning of the Rural Environment

'Environment' refers to the sum total of conditions which surround

man at a given point in space and time' (C.C. Park, 1980, p. 28). In the

beginning the environment of early man consisted of only physical

24

aspects of the planet earth (land, air and water) and biotic communities

but with the march of time and advancement of society man extended his

environment through his social, economic and political functions.

Rural Environment is viewed in different ways with different

angles by different groups of people but it may be safely argued that rural

environment is an inseparable whole and is constituted by the interacting

systems of physical, biological and cultural elements which are

interlinked individually as well as in myriad ways. Physical elements

(space, landforms, water bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals)

determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as

well as limitations. Biological elements (plants, animals, micro-organisms

and man) constitute the biosphere. Cultural elements (economic, social

and political) are essentially man-made features which go into the making

of cultural milieu' (Savindra Singh and A. Dubey, 1983).

Structure and Types of Rural Environment

Since the environment is both physical and biological concept, it

encompasses both the non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic) components

of the planet earth. Thus on the basis of basic structure the rural

environment may be divided into two basic types e.g. physical or abiotic

environment and biotic environment.

25

The biotic component of the rural environment consists of plant

(flora) and animal (fauna) including man as an important factor. Thus the

biotic environment may be divided into floral environment and faunal

envirormient.

The physical environment may also be viewed in terms of climatic

conditions providing certain suites of habitat for the biological

communities viz., tropical environment, temperate environment, polar

environment etc. which may be further, sub-divided into smaller but

specific divisions.

Components of Rural Environment

Rural environment consists of three basic components

(i) Abiotic or Physical component,

(ii) Biotic component,

(iii) Energy component.

Abiotic or physical component consists of atmospheric component,

lithospheric component and hydrospheric component while biotic

component comprises plant component, animal component (including

man as physical man) and micro-organismic component. Energy

component includes solar energy and geothermal energy.

26

Modernization And Rural Environment

Rural environment is governed by different factors, which inter

play a decisive role in the quality of life of rural areas. Man environment

equilibrium is being disturbed whenever there is attack on the rural

environment. The rural environmental problems caused due to

environmental and ecological changes in the result of developmental

process of the 'economic and technological man' of the present century.

Infact, if the present century is marked by socio-economic scientific and

technological development on the one hand, it is plagued by serious

problems of environmental problems on the other hand. The rural

environmental crisis arising out of the environmental degradation caused

by several forms of pollution, depletion of natural resources because of

rapid rate of their exploitation and increasing dependence on energy

consuming and ecologically damaging technologies, the loss of habitats

due to industrial, urban and agriculture expansion, reduction and loss of

ecological population due to excessive use of toxic pesticides,

insecticides and herbicides and loss of several species of plants due to

practice of monoculture and removal of habitats through forest clearance.

The life of common man is being so rapidly adversely affected by rural

environment degradation caused by man himself that has been a marked

growth of interest with in the last decade in the quality of the rural

27

environment the disruption of the earth's natural ecosystem and the

depletion of natural resources.

The most striking reason of the rural environmental degradation is

the fast deteriorating relationship between man and rural environment

because of rapid rate of exploitation of natural resources, technological

development and industrial expansion.

J.Poelmans-Kirschen (1974) has recognized the following reasons

for rural environment degradation and resultant environmental

crises.

(1) Accelerated growth of production potential within the last 25 years.

(2) Accelerated rate of scientific and technological discovery and

development.

(3) Exponential increase in world population.

The impacts of man on rural environment falls into two categories

viz.

(a) Direct or intentional impacts, and

(b) Indirect or unintentional impacts.

Direct or intentional impacts of human activities are pre-planned

and pre-medicated because man is aware of the consequences, both

positive and negative of any programme which is launched to change or

28

modify the natural environment for economic development of the region

concerned. The effects of anthropogenic change in the rural environment

are noticeable within short period and these effects are reversible. On the

other hand the indirect impacts of human activities on the rural

environment are not pre-medicated and pre-planned and these impacts

arise from those human activities, which are directed to accelerate the

pace of economic growth, especially industrial development. The indirect

impacts are experienced after a long time when they become cumulative.

The indirect effects of human economic activities may change in overall

natural environmental system and the chain-effects sometimes degrade

the environment to such an extent that this becomes suicidal for human

beings.

On an average the rural environmental degradation and

environmental crises may be ascribed to:

(i) The exponential growth in human population

(ii) Accelerated pace of scientific and technological development

(iii) Ambitions development projects aimed at fast economic

development

(iv) Firstly expanding industries, sprawling urban growth and

agricultural development

(v) Philosophical and religious outlook of the society

29

(vi) Cruel behaviour of man with the natural environment

(vii) Ignorance and lack of environmental perception and lack of public

awareness towards environmental problems

(viii) Poverty

(ix) Affluence and richness

(x) Unscientific and illogical exploitation and utilization of natural

resources etc. (Singh, S., 1991).

30

METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

Every science gradually accumulates a body of methodological

learning that becomes a part of its organized body of knowledge.

Moreover, it is necessary for each discipline to define its basic concept in

terms that make quantitative analysis possible. A rigorous analytical

research must have its hypothesis defined and its methodology developed

area by area and culture by culture. If the information is qualitafive or if

the quantitative data are not amenable to the usual techniques of

population. The approach and methods of other discipline may be adapted

with legitimate modifications if necessary. However, the regional method

is one of the significant methods which is not only applied to aspect of

working population, but also to all assets of geographic research and

indeed to all observational disciplines that deals with the phenomena on

the earth.

Geographers are taking keen interest in the use of scientific

research methods in more advert fashion, especially the explicit formation

of hypothesis and their tesfing, if possible in quantitafive fashion. They

attempt regional analysis of differential statistically by setting up certain

premises for measurements and data breakdown, computing and mapping

necessary, coefficients and by drawing boundary lines, separating the

31

spheres of influence which enamate from nuclear areas of adjustments

(Walruns, W.A. and Robert, M.R. 1959).

Methodologies Applied

Various statistical and geographical techniques of analysis,

association and representation have been used to analyse, associates and

represent the data.

For analysis and interpretation of data 'Zi' score standardization

model has been applied. The 'Zi' score is a linear transformation of

original data in such a way that its standard deviation becomes unity. For

observation 'i' on any variable, the standard score Zi, is given by

X i - X Zi

S.D.

where,

Xi is the original value for observation 'i'

X is the mean for the variable, and

S.D. is the standard deviation

Further, the results of the standard score obtain for the different indicators

were aggregated in order to fmd out the Composite Index or Composite

Standard Score (C.S.S.) so that the regional differences in the level of

development of various blocks may be obtained on a common scale

32

(Shafiq Ullah, 2000). The composite standard score may be algebrically

expressed as

c.s.s. = ^ ^

N

where,

Zij indicate 'Zi' score of an indicator] in district i.

N, refers to the number of indicators.

All the data have been arranged in descending order and

standardized to zero mean for interpretation. The positive values relating

to the block's score show high level of modernization where as negative

values relating to the block's score show low level of modernization. The

score were divided into three classes - High, Medium and Low.

Data Base

The present study is based on the secondary sources of data which

will fmd out the spatial dimensions of modernization in rural area of

Aligarh Districts. The secondary data have been taken from various

offices of the district and other sources. For the analysis of data, maps

and diagrams have been prepared and systematically analysed.

The study is based on micro level data taking the development

blocks as the unit.

33

Secondary Sources

For the present study the secondary data have been obtained from

the pubhshed Hterature, government reports and district statistical

bulletins, daily and weekly newspapers and unpublished records of the

public administration and semi-governmental agencies. The sources of

secondary data utilized in the present study are listed in the following:

1. Survey of India Toposheets

2. Census of India Statistics

3. District Gazetteers of Aligarh

4. State Administration Statistical Bulletin

5. Village and Town Directories of District Aligarh

6. District Census Handbook of Aligarh

7. District Statistical Magazine of Aligarh

8. Departmental District Head Office Records

9. Uttar Pradesh Agricultural Statistical Bulletin

10. Newspapers and Other Periodicals

11. District Department of Revenue

Statement of the Problem

The problem of rural modernization lies in connection with the

rural-urban interaction. The urban centres work as a point of diffusion for

the countryside. The researcher has therefore adopted the problem of

rural environment in order to assess the ground truth of rural

modernization in the blocks of the Aligarh District.

34

GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA -

ALIGARH DISTRICT, U.P.

Location and Extent

Aligarh is one of the important districts of Uttar Pradesh located in

the northwestern part of the state. It Hes in the central part of the Ganga-

Yamuna Doab between 27°29'N and 28°11'N latitudes and between

77"29'E and 78°38'E longitudes. It is bounded by the Bulandshahr district

in the north, Mathura district in the southwest and Hathras district in

south and Etah district in the east. The district of Aligarh is bounded by

the river Ganga on the northeast which separates Aligarh from Badaun

and by river Yamuna on the northwest which separates Aligarh from

Gurgaon district of Haryana state. The greater width from east to west

from Yamuna to Ganga near the northern border is about 116 km and the

minimum length from north to south is about 72 km.

Administrative Set Up

For the purpose of administration, the district has been divided into

five tehsils namely, Koil, Atrauli, Khair, Iglas and Gabhana of which

tehsil Khair is the largest and Iglas is the smallest. These tehsils are

further sub-divided into 12 blocks namely, Tappal, Khair, Chandaus,

35

Dhanipur, Lodha, Jawan, Atrauli, Gangeri, Bijauli, Akrabad, Gonda and

Iglas spread over 1212 villages [Table 3.1 and Fig. 3.1]

Table 3.1 Administrative Division of Aligarh Districts (2001)

Tehsils

Khair

Gabhana

Koil

Iglas

Atrauli

Total Aligarh Districts

Blocks

Tappal

Khair

Chandaus

Jawan

Lodha

Dhanipur

Akrabad

Gonda

Iglas

Atrauli

Bijauli

Gangeri

12 Blocks

No. of villages

91

96

94

110

142

98

87

83

103

116

91

101

1212 villages

Source: District Statistics Office, Aligarh, 2001.

36

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37

Physical Features

The topographic features of Aligarh district are similar to those

found in other parts of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Physiographically, the

district contains vast alluvial plains, having a gentle slope from north to

south and southeast and is drained by the rivers Ganga in the northeast

and the Yamuna in the northwest. From the low Khadar of the Ganga

river in the east, the level of the district rises sharply to the high uplands

which crowns the old flood bank of the river Ganga and then descends

inland gradually to a depression, drained by the Nim and Chhoiya nadis.

Beyond which, it rises again to the bank of Kali nadi. Along the right

bank of the Kali nadi is another sandy to silty belt rising from the low and

naiTOw Khadar belt of the stream. Adjoining it, is a fertile belt of loam

soil, which sinks gradually into the broad central depression.

Through the centre of the district, a broad belt of low-lying land

runs from northwest to southeast. This broad low-lying belt is in fact the

continuation of the belt which begins from the district of Meerut, passing

through the Ghaziabad- Bulandshahr district, enters Aligarh district from

Koil tehsil in the north. The depression is narrow in the north and gets

wider towards the south and it eventually passes into the adjoining district

of Etah. It is believed to be a part of a very extensive low lying tract

which runs through the centre of the doab, parallels to the river Ganga

38

and Yamuna. This tract is characterized by imperfect drainage and

numerous Jhils in which the surface water collects.

Beyond this depression, the surface rises again into a level plain

known as western uplands. In the northwest, the general characteristics of

the doab are maintained, loam alternating with clay in the depressions and

with lighter ground on the banks of the few drainage channels, till finally

comes the high cliff of the Yamuna. From here, the level drops to the

Khadar of Yamuna, in the southwest of the district, sandy tracts with

practically no depressions are found (Census of India, U.P. General

Reprint, 1966).'

Topographically, the district represents a shallow trough (sauce

pan shape) like appearance. On the basis of topography, the district could

be divided into three divisions (Fig. 3.2).

1. The Khadar plains found mainly along the river Ganga in the east

and along the river Yamuna in the west.

2. The eastern and western uplands.

3. The central low-lying tract.

Geologically, Aligarh district forms a part of the Indo-Gangetic

plain which came into existence in the Pleistocene period. This land lying

1. Census of India, Uttar Pradesh, General Report, Vol. XV, Part-I A(l), Delhi, 1966, p. 52.

40

infront of the newly upheaved mountains (Himalayas) formed a

depression, which was rapidly filled up by the waste of the high lands

(Wadia, 1961)?

Climate

The climate of Aligarh district vacillates between the two extremes

of severe cold in winters (January maximum temperature 2 r c and

minimum 7°C) and oppressive heat in summer (June maximum

temperature 43°C to 48°C) the climate is in tune with that normally

prevails in the western part of the U.P. The rainfall is scanty ranging 60 to

75 cms per annum. The district experience tropical monsoon type of

climate with its characteristics season rhythm marked by the northeast

and southwest monsoon. There are four distinct seasons most commonly

recognized.

1. The cold weather season (December to February)

2. The hot weather season (March to Mid June)

3. The season of general rains (Mid June to Mid September).

4. The season of retreating monsoon (Mid September to

November).

The cold weather season is characterized by cold and dry air which

blows continuously during the three months. The sky is generally clear.

2. Wadia, D.N. Geology of India, London, 1961.

41

During this season, the temperature falls and pressure rises. As a result of

which whole district comes under the influence of high pressure belt. The

beginning of this season is marked by a considerable fall in temperature.

The cold waves coming from the Himalayas also bring a fall in the

temperature for a short period (Kendrew, W.G., 1961). The direction of

prevailing winds is normally from west and northwest to east and

southeast. The winds are dry and light and generally blow at an average

speed of about 3.2 kms per hour. The rainfall is very small, irregular and

sporadic and is caused due to the western depressions. The rainfall for the

months of December, January and February was recorded to be 1.57 cms,

2.78 cms and 0 cms respectively.

The hot weather season is characterized by rising temperature and

falling pressure. In March, the temperature starts rising. The months of

May and June record exceptionally high temperatures. The days are

characterized by intensive heat dry air and low relative humidity. A

regular phenomenon of this season is the blowing of hot and dry winds

locally called loo, which blow with great velocity (March 5.5 kms and in

June 10.5 kms per hour). The humidity is lowest during these months

occasionally falling to 2 or 3 percent in the afternoon.

3. Kendrew, W.G., The climate of the continents, Oxford, 1961, p.172.

42

Another peculiar phenomena of this season is the occurrences of

dust and thunders storm, which are locally known as Andhis. They

usually occur in the afternoons and are accompanied by squally winds,

thunder, blinding dust and some times rain. The total rainfall recorded

during the months of March, April and May 1995 is about 2.18 cms, 4.63

cms and 4.68 cms respectively.

The season of retreating monsoon is characterized by the hot and

sticky weather and rise in temperature which starts falling by the end of

October. The skies are clear and relative humidity falls to 47 percent.

Drainage System

The district enjoys the benefits of many rivers. In the district rivers

constitute an important feature of the land scape. The rivers follow the

general slope of the district and flow from north to southeast direction.

The Ganga, the Yamuna, the Karon, the Sirsa, the Kali and the

Neem are the important rivers of the district. The Ganga and the Yamuna

have their sources in the snowy peaks of the Himalayas. Therefore, they

permanently supply water round the year. While the other rivers are

reduced to insignificant streams in the summer season. However, these

rivers swell to considerable dimensions during the rainy seasons. Besides,

these rivers, there are artificial drains, which facilities the drainage

43

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44

systems of the district. These drains linked with the main streams of the

districts, the drains known as Aligarh drain as Ganda Nala is one of the

important drains of the district. It starts near Khurja in Bulandshahr

district and flows southward passing through the tehsil of Koil and there

after joins the river Karon on its left banks near Sadabad (Mathura).

These rivers which pass through or by the side of villages, affects these

village to a considerable extent and almost 70 villages which are situated

in close vicinity of the rivers of the district are directly affected by the

rivers (Fig. 3.3).

Soils

Soil is the medium of plant growth and it is one of the most

important endowments of nature to man. The nature of soil not only

determine the per hectare productivity but also the number of labourers

required for tilling the fields, mixing the seeds with the soil and cleaning

the crops from a take of herbs and weeds, irrigating the fields and

applying chemical fertilizers etc. An enormous variety of products is

derived from the filling of the soil. Therefore, the main task is to make

good use of it.

The soil of Aligarh district is alluvial (both old and new alluvium is

found). The new alluvium is confined to the flood plains of the rivers and

their tributaries while the old alluvium is found in the level plains above

45

the flood level of the main rivers and their tributaries. These soils differ

considerably in their texture and consistency, ranging from sands through

loams and silts to heavy clay that are ill-drained and some times charged

with injurious salts. The great soil tracts of the district are found almost

parallel to the river. From the east of the river Ganga, the soil varies from

sandy to sandy loam and clayey loam up to middle of the district. Further

westwards there is again the sandy loam tract which finally merges into

the sandy bed of river Yamuna.

On the basis of profile, texture, colour etc. the Soil Survey

Department (1985) classified the soils of Aligarh district into eight types

(Fig. 3.4).

(i) Recent alluvium which occurs over a narrow belt along the river

beds of the Ganga, Yamuna and Kali. The colour of the soil varies

from the light gray to ash gray and the texture is sandy to silty

loam.

(ii) Ganga looming sands forms a narrow half in the northeastern part

of Atrauli tehsil and lies parallel to the recent alluvium soil type. It

is loamy sand in texture and yellowish gray in colour.

(iii) Ganga sandy loam covers a sizable portion of the district. It is

homogeneous in character and the topography is remarkably level.

46

1-o cc (/) \- z (0 O ^ ^ B

G " • • "

UJ

I a: a: < o

_l

o (/)

]

]

ei)

c

c 05

(/J •e. o Q. 0) Q: c

(/) T3 C 03

(U 0)

- I — '

0 N CD

CD

o C/5

47

The soils are brown in colour. Numerous sandy ridges are found on

these soil tracts showing the evidence of soil erosion.

(iv) Ganga clayey loam is found in the Jawan block of Koil tehsil. It is

also found in Lodha and Dhanipur blocks of Koil tehsil and

Gangiri and Atrauli blocks of Atrauli tehsil. It runs north to south

almost parallel to the course of river Ganga.

(v) Yamuna sandy loam covers the entire tehsil of Iglas, Khair,

Chandaus and eastern part of Tappal blocks of Khair tehsil. The

entire area of these soils, form an upland topography.

(vi) Yamuna Khadar soil runs from north to south almost parallel to the

course of the river Ganga. The soil is generally clayey or clayey

loam in texture. This type of soil occurs in the central part of

Tappal block in the north, south and east of the Yamuna clayey

loam.

(vii) Trans Yamuna Khadar type of soil covers the central and eastern

part of Tappal blocks of Khair tehsil. The texture of the soil is the

fine sandy loam to loam in character.

(viii) Usar soil is found in the western part of the district in

comparafively elevated lands of Khair and Iglas. These soils are

48

sandy in texture and being deficient in organic matter and are not

fertile.

Forest and Wild Life

The district lias a negligible area under forest. As per records of the

district statistical office, forest cover in Aligarh is about 808 hectares.

The highest area under forest is found in tehsil Koil followed by

the tehsil Khair, Atrauli and Iglas.

The major product of the forest are timber and fuel wood. The

timber wood includes Sheesham, Babool, Mango, Amaltas, Neem, Jamun

etc. As the chief species of trees.

Though there is nothing remarkable in the district with regard to

wild life, a few wild animals namely, wolves, Jackals, Foxes, Pigs,

Blueblucks, Leopards and Dogs are normally found in the district. The

common birds of the district are Peacock, Pigeon, Ample and Ducks etc.

owing to indiscriminate hunting, poaching and clearing of the forests, the

wild life is gradually disappearing day by day.

Demographic Features

The total population of Aligarh district according to the latest

census 2001 is 2,990,388 as compared to the total population of whole of

Uttar Pradesh which stands at 166,052,85. The male population is about

49

two lakh more than female population. Male population stands at

1,607,222 and female population at 1,383,166 (Census 2001).

Table 3.2 shows male/female and total population distribution of

U.P., and Aligarh district for the year 2001.

Table 3.2

State and District Male/Female Population

U.P.

Aligarh

Total

166,052,859

2,990,388

Male

87,466,301

1,607,222

Female

78,586,558

1,383,166

Source: Census 2001

The rural population of the district stands at 2,127,003 and the

urban population at 863,385. More than 71% of the total population lives

in rural areas and the rest 29% live in urban areas. Population by sex and

residence is given in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Residence/Sex distribution of population

Total

Rural

Urban

Persons

2,990,388

2,127,003

863,385

Female

1,383,166

981,194

401,972

Male

1,607,222

1,145,809

461,413

Source: Census 2001.

50

Decadal growth

The decadal population growth rate of Aligarh district reveals that

during the first two decades of 20 century the population actually

decreased and the rate was negative. During 1901-1911 it was -3 and in

the subsequent decade (1911-1921) it further dropped and stood at -9 .

After 1921, the growth rate has been increasing steadily except for the

decade 1941-51 when the growth rate slowed down a little and in the last

decade 1991-2001 it has again slowed down. If the downward trend

continues in the coming decades, only then we can hope for a better

population situation in the area.

The urban growth rate of Aligarh population has also shown

negative growth in the first two decades of the last century. It was -15 for

the decade (1901-11) and -A for the decade (1911-21). It again dropped

and registered negative growth during the decade (1951-61) just after

independence. People may have migrated to foreign countries in search of

better opportunities in the wake of independence and partition. Most

probably it were urban Muslim population who migrated to other

countries. The rural growth rate has also shown decreasing trend in the

first two decades. It stood at -1.0 during (1901-1911) and at -10 during

(1911-21). In contrast to the urban rate, the rural growth rate has been

steadily increasing since then. But of late it has dropped 5 points during

51

the last decade (1991-2001). In contrast to the urban rate the rural growth

rate has been steadily increasing since then. But of late it has dropped 5

points during the last decade (1991-2001). Table 3.4 shows the urban,

rural and total decadal growth rates of Aligarh district during the last

hundred years (1901-2001).

52

Table 3.4 Decadal growth rate (Aligarh District)

1901-2001

Years

Total

Rural

Urban

1901

-

-

-

11

•-> -J

-1

-15

21

-9

-10

-4

31

10.0

11

9

41

17.0

16

23

51

12.0

11

19

61

14.0

18

-1

71

20.0

17

32

81

22.0

14

57

91

30.2

25.4

45.8

2001

22.8

20.3

42.2

Source: Statistical Bulletin Aligarh District, 2001.

The figures 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7 present the decadal growth curves.

Fig. 3.5 Urban Decadal Growth Rate (Aligarh District)

1901-2001

-10 -^1901 -20 '

k ^ 2 1 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

53

Fig. 3.6 Rural Decadal Growth Rate (Aligarh District)

1901-2001

! 3(D 25 2 0 15 1(3

• 5

' -5 -1(D

' -15

1 —,- r

-•igoi 191 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001• -10

Fig. 3.7 Total Decadal Growth Rate (Aligarh District)

1901-2001

40 -

30 -

20 -

10 1

0 -

.10 -1901 1911

-20 -

1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

54

The sex ratio i.e. the number of females per 1000 males has

increased by 16 points since 1991. It was 845 in 1991 and now in 2001, it

stands at 861. Similarly the population density which stood at 654 in

1991 has increased to 798 in 2001.

The Hindu-Muslim distribution of the population of Aligarh

district is also important. Hindu's form 84.9% of the total population

whereas Muslims constitute only 14.63%, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists

and others are all less than 1% of the total population. More than half of

the Muslims live in urban areas than in rural areas. But almost double of

the urban Hindus live in rural areas (Table 3.5).

Table 3.5 Population Distribution by Religion, Aligarh (1991)

Hindu

Muslim

Total

2,798,313

4,87,073

Rural

2,239,471

2,219,43

Urban

5,588,42

2,601,30

Percentage

84.9

14.63

Source: Census of India, 1991.

Hindi is the mother tongue of more than ninety-two per cent

(92.20%)) population of Aligarh district, followed by Urdu which is the

mother tongue of about eight per cent (7.63%)) of the population (source:

Statistical Bulletin).

55

Density of Population

The block wise density of population in Aligarh district is given in

the following Table 3.6.

Table 3.6 Blockwise Density of Population in Aligarh District (1991)

S.No.

I.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Blocks

Tappal

Chandaus

Khair

Jawan

Lodha

Dhanipur

Gonda

Iglas

Atrauli

Bijauli

Gangiri

Akrabad

Density of Population/sq.km (1991)

400

466

449

615

571

570

493

506

554

543

576

432

Source: District Census Handbook of Aligarh 1991.

The table 3.6 illustrate that out of 12 blocks the highest density of

population is in two blocks that is Jawan 615 persons per sq.km. and

Gangiri 576 persons per sq.km. followed by block Lodha, Dhanipur and

/AJv*. r ''rb{r?c^:L - a A

56

Atrauli having 571 persons per sq.km., 570 persons per sq.km. and 554

persons per sq.km. respectively.

The block comprising medium density of population are Bijauli

and Iglas.

The lowest density of population is found in blocks of Tappal,

Khair and Akrabad. The blocks such as Chandaus and Gonda has low

density of population.

On 31 March 2001, Lodha block had the largest number of villages

standing at 142 followed by Atrauli (116). The total number of inhibited

villages in the district are 1212 of whom twenty-eight are uninhibited.

Table 3.7 gives the number of villages in each block, total population and

female population. Male population can be easily obtained by subtracting

female population from total population.

57

Table 3.7 Block wise number of villages, total and female population (2001)

S.No.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Blocks

Tappal

Chandaus

Khair

Jawan

Lodha

Dhanipur

Gonda

Iglas

Atrauli

Bijauli

Gangiri

Akrabad

Number of villages

91

94

96

110

142

98

83

103

116

91

101

87

Total population

169705

174333

166015

211390

200642

175008

166915

155032

180899

155285

227328

145040

Female population

78759

80433

77073

98464

92110

81052

76258

71038

83691

70583

104733

66942

Source: District Statistical office

58

Economic Features and Literacy

The Aligarh city occupies a very prominent position in the district

in all respects of human activity. It is the economic centre par excellence,

having a very important lock and hardware industry, which imports its

products to all over the globe. It has become a very important source of

foreign exchange earner of the country. It also has very important and

vast infrastructure of educational facilities.

For most of its medieval history it was a walled city with gate

opening towards Delhi, Agra, Budaun etc. The antiquity of sequential

occupation contained within the wall has produced a high level of

congestion and a very high population density. With the passage of time

the interstices that must have existed once got filled up and then vertical

growth took place.

Commercial activity in the city is of a high order and there are

wholesale markets, retail and specialized markets. The wholesale markets

are clustered around Baradwari. Retail trade does not occupy compact

areas, but like in most Indian cities it is in ribbon pattern, crawling along

the traffic arteries and lanes.

Aligarh district and the city have a tradition of industrial activity

from medieval times when cotton, indigo, glass and pottery industries had

developed. During the British period, the establishment of a postal

59

workshop laid the basis and provided the technical skills which were to

give rise, subsequently to lock and other metal and fitting industries in

Aligarh city. During the II world war, industrial activity got a fillip and

manufactured badges, buckles, monograms, whistler, locks etc. for the

army. After independence a spate of industries developed in the Aligarh

city as well as the district. Presently, there are more than 4000 industrial

establishments in the district employing over 25000 workers. Most of

these establishments and work force is in the city.

Lock industry is the most important industry of the town. One of

the largest concentrations of the industry is in the Upper Fort area. Locks

of various types and materials - iron, brass, spring and pad locks are

made here and exported to all over India and foreign countries. Besides

lock, a host of other industries, have developed in the course of time.

There are large number of iron foundries, metal industries and industries

of insulated and non-ferrous wires, electrical goods, building and

machine fittings, steel fiimiture, iron safe etc. A large number of agro

industries have also developed namely, pulses, flour and rice mills, dairy,

bread and biscuit factories etc.

Newly developed industrial area occupying an area of about

150,000 sq. metres in the north-west of the city is the only compact

60

industrial complex. There are no compact zones in the city with

dominance of one or the other function.

In Aligarh district the total work force has been increasing by

around 1 lakh per decade as is evident from the relevant data available for

the years 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1991.

Table 3.8 gives the rural, urban and total breakup of percentage of

total population employed in the district, during the four decades 1961,

1971,1981,1991.

Table 3.8 Percentage of Employment in Aligarh, 1961-91

Year

1961

1971

1981

1991

Aligarh

Total

31.44

27.32

26.54

27.29

Rural

32.05

27.59

26.88

27.85

Urban

28.30

26.06

25.40

25.63

Uttar Pradesh

Total

39.12

30.94

29.30

29.74

Rural

40.33

31.48

29.73

30.47

Urban

30.95

27.67

26.99

26.97

Source: District Statistical Bulletin, Aligarh, 2001.

Nine different major occupations of the people of Aligarh district

have been identified. The table number 3.9 provide, percentage break up

of the district population according to the identified occupation of the

people. This table also gives break up of the percentage of people

employed, due to the factor residence also.

61

Table 3.9 Percentage of Employment by major occupational groups in Aligarh,

1991

Occupation

Cultivators

Agricultural labour

Livestock, forest, fishing

Household industry

Other than household industries

Constructional works

Trade and commerce

Transport and communication

Other services

Aligarh

Total

41.04

23.01

0.99

2.55

8.78

1.56

7.95

2.53

11.58

Rural

52.08

28.10

0.84

1.73

3.97

1.17

2.94

1.52

7.67

Urban

5.25

6.52

1.50

5.21

24.4

2.83

24.19

5.80

24.30

Uttar Pradesh

Total

54.41

17.74

0.95

2.13

5.12

1.39

5.95

1.85

10.45

Rural

63.00

21.47

0.33

1.80

2.78

0.76

2.53

0.87

6.13

Urban

8.00

1.73

0.93

5.13

13.66

3.85

22.95

5.38

28.85

Source: District Statistical Bulletin, 2001.

Educational activity in the district is more segregated than other

activities. There are two clearly segregated areas of educational pursuits,

besides which there are a few compact small areas having various

educational institutions. The area occupied by Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh is the most important part of the city. It covers an

area of about 4.5 sq. kms. It lies in the north of the city, east of the

railway line and is fairly demarcated on all four sides. There are certain

62

parts of the University, which are not contiguous and lie outside the

campus. The other well-segregated educational area is found in the south

central part of the city along the railway line. In this area two important

post-graduate degree colleges namely Dharam Samaj and Varshney

College and two intermediate colleges are situated. Two important girls

colleges are situated besides the Marris Road and Ramghat Road on the

eastern part of railway line. They are the A.M.U. Girls College and Tika

Ram Girls College. All other major urban centers in the district have

degree colleges and a number of intermediate colleges.

After independence literacy rate for both male and female has been

steadily increasing. The following table provides the literacy rate on the

basis of last four census figures, including the latest census (2001).

Table 3.10 Percentage of Literates in Aligarh (1971-2001)

Census year

1971

1981

1991

2001

Male

35.1

44.0

59.9

65.3

Female

12.6

16.2

26.8

38.7

Total

24.9

31.2

44.9

53.8

Source: Census, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001.

63

It is to be noted that although a large number of girl students are

going to schools and colleges, but their per cent literacy rate is quite low

than males.

Although basic education is claimed to be free in India and lately it

has been conferred the status of fundamental right and state duty to

provide basic education to all its citizens, even the primary education

infrastructure is quite insufficient to make children literate. The following

table presenting basic education facilities per one lakh of population to

the children in the district reveals that we are far behind the stated

objective of achieving cent percent literacy.

Table 3.11 Number of Basic Schools/lakh Population

S.No.

1 0

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10.

11.

12.

Blocks

Tappal

Chandaus

Khair

Jawan

Lodha

Dhanipur

Gonda

Iglas

Atrauli

Bijauli

Gangiri

Akrabad

1990-91

14.8

12.1

19.4

13.6

11.2

16.6

10.8

17.3

15.8

13.6

16.8

16.3

1999-00

19.3

20.9

22.2

21.6

21.2

25.6

18.8

28.3

24.3

16.6

19.9

22.9

2000-2001

19.3

22.2

22.2

21.6

21.6

25.6

18.8

28.3

24.3

16.6

19.9

22.9

Source: District Statistical Bulletin, Aligarh, 2001.

64

It can be seen that except for the Chandaus block there has been no

improvement in the basic education facilities since 1999. During the last

decade 1990-1999, there has occurred a significant increase in number of

basic schools in all blocks of the district. An increase of atleast ten

percent points over 1990 data is quite significant, but far behind the bare

necessity.

Aligarh District: Infrastructural Facilities

The development of any region depend on the infrastructural

facilities available there. Infrastructure is a wide term and conceptually

includes all those elements which are not basis to the primary sector but

belongs to secondary and tertiary sectors of economy. Infrastructure

refers to the construction of such social and economic overhead which aid

in fostering the process of growth development in any field of activity.

These activities are of the nature of facilitating the working of an

economy. It is for this reason that infrastructure is embodied in such

forms as help direct productive activities. Broadly, the nature of

infrastructural installations is that these do not direct produce things.

These, so to say, promote activities of the economy. Infrastructure

include public works like railway, roads, major irrigation work etc., as

65

also public utilities like power telecommunication, tap water supply,

sanitation, sewerage, education, medical facilities etc.

Infrastructure is of great importance for an economy. Larger the

infrastructural facilities the bigger the opportunities for producers to

produce more and invest more.

Transport and Communication

The district is served by rail as well as by roads. The railway track

in the district runs to a total length of 168 km. Having 11 railway stations

including halts out of this, metre gauge covers only 62 km in the district.

The district is served by a total length 1276 km of metalled roads. No

national highway passes through the district where as state highways

account for 207.3 and main district roads for 1750 km. Other local roads

managed by local bodies make 879.2 km. Delhi -Kanpur, Pilibhit,

Bharatpur and Chandausi-Jaipur, Kota are the three main state highways

traversing this district. On an average 163 km of roads serve the every

thousand sq. km. of area in the district where as 39 km. stand for every

lakh of population. State Transport Corporation runs buses on major

routes of the district.

Total number of post office in the district is 366. In addition to this

there are 89 telephone offices in the district.

67

Agriculture

Agriculture based economy is predominant in tlie district.

Agriculture in the district is some how well developed with extensive

cultivation and availability of irrigation facilities.

Three harvest namely Rabi, Kharif and Zaid are done in the

district. The main crop seasons are however, Rabi and Kharif. Rabi crops

claim 53.8 percent, Kharif crops 40.0 percent and Zaid crops 6.2 percent

of the gross cultivable area. Wheat is the most important crop of the

district, which claims a little over one third of the total cropped area. The

second largest area is occupied by Bajra that shares 14.97 percent of the

total cropped area, followed by maize (10.15 percent) barley (8.61

percent) and moong (4.87 percent). The crops that cover 3-2 percent of

the cropped area are peas, rapeseeds and mustard, arhar, paddy and gram

in that order. As much as 67.5 percent of the net area cultivated is

harvested more that one in an agricultural year making the cropping

intensity of 167.5 percent.

Irrigation

The district enjoys the benefit of all the three sources of irrigation

viz, rivers, canals and groundwater. Total length of canals in the district is

565 kms. In addition to this, 617 government tubewell, 21092 private

tubewells, 2666 pump sets etc. are in use.

68

Following major irrigation projects are under various strategies of

implementation in the district.

(a) Parallel lower Ganga canal project.

(b) Madhya Ganga canal project.

(c) Ram Ganga canal project.

Animals Husbandry

Animal husbandry has an important role in the rural economy of

the district. It provides drought power for cultivation as well as

supplements the income of the farmer by animals husbandry products.

According to the livestock census, there are 8.99 lakhs heads of livestock

out of which 2.34 lakh account for milk cows and 1.89 lakh for milk

buffaloes, sheep number 13.9 thousands heads and goats 98 thousands

heads and horses 23 thousand heads. Average milk production in the

district is very low. For improving the stock and providing care for

livestock main centers are functioning in the district. As many as 142

artificial insinuation centers are available in the district.

Finance and Credit Facilities

Finance like other fields of human activity is equally important in

the marketing development because it accelerates the development in the

rural areas the existing credit facilities available in the district may be

classified into three categories.

69

(a) Cooperative society

(b) Gramin and other banks

(c) Commercial banks

These cooperative societies provides finance and credit facilities to

farmers and agricultural labours. There is spatial imbalances in the

distribution of cooperative societies in the area.

Market

The observation and analysis in Aligarh district showed that neither

of market genesis theory is fully coefficient to explain the origin and

development of periodic markets. Both views seem to be complementary

rather than mutually exclusive. Those market which are locating in the

interior and inaccessible parts of local demand. These markets have now

been joined to main roads by new constructed link roads to examine the

role played by metalled road in the origin and development of periodic

markets centres in the district. Marketing is an important commercial

activity of the present age. It plays a dominant role in the overall

development of a region. Each individual has his specific needs and for

their fulfillment he requires the facility of markefing. The broadly

classified into three categories.

1. Weekly and Bi-weekly markets.

2. Regulated or daily markets.

3. Animal haat.

70

Weekly and Bi-Weekly Markets

These markets, locally known as Haat or painths, are periodic

markets held weekly or bi-weekly in the open or along road side in

various villages. These are the local markets, where different types of

commodities such as food grains, vegetables, fruits and spice etc. are sold

and purchased by the inhabitants of the surrounding areas. A majority of

farmers unload their farm produce at these local markets for sale. In

district Aligarh 81 weekly and 30 bi-weekly markets are organized on

different days in different villages.

Regulated or Daily Markets

There are 11 villages, which are having the facility of regulated

markets. Out of these 11 villages, 10 villages have a population of 2000

and above persons.

Animal Haat

Out of the total number of 12 blocks of the district animal haats are

held in 10 block. In these animal haats, cattle such as bullock, cows and

buffaloes are sold and purchased. Such haats are held mostly in big

villages having population of more than 1000 persons.

Indiiistries

No important minerals are found in the district. The only mineral

found are kankar and sand used locally in construction works. There are

71

219 factories registered under Indian Factories Act 1948, out of which 10

are located in rural areas. Small scale industries registered with the

Director of Industries U.P., number 1050 out of which only 106 are

located in the rural areas. The industries includes besides, a large printing

establishment, units engaged in manufacturing of seals, knives, lamps,

lanterns metal notices and signboards, hand carts, wallets and tarpaulins.

Aligarh district is especially known for the production of locks in brass

and iron and scissors. There are numerous lock work in the city.

Handloom, carpet, glass, electrical goods, electroplating, building

material industries are also found in the district. Satha Sugar Mill, Central

Daily Farm, Glaxo Laboratories are running in the rural areas.

Education

Education is the most important factors in achieving rapid

economic development and in creating a social order.

According to 1991 census, total literate is 1179901 persons, of

these 858261 are males and 321640 are females. In the rural areas of the

district 800868 persons (622273 males and 178595 females) are literate

and urban area 379033 persons (2355988 males and 143045 females) are

literate. The rate of literacy of this population to the total population

excluding 0-6 years groups according to 1991 census is shown below.

72

Total

Rural

Urban

Persons

45.21

41.22

56.85

Males

60.19

58.30

65.82

Females

27.17

20.39

46.41

There are 4.31 primary schools for every 10,000 of urban

population of the district. The highest ratio of 12.38 primary school is

observed in Vijaigarh against the lower of 1.44 in Kasimpur Power House

Colony. A ratio of 1.06 junior secondary school is obtainied in urban

areas of the district. The ratio varies between the maximum of 5.73 junior

secondary schools in Iglas and the minimum of 0.25 in Aligarh. There are

no schools of matriculation standard and no intermediate college in

Pilakhna and no intermediate college in Vijaigarh town.

University and Colleges

Aligarh Muslim University

Dharam Samaj College

Sri Tika Ram Kanya Mahavidyalaya

Sri Varshney College

Place

Aligarh

Aligarh

Aligarh

Aligarh

Medical Facilities

The district enjoys the benefit of the reputed Gandhi-Eye Hospital

which take care of the eye patients of the district and outside places. In

73

addition to this, Medical College under A.M.U. and Malkhan Singh

Hospital under U.P. Government central medical facilities to the patients

at Aligarh. Medical facilities in rural areas require further improvement.

On the average a thousand of urban by 4.53 beds in medical

institution. The highest ratio of 7.84 beds is observed in Aligarh district

against the lowest of 0.26 beds in Khair, there are no hospital and other

medical institution with bed facilities in Pilakhna.

Water Facilities

The importance of water as a basic necessity of all forms of life.

All life is completely dependent on water, which includes drinking water

for man and beast, soil, water for vegetation and surface water for habitat

of all type of aquatic life. On the other hand, water is a source of power

and industrial ingredient, a medium of transportation, a waste removal

and purification agents, as well as a recreational asset and a maker of

boundaries.

Groundwater

The underground water potential at accessible depth determine the

irrigation potential of the region. Surface water in Aligarh district is very

limited in both space and time due to prevailing of some arid climatic

condition. The underground water is mainly source of water for drinking

as well as irrigation purpose.

74

The level of underground water in term of depth from the surface

level showed spatio-temporal variation.

The observations from different hydrographic wells of Aligarh

district show (Table 3.12) that the depth of water in the pre-monsoon

period (1994) ranged from 2.50 metres to 12.35 metres below ground

level, and in the post monsoon period (1994) it ranged from 2.00 metres

to 11.00 metres below ground level. The groundwater level of blocks

Jawan, Dhanipur and Akrabad are generally high. The blocks of Atrauli,

Gangiri, Bijauli and Lodha have deep groundwater level while the blocks

of Gonda, Iglas, Khair, Tappal and Chandaus have medium ground level.

75

Table 3.12 Pre and Post-Monsoon Underground Water Levels in Aligarh

District (1994)

S.No.

1.

2.

3,.

4,

5.

6.

7„

8,

9.

IOL

11.

12.

Blocks

Atrauli

Gangiri

Bijauli

Iglas

Gonda

Jawan

Dhanipur

Lodha

Akrabad

Khair

Chandaus

Tappal

Depth of water table (below ground level in metres)

Pre-monsoon

12.35

11.10

10.95

4.32

3.95

2.50

7.50

9.40

4.80

4.80

6.05

9.35

Post-monsoon

11.00

9.83

9.35

3.50

2.31

2.00

4.70

8.20

3.60

3.50

4.67

8.35

Fluctuation

1.35

1.27

1.60

0.82

1.64

0.50

2.40

1.20

1.20

1.30

1.38

1.00

Source: Groundwater investigation organization Aligarh.

76

DIMENSIONS OF MODERNIZATION

Agricultural Modernization

India is presently facing a problem of rapid growth of population

and increasing demand for foodgrains. But the land under cultivation

remains almost fixed. Under the present circumstances, the only way to

meet the growing demand for foodgrains could be met only by increasing

the yields. Achieving this goal is possible only by modernization of

Indian agriculture that depends on increased use of HYY, fertilizers,

pesticides, improved and assured irrigation and modem methods of

cultivation. Modernization in agriculture is the transformation from

traditional to scientific methods of farming and from the level of

subsistence farming to surplus farming. HYV programme is the key

element in agricultural modernization. Modernization is a continuous

process wherein the adoption of scientific methods of farming changes

over space through time. Modernization of agriculture is determined by

the methods and techniques adopted by the farmers, as well as application

of modem inputs.

The present study is based on secondary sources of published data

for the year 1990-91 and 2000-01, obtained from the statistical magazines

of Aligarh district.

77

For measuring the relative score of various attributes of levels of

modernization in Aligarh district, standard score technique has been

applied (Zi-score).

St.Dev.

where

Zi = Standard score for the i* observation v.>; *' * ^ ' 4' ^

Xi = Original value of the observation !i >.i . ^^K, -^^ ' / ^. J

X = Mean for all the values of X ^.^/T^^^w^^r^ V

St. Dev. = Standard deviation of X

Further, the results of the standard score obtained for the different

indicators were aggregated in order to find out the composite index or

composite standard score (C.S.S.) so that regional differences in the

levels of modernization of various blocks may be obtained on a common

scale. The composite standard score (C.S.S.) may be algebraically

expressed as

VZiJ C.S.S. = ^—

N

where, ZiJ indicates 'Zi' score of an indicator in district J.

N, refers to the number of indicators.

All the data have been arranged in descending order and standardized to

zero mean for interpretation, the positive values relating to the block's

78

score show high levels of modernization and negative values relating to

the block's score show low levels of modernization.

The levels of agricultural modernization were measured at the two

points of time, that is 1990-91 and 2000-01.

The following seven indicators were selected for measuring the

agricultural modernization.

Indicators

Xi

X2

X3

X4

X,

X,

X7

Definition

Consumption of fertilizers (in kg per hectare)

Percentage of net irrigated area to the net cropped area.

Percentage of canal irrigated area to the net cropped area.

Number of threshers per 10,000 hectares of net cropped

area.

Number of tractors per 10,000 hectares of net cropped

area.

Number of pump sets per 10,000 hectares of net cropped

area.

Percentage of tubewell's irrigation to the net irrigated area.

79

Levels of Agricultural Modernization (1990-91)

(!) High levels of agricultural modernization

The regional pattern of the levels of agricultural modernization for

the year 1990-91 have been shown in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1. It may be

observed from the figure 4.1 that there are four blocks viz. Iglas (0.402),

Gonda (0.379), Dhanipur (0.338) and Jawan (0.286) which have high

level of agricultural modernization because the farmers apply modem

agricultural technology and modem agricultural inputs.

(ii) Medium levels of agricultural modernization

Medium levels of agricultural modemization have been noticed in

four blocks of the district. These blocks are Tappal (0.090), Akrabad

(0.038), Lodha (-0.050) and Chandaus (-0.053). Blocks Tappal and

Chandaus lie in northwestem periphery area, Lodha lies in central part

while the block Akrabad lies towards the southeastern periphery area of

the district.

(iii) Low levels of agricultural modernization

The low levels of agricultural modemization have been observed in

four blocks of the district. These blocks are Khair (-0.123), Atrauli

(-0.271), Gangiri (-0.319) and Bijauli (-0.730) which have low level of

80

agricultural modernization because of lack of agricultural inputs and

machineries.

It is obvious from the above discussion that the areas of varying

levels of agricultural modernization are not uniformly distributed in the

district. It indicates that the amount of NPK applied and the number of

machines used together with the irrigation facilities available are not the

samie in every block.

81

Table 4.1. Standard Score of Indicators for Agricultural Modernization in

Aligarh District (1990-91)

SI. No.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Blocks

Tappal

Chandaus

IChair

Jawan

Lodha

Dhanipur

Gonda

Iglas

Atrauli

Bijauli

(jangiri

\krabad

Xi

-1.036

0.626

0.472

0.333

0.071

2.186

0.061

0.549

0.184

-1.981

-0.544

-0.924

X2

0.233

0.334

0.594

-0.706

0.371

0.000

0.297

0.446

0.780

-3.048

-0.111

0.817

X3

-0.567

-1.110

-0.414

1.177

-1.320

1.835

-0.109

-0.557

-1.377

0.157

0.081

2.216

X4

-1.416

-0.166

-1.416

1.33

-0.33

-1.083

1.916

1.25

-0.416

0.583

0.166

-0.583

Xs

2.763

0.152

0.33

-0.402

0.458

0.152

0.277

0.125

-1.00

-1.347

-0.77

-0.694

X6

1.028

-0.839

-0.313

0.353

-1.511

0.422

1.295

0.568

-1.833

0.853

-0.876

0.839

X7

-0.36

0.632

-0.12

-0.08

1.908

-1.144

-1.08

0.436

1.76

-0.328

-0.184

-1.4

Composite mean

0.092

-0.053

-0.123

0.286

-0.050

0.338

0.379

0.402

-0.271

-0.730

-0.319

0.038

82

L.

83

Levels of Agricultural Modernization in 2000-01

(i) High levels of agricultural modernization

The regional pattern of the levels of Agricultural modernization for

the year 2000-01 has been shown in Table 4.2 and Figure 4.2. It may be

observed from the Figure 4.2 that there are only three blocks of the

district having high level of agricultural modernization. These blocks are

Iglas (0.652), Khair (0.472) and Tappal (0.411) the main variable which

appear to have influenced the high level of agricultural modernization in

the area include the maximum use of machines, irrigation facilities, and

fertilizers (NPK).

(ii) Medium levels of agricultural modernization

The blocks having medium levels of agricultural modernization

have been noticed in six blocks of the district. These blocks are Gonda

(0.103), Jawan (0.041), Lodha (0.001), BijauH (-0.058), Dhanipur (-

0.083) and Atrauli (-0.109).

84

Table 4.2. Standard Score of Indicators for Agricultural Modernization in

Aligarh District (2000-01)

SI. No.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Blocks

Tappal

Chandaus

Khair

Jawan

Lodha

Dhanipur

Gonda

Iglas

Atrauli

Bijauli

Gangiri

Akrabad

X,

-0.356

-0.742

-1.082

-0.138

0.625

-0.072

0.036

0.953

-0.356

2.350

-1.703

0.516

X2

0.756

-0.197

2.707

0.312

-0.042

0.201

-0.463

-0.197

-0.485

-1.572

0.019

-0.995

X3

1.946

-1.020

1.510

-0.421

-1.109

0.928

-0.211

-0.527

-1.117

-0.373

-0.446

0.847

X4

-1.310

-0.215

-1.357

1.268

-0.357

-1.000

1.857

1.205

-0.378

0.610

0.126

-0.468

X5

2.510

-0.042

1.223

-0.404

0.297

0.085

0.212

0.074

0.946

-1.021

-0.808

-1.106

Xe

-0.306

-0.876

-0.487

-0.086

-1.082

0.391

0.409

2.701

-1.091

0.073

-0.786

0.525

X7

-0.358

0.637

0.796

-0.239

1.673

-1.115

-1.115

0.358

1.713

-0.478

-0.239

-1.474

Composite mean

0.411

-0.350

0.472

0.041

0.001

-0.083

0.103

0.652

-0.109

-0.058

-0.548

-0.307

85

o o

(f) X QJ UJ -^ Q to

E (J

1

C3 CD + 1

^ :::: ^ — ^ ^ ' • •

^ :::: -& E 5 - Z5 O :i= ^ - 1

(U

86

(iii) Low levels of agricultural modernization

The blocks having low levels of agricultural modernization have

been noticed in three blocks of the district. These blocks are Akrabad (-

0.307), Chandaus (-0.350) and Gangiri (-0.548). These blocks have low

level of agricultural modernization because most of the variables score

have negative values. There is low NPK consumption, less machinery and

less number of pumpsets.

It is evident from Tables 4.1 and 4.2 and Figures 4.1 and 4.2 that

the blocks under high levels of agricultural modernization between 1990-

91 and 2000-01 have got changed from their original positions. Block

Iglas lie in the same grade. Other blocks of the same grade i.e., Jawan,

Dhanipur and Gonda have come down to medium grade. These blocks

which are now in medium grade because of the various factors have

decreased their original values from high to medium. These factors are

fertilizers consumption, use of machines, irrigation facilities.


the blocks under medium levels of agricultural modernization between

1990-91 and 2000-01 have changed their original positions. Block Lodha

lies in the same grade. Other blocks of the same grade i.e. Chandaus and

Akrabad have come down from medium to low grade, while the block

87

Tappal have recorded an increase in its original value from medium to

high grade. The blocks Chandaus and Akrabad which are now in low

grade because of the observed factors which have decreased their original

values from medium to low. The observed factors are fertilizer

consumption, number of pump sets to the net cropped area while the

Tappal block of medium grade has recorded an increase in their original

value from medium to high. The responsible factors for the increased

level of agricultural modernization are use of machines, irrigation

facilities and fertilizer consumption.

It is evident from Tables 4.1 and 4.2 and the Figures 4.1 and 4.2

that the blocks under low levels of agricultural modernization between

1990-91 and 2000-01 have recorded change in their original positions.

Block Gangiri lie in the same grade. Other blocks of the same grade i.e.

Atrauli and Bijauli have increased their original values from low to

medium grade while Khair goes from low to high grade. The blocks

Atrauli and Bijauli which now lie in medium grade because of the

following factors have increased their original values from low to

medium. There are increase use of tractors and threshers, an increase in

percentage of tubewells irrigation to the net irrigated area, increase in use

of l ^ K while the Khair of low grade has increased its original value from

low to high. The responsible factors for the increase levels of agricultural

88

modernization are - increase in the net irrigated area to the net cropped

area, use of tractors and increased percentage of tubewells irrigation to

the net irrigated area.

Levels of infrastructural modernization

The development of any region depends on the infrastructural

facilities available there. Infrastructure is a wide term and conceptually

includes all those elements which are not basis to the primary sector but

belongs to secondary and tertiary sectors of economy. Infrastructure

refers to the construction of such social and economic overhead which aid

in fostering the process of growth development in any field of activity.

These activities are of the nature of facilitating the working of an

economy. It is for this reason that infrastructure is embodied in such

forms as help in direct productive activities. Broadly, the nature of

infrastructural installations is that these do not directly produce things.

These, so to say, promote activities of the economy. Infrastructure

include public work like railways, roads, etc., as also public activities like

power, telecommunication, tap water supply, sanitation, sewerage,

education, medical facilities, etc..

Infrastructure is of great importance for an economy, larger the

infrastructural facilities, the bigger the opportunities for producer to

produce more and invest more.

89

For the analysis of levels of infrastmctural modernization, the

following further indicators were selected.

Indicators

Xi

X2

X3

X4

X5

X6

X7

Xs

X9

Xio

Xn

X12

X 14

Definition

Percentage of electrified villages to the total villages.

Length of surfaced road per lakhs of population.

Number of allopathic hospitals, dispensaries and primary

health, centres.

Number of doctors in allopathic hospitals, dispensaries and

PHC per lakhs of population.

Number of available beds in allopathic hospitals,

dispensaries and PHC per lakhs of population.

Number of family and maternity childwelfare centre per

lakhs of population.

Number of post offices per lakhs of population.

Number of P.C.O. per lakhs of population.

Number of telephone per lakhs of population.

Number of bus station / stop per lakhs of population

Number of junior basic schools per lakhs of population.

Number of senior basic schools per lakhs of population.

Number of higher senior secondary schools per lakhs of

population.

Number of banks (including credit banks) per lakhs of

population.

90

The dynamics of infrastructural modernization were measured at

tlie two points of time spaced over ten years that 1990-91 and 2000-01.

Levels of Infrastructural Modernization (1990-91)

(i) High levels of infrastructural modernization

The regional pattern of the levels of infrastructural modernization

for the year 1990-91 has been shown in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.3. It may

be observed from the Figure 4.3 that there are six blocks viz. Dhanipur

(0.417), Iglas (0.407), Khair (0.324), Chandaus (0.321), Atrauli (0.265)

and Akrabad (0.246) which have high level of infrastructural

modernization because these blocks have the facility of electricity, roads,

medical, banking and other facilities.

(ii) Medium levels of infrastructural modernization

The medium levels of infrastructural modernization have been

noticed in four blocks of the district. These blocks are Bijauli (0.121),

Gonda (-0.104), Lodha (-0.150) and Jawan (-0.166).

(iii) Low levels of infrastructural modernization

The low levels of infrastructural modernization have been seen in

two blocks of the district. These blocks are Tappal (-0.565) and Gangiri

(-0.819),which have low levels of infrastructural modernization because

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93

these blocks have less supply of electricity, very poor facility of roads,

medical, banking and other amenities.

Levels of Infrastructural Modernization in 2000-01

(i) High levels of infrastructural modernization

The regional patterns of the levels of infrastructural modernization

for the year 2000-01 have been shown in Table 4.4 and Figure 4.4. It may

be observed from the Figure 4.4 that there are three blocks of the district

having high level of infrastructural modernization. These blocks are

Atrauli (0.441), Iglas (0.402) and Bijauli (0.249) which have high level of

infrastructural modernization because these blocks have developed their

infrastructural facilities.

(ii) Medium levels of infrastructural modernization

The blocks having medium levels of infrastructural modernization

have been noticed in the seven blocks of the district, the blocks are

Dhanipur (0.159), Akrabad (0.121), Khair (0.091), Chandaus (0.076),

Gonda (0.069), Lodha (-0.068) and Jawan (-0.116).

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94

96

(iii) Low level of infrastructural modernization

The area having low levels of infrastructural modernization have

been seen in the two blocks of the district. These blocks are Gangiri (-

0,597) and Tappal (-0.772) which have low level of infrastructural

modernization because these blocks have not developed the

infrastructural facilities. These blocks have very poor facilities of

electricity, roads, medical, education, banking and other amenities.

It is evident from the Tables 4.3 and 4.4 and Figures 4.3 and 4.4

that the blocks under high levels of infrastructure modernization, between

1990-91 and 2000-01, have changed their original position. Blocks Iglas

and Atrauli lie in the same grade. Other blocks of the same grade i.e.

Chandaus, Khair, Dhanipur and Akrabad come down to medium grade.

These blocks are now in medium grade because of the following factors.

These are number of P.CO. and telephone per lakJis of population.

Length of surfaced road, number of doctors, number of family and

miatemity child welfare centres, number of post offices per lakhs of

population.


the blocks under medium levels of infrastructure modernization between

1990-91 and 2000-01 have changed their original position. Blocks Jawan,

97

Lodha and Gonda lie in the same grade while one block of the same grade

i.e. Bijauli have increased their original value from medium to high

grade. The block Bijauli now lie in the high grade because of the

following factors. These are percentage of electrified villages to the total

villages, number of higher senior secondary schools and number of banks

(including credit banks) per lakhs of population.


the blocks under low levels of infrastructure modernization between

1990-91 and 2000-01 neither recorded an increase or decrease in their

original positions. Blocks Tappal and Gangiri lie in the same grade.

Levels of Overall Modernization 1990-91

The levels of overall modernization for the year 1990-91 have been

measured by taking the indicators of agricultural and infrastructural

modernization together. The following twenty-one indicators were

selected for measuring the levels of overall modernization:

Indicators

X,

X2

X,

Definition

Fertilizer Consumption in kg. per hectares.

Percentage of net irrigated area to the net-cropped area.

Percentage of canal irrigated area to the net irrigated area.

98

X4

Xs

X6

X7

Xs

X9

X|o

X II

X 12

X 13

Xi4

Xi5

X16

Xi7

Number of threshers per 10000 hectares of net-cropped

area.

Number of tractors per 10000 hectares of net-cropped area.

Number of pump sets per 10000 hectares of net-cropped

area.

Percentage of tubewells irrigation to net irrigated area.

Percentage of electrified villages to the total villages.

Length of surfaced road per lakhs of population.

Number of allopathic hospitals, dispensaries and primary

health centre (PHC) per lakhs population.

Number of doctors in allopathic hospitals, dispensaries and

PHC per lakhs of population.

Number of available beds in allopathic hospitals.

Dispensaries and PHC per I'akhs of population.

Number of family and maternity child welfare centre per

lakhs of population.

Number of post office per lakhs of population.

Number of P.C.O. per lakhs of population.

Number of telephone per lakhs of population.

Number of bus station/stop per lakhs of population.

Xi8

Xi9

X20

X:, 21

99

Number of junior basic schools per lakhs of population.

Number of senior basic schools per lakhs of population.

Number of higher senior secondary schools per lakhs of

population.

Number of banks (including credit banks) per lakhs of

population.

The levels of overall modernization were measured at the two

points of time spaced ten years apart that is 1990-91 and 2000-01.

Levels of Overall Modernization (1990-91)

(!) High levels of overall modernization

The regional pattern of the levels of overall modernization for the

year 1990-91 have been shown in Table 4.5 and Figure 4.5. It may be

observed from the Figure 4.5 that there are five blocks of the district

having high level of overall modernization. These blocks are Iglas

(0.407), Dhanipur (0.390), Chandaus (0.199), Akrabad (0.177) and Khair

(0.173) recording high level of overall modernization have attained their

status due to a variety of reasons. The people of these blocks enjoy better

inrigation facilities, use of chemical fertilizers, and other agricultural

technology and infrastructural facilities.

100

(ii) Medium levels of overall modernization

The blocks having medium level of overall modernization have

been noticed in four blocks of the district. These blocks are Atrauli

(0.086), Gonda (0.057), Jawan (-0.016) and Lodha (-0.117). In this

category there is lack of infrastructure facilities and irrigation facilities.

But use of fertilizers is moderate.

(iii) Low levels of overall modernization

The areas having low levels of overall modernization have been

seen in three blocks of the district. These blocks are Bijauli (-0.162),

Tappal (-0.345) and Gangiri (-0.653). In these blocks irrigation facilities

are almost very poor. There is also lack of educational and infrastructural

facilities.

I ©

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101

103

Levels of Overall Modernization in 2000-01

(i) High levels of overall modernization

The regional pattern of the levels of overall modernization for the

year 2000-01 has been shown in Table 4.6 and Figure 4.6. It may be

observed from the Figure 4.6 that there are four bloclcs of the district

having high levels of overall modernization. These blocks are Iglas

(0.485), Atrauli (0.257), Khair (0.218) and Bijauli (0.144). The farmers

living in these blocks developed better irrigation facilities, use chemical

fertilizers, developed other agricultural technology and infrastructural

facilities.

(ii) Medium levels of overall modernization

The medium levels of overall modernization have been noticed in

five blocks of the district. These blocks are Gonda (0.081), Dhanipur

(0.078), Akrabad (-0.021), Lodha (-0.045) and Chandaus (-0.065). In

these blocks, there is lack of primary educational facilities and

infrastructural facilities. But the use of fertilizers and other amenities is

moderate. So in this region overall modernization is moderate.

a. a> E S U

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104

106

(iii) Low levels of overall modernization

The low levels of overall Modernization have been seen in three

blocks of the district. These blocks are Tappal (-0.377), Gangiri (-

0.580) and Jawan (-0.637). These blocks cover the eastern periphery,

northern periphery and western periphery of the district. In these

blocks irrigation facilities are almost very poor. There is lack of

modem technology, educational and other infrastructural facilities.

It is evident from Tables 4.4 and 4.5 and from the Figures 4.4

and 4.5 that the blocks under high levels of overall modernization

between 1990-1991 and 2000-01 have recorded change in their original

positions. Blocks Khair and Iglas lie in the same grade. Other bocks of

the same grade i.e. Chandaus, Dhanipur and Akrabad come down to

medium grade. These blocks which are now in medium grade are due

to the following factors. These are decreasing rate of fertilizer

consumption in kg. per hectare and use of machineries. Due to lack of

financial support, these blocks are low in infrastructural facilities.

It is evident from Tables 4.4 and 4.5 and from the Figures 4.4

and 4.5 that the blocks under medium levels of overall modernization

between 1990-91 and 2000-01 have recorded change in their original

positions. Blocks Lodha and Gonda lie in the same grade. Other block

107

of the same grade i.e. Atrauli has increased their original value from

medium to high grade while Jawan has decreased from medium to low

grade. The block Atrauli which now is in high grade because of the

following factors which have increased their original values from

medium to high. These are increased use of machineries and use of

fertilizer consumption. There is also an increase in the infrastructural

facilities like road length per lakh of population, number of allopathic

hospitals, number of higher senior secondary schools per lakh of

population, while the block Jawan of the same grade has recorded

decrease in their original value from medium to low grade. The

responsible factors for the decrease in levels of overall modernization

are due to decrease in the consumption of fertilizers, decrease in the

inigation facilities to the net-cropped area.

It is evident from Tables 4.4 and 4.5 and the Figures 4.4 and 4.5

that the blocks under low levels of overall modernization between

1990-91 and 2000-01 have undergone change in their original

positions. Blocks Tappal and Gangiri lie in the same grade. Other

block of the same grade i.e. Bijauli has increased its original value

from low to high grade. The block of Bijauli which now lie in high

grade because of the following factors have increase its original value

from low to high. These are due to increased use of fertilizer

108

consumption kg/hectare, increased percentage of electrified villages to

the total villages, increased number of junior basic schools, higher

senior secondary schools, number of banks (including credit banks) per

laldis of population.

109

CONCLUSION

The present study finds out that there exist large variation in the

levels of overall modernization at block level in the Aligarh District.

The levels of overall modernization for the year 1990-91 and 2000-01

have been measured by taking the indicators of agricultural and

infrastructural modernization together. The levels of overall

modernization has been computed by applying the standard score

techniques (Zi-score). Further, the results of the standard score

obtained for the different indicators were aggregated in order to find

out the composite index or composite standard score (C.S.S.) so that

regional differences in the levels of overall modernization of various

blocks may be obtained on a common scale. The regional pattern of

overall modernization shown in the figure 4.6 represents that high

modernization is recorded in the southern, northeast and northwest part

of the district. Medium modernization is observed in the central,

northern part, southeast and southwestern parts. Low modernization is

found dispersed in various part of the area.

The general distributional pattern of levels of agricultural

modernization between 1990-91 and 2000-01 have undergone change

their original position. The blocks of high grade that is Jawan,

no

Dhanipur and Gonda in 1990-91 come down to medium grade in 2000-

01 due to decrease in fertilizers consumption, use of machines,

irrigation facilities, etc.

The blocks of medium grade that is Chandaus and Akrabad in

1990-91 have come down to low grade in 2000-01 while the block

Tappal in 2000-01 have increased its original value from medium to

high grade. The Chandaus and Akrabad which are now in low grade

are due to the factors, like fertilizer consumption, number of pump sets

to the net-cropped area, while the Tappal has increased its original

value due to increased use of machineries, irrigation facilities and

fertilizers consumption.

The blocks of low grade that is Atrauli and Bijauli in 1990-91

have increased their original value in 2000-01 while Khair in 2000-01

goes from low to high grade. The Atrauli and Bijauli are now in

medium grade due to increased use of tractors and threshers,

percentage of tubewells irrigation to the net irrigated area, use of

fertilizers while the block Khair of low grade have increased its

original value due to increased use of inputs, modem technology,

increased percentage of tubewells.

The general distributional patterns of levels of infrastructural

modernization for the year 1990-01 and 2000-01 have been changed.

I l l

This pattern is in close conformity with the various levels of

infrastructural modernization. The blocks of high grade that is

Chandaus, Khair, Dhanipur and Akrabad come down to medium grade

due to decreased values; these are number of P.C.O., telephone per

lakh of population, length of surfaced road, number of doctors, number

of family and maternity child welfare centre per lakhs of population.

The blocks of the medium levels of infrastructural

modernization between 1990-91 and 2000-01 have changed their

position. The Bijauli block which was in medium grade in 1990-91 lie

in the high grade in 2000-01 due to percentage of electrified villages to

the total villages, number of higher senior secondary schools and

increase number of banks (including credit banks) per lakh of

population.

The blocks Tappal and Gangiri neither recorded an increase or

decrease in their original position in 2000-01. These blocks have low

levels of infrastructural modernization.

The distributional pattern of levels of overall modernization for

the year 1990-91 and 2000-01 have changed their original positions.

This pattern is in close conformity with variation in the levels of

agricultural and infrastructural modernization. The blocks of high

grade of overall modernization that is Chandaus, Dhanipur and

112

Akrabad in 1990-91 come down to medium grade in 2000-01. These

blocks have less infrastructural facilities.

The blocks of medium levels of overall modernization between

1990-91 and 2000-01 have changed their position. The block of Atrauli

has increased its original value from medium to high grade in 2000-01

due to increased use of machines, use of fertilizer consumption, and

infrastructural facilities, while the block Jawan has come down from

medium to low grade in 2000-01 due to decreased consumption of

fertilizers and irrigation facilities to the net-cropped area.

The blocks Tappal and Gangiri have not changed their original

positions. The blocks have low levels of agricultural and infrastructural

modernization, while the block Bijauli has changed its position from

low to high grade in 2000-01 due to increased use of fertilizer

consumption, percentage of electrified villages to the total villages,

number of junior basic schools, higher senior secondary schools,

number of banks (including credit banks) per lakhs of population.

After analysis it can be concluded that the levels of

modernization show many dimensions of progress and backwardness.

There is a strong contract in the levels of modernization between the

blocks of the Aligarh district, the blocks Tappal, Jawan and Gangiri

113

have low levels of overall modernization due to low levels of

agricultural and infrastructural modernization.

The following strategies may be adopted to develop and

minimize the inequalities in the levels of overall modernization in the

area.

1. It is needed to increase consumption of fertilizer.

2. Cost of the inputs should be reduced and subsidies should be

provided to assist the marginal and small farmers.

3. Proper education about the latest development in agriculture and

price incentives should be provided to the farmers very oftenly.

4. Proper transportation facilities should be provided to the farmers

for bringing their crop out turn to the market yards.

5. It is much needed that the working of credit institutions and

administrative procedures be made easy so that small and

marginal farmers can also get benefits for them.

6. The proper and timely supply of electricity should be provided

in the less developed area to operate the electric pump sets,

tubewells, threshers etc.

7. Finally, the development of infrastructure is required to

industrialize the comparatively backward areas. This is so

because infrastructure development like electricity, roads.

114

railways, banks and post offices assume great significance. Such

development brings about other economic activities and hence,

investment in infrastructure has to be made in anticipation for

future development.

There should be provision of better medical facilities in the

backward blocks, so that under privileged people can be benefited from

the fruits of modernization, so, direct investment by the government in

the backward regions is needed.

115

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