SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by...

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ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY Ministry of Transport SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS by K. Russam CROWTHORNE ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY 1967

Transcript of SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by...

Page 1: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY

Ministry of Transport

SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS

by

K. Russam

C R O W T H O R N E

ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY

1967

Page 2: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

C O N T E N T S

A b s t r a c t

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

2. T h e p u r p o s e o f l o n g i t u d i n a l r o a d d r a i n s

2. 1 D u r i n g C o n s t r u c t i o n

2 . 2 C o m p l e t e d r o a d

3. D r a i n a g e a n d s t r e n g t h of s o i l

4 . D i s c u s s i o n

5. C o n c l u s i o n s

6 . R e f e r e n c e s

7. A p p e n d i x

P a g e

1

1

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2

3

5

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Q CROWN COP}'RIGHT I967 Extracts from the text may .be reproduced

provided the s o u r c e is acknowledged

Page 3: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

Ownership of the Transport Research Laboratory was transferred from the Department of Transport to a subsidiary of the Transport Research Foundation on I st April 1996.

This report has been reproduced by permission of the Controller of HMSO. Extracts from the text may be reproduced, except for commercial purposes, provided the source is acknowledged.

Page 4: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE S T R U C T U R A L DESIGN OF ROADS

A B S T R A C T

The p u r p o s e of l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n s u n d e r r o a d s and t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s in l o w e r i n g the w a t e r t a b l e a r e d i s c u s s e d . T h e e f f e c t of l o w e r i n g the w a t e r t ab le on the s t r e n g t h of r o a d s u b g r a d e s , and h e n c e on t he d e s i g n t h i c k n e s s of f l ex ib le p a v e m e n t s , is e x a m i n e d .

Sha l low l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n s a r e u s e d to d r a i n the r o a d s t r u c t u r e and a l s o t o r e m o v e s u r f a c e w a t e r . D e e p e r d r a i n s in p e r m e a b l e s o i l s c a n b e u s e d to l o w e r the w a t e r . t a b l e and t h u s to i n c r e a s e the s t r e n g t h o f t he s u b - g r a d e . H o w e v e r in s a t u r a t e d s o i l s of l o w p e r m e a b i l i t y , s u c h a s h e a v y c l a y s , d e e p d r a i n s a r e i n e f f e c t i v e in l o w e r i n g the w a t e r - t a b l e be low f o r m a t i o n l e v e l and d o not s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e s t r e n g t h of the so i l .

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N ! j

W a t e r has: a • d a m a g i n g e f f e c t on m o s t of the m a t e r i a l s u s e d in r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e r e f r e e z i n g c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l f o r p a r t of t he y e a r a s in the -United K i n g d o m . In r e c e n t y e a r s , e x a m i n a t i o n of s e v e r a l r o a d f a i l u r e s h a s s h o w n tha t w a t e r w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r w e a k e n i n g the r o a d s , and t h u s t h a t t h e m e a s u r e s a d o p t e d f o r the p r o t e c t i o n o f r o a d s f r o m w a t e r h a v e not p r o v e d to be s u f f i c i e n t . 1 Many e n g i n e e r s , l e a r n i n g f r o m s u c h f a i l u r e s , h a v e pa id i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n t o r o a d

d r a i n a g e and t h e r e is u n d o u b t e d l y g r e a t s c o p e f o r i m p r o v e m e n t s in b o t h t he d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f d r a i n a g e w o r k s . 2

T h e p u r p o s e o f th i s •paper i s to ciraw a t t e n t i o n to the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f d r a i n a g e i n l i n c r e a s i n g the s t r e n g t h o f s o m e s u b g r a d e s o i l s a n d to i t s i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s in o t h e r s o i l s . T h e p a p e r s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e a s s i s t t he m a k i n g of d e c i s i o n s n e e d e d f o r the c o r r e c t u se of d r a i n a g e m e a s u r e s . . •

2. THE P U R P O S E O F L O N G I T U D I N A L R O A D D R A I N S •

2 .1 D u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n

The m a i n f u n c t i o n of l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n s d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n is t o r e m o v e s u r f a c e w a t e r a n d to l o w e r the g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e t o f a c i l i t a t e t he u s e o f m a c h i n e r y d u r i n g the c o n s t r u c t i o n of e a r t h w o r k s and of the p a v e m e n t . T o be e f f e c t i v e s u c h d r a i n s m u s t l o w e r the w a t e r t a b l e f a i r l y q u i c k l y a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e m o s t e f f e c t i v e wi th s o i l s of h igh p e r m e a b i l i t y .

S e v e r a l m e t h o d s a r e ava i l~ 'b le f o r the e s t i m a t i o n of d r a w d o w n t i m e s • a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h has b e e n c a r r i e d out in to m e t h o d s o f f i e l d d r a i n a g e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s . 3 The r e s u l t s o f r o a d d r a i n a g e s t u d i e s by M c C l e l l a n d 4 p r o v i d e a p a r t i c u l a r l y u se fu l gu ide t o r o a d e n g i n e e r s a n d , a s p o i n t e d ou t by B a r b e r and S a w y e r , 5 the e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d r e l a t i o n s c a n be s u m m a r i s e d in d i m e n s i o n l e s s r a t i o s as in F i g . 1.:

In n o r m a l p r a c t i c e d r a i n s a r e r e q u i r e d t o l o w e r • the w a t e r t a b l e d i s t a n c e s of 30 cm to 1 m b e l o w the s u r f a c e in o r d e r t o o b t a i n a n a p p r e c i a b l e d r y i n g of the s o i l and f a c i l i t a t e w o r k i n g of c o n s t r u c t i o n a l t r a f f i c . T h e f o r m u l a i n d i c a t e s t h a t d r a i n s p l a c e d at a dep th o f 1 m and 10 m a p a r t wil l l o w e r the w a t e r t a b l e 37 c m in ( y / k )

Page 5: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

d a y s (k,.the C o e f f i c i e n t o f p e r m e a b i l i t y is e x p r e s s e d in m e t r e s p e r d a y , arid y is t h e v o l u m e o f d r a i n a b l e w a t e r p e r un i t v o l u m e of Soi l u s u a l l y of t he o r d e r of 0 . 1 ) .

In p e r m e a b l e s o i l s , w h i c h m a y h a v e i n t e r s p e r s e d l a y e r s of g r a v e l and s a n d s , a n d w h e r e k i s of t h e o r d e r of 1 m / d , s u f f i c i e n t d r a i n a g e w i l l n o r m a l l y t a k e p l a c e in l e s s t h a n o n e d a y . F o r t h e l e s s p e r m e a b l e s o i l s , s u c h a s u n i f o r m s i l t s a n d f ine s a n d s w h e r e k m a y b e b e t w e e n 10 -2 m / d t o 10 -4 re~d, t h e t i m e t a k e n f o r t h e d r a i n a g e m a y b e of t h e o r d e r o f a f e w d a y s t o s e v e r a l w e e k s . On v e r y h e a v y s o i l s , s u c h a s c l a y s w h e r e t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y m a y b e a s l o w a s 10"5 m/d, t h e d r a i n a g e m a y t a k e m a n y m o n t h s a n d h e n c e d r a i n a g e of c l a y s i s o f t e n i m p r a c t i c a b l e u n l e s s the c l a y is n a t u r a l l y f i s s u r e d o r h o l e d b y s o i l b o r i n g a n i m a l s and w o r m s a n d t h e r e f o r e h a s a h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y t h a n m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d f r o m i t s g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n . 6

2 . 2 C o m p l e t e d r o a d

W h e n t h e r o a d h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d , t h e d r a i n s n e a r t he e d g e s of the c a r r i a g e w a y s p r o v i d e m e a n s o f d r a i n i n g t h e s u r f a c e w a t e r a n d a n y w a t e r w h i c h m a y h a v e p e n e t r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e r o a d s u r f a c i n g i n t o t h e r o a d s t r u c t u r e . T h e y a l s o s e r v e to p r e v e n t : t h e l e v e l o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e r i s i n g to the f o r m a t i o n l e v e l a n d t h e r e f o r e a l l o w t h e d e s i g n e r t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e of a h i g h e r s o i l s t r e n g t h in a s s e s s i n g t h e r e q u i r e d t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s u b - b a s e .

A f t e r t h e r o a d h a s been c o n s t r u c t e d a n d the m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n s in• the s u b g r a d e h a v e s t a b i l i z e d , t h e l e v e l o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e w i l l d e p e n d on t h e r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o f t h e r o a d s u r f a c i n g a n d t h e s u b g r a d e s o i l in a d d i t i o n to t he d e p t h and s p a c i n g of the d r a i n s . T w o c a s e s n e e d t o be c o n s i d e r e d : -

(1) W h e r e t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e r o a d s u r f a c i n g i s g r e a t e r t h a n the • p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e s u b g r a d e ,

a n d (2) w h e r e t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y Of the r o a d s u r f a c i n g is l e s s t h a n the p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e s u b g r a d e .

2 . 2 . 1 P e r m e a b i l i t y of s u r f a c i n g g r e a t e r t h a n p e r m e a b i l i t y of s u b g r a d e . T h i s c o n d i t i o n m a y a r i s e w h e n r o a d s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o v e r s u b g r a d e s of low p e r m e a b i l i t y s i n c e , a l t h o u g h a g o o d S u r f a c i n g w i l l h a v e a • p e r m e a b i l i t y of l e s s t h a n 10 -5 m / d , s o m e hea~vy c l a y s o i l s a l s o h a v e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o f the s a m e o r d e r . The q u a n t i t y of w a t e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e r o a d s u r f a c e w i l l d e p e n d on m a n y f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g the a m o u n t a n d d u r a t i o n of r a i n f a l l . H o w e v e r i t i s e a s i l y s e e n t h a t i f w a t e r p e n e t r a t e s t h e r o a d s u r f a c i n g o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d a t a r a t e e q u a l t o t he p e r m e a b i l i ~ y . o f t h e s u b g r a d e t h e n t h e w a t e r t a b l e w i l l r i s e a n d u l t i m a t e l y • r e a c h t he : :Su r f ace of t he s u b g r a d e . S i m i l a r l y , i f w a t e r p e n e t r a t e s t h e r o a d s u r f a c i n g a t a f a s t e r r a t e t h a n t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e s o i l t h e n t h i s w a t e r w i l l a c c u m u l a t e in the r o a d s t r u c t u r e and t h e s u b g r a d e w i l l be s a t u r a t e d e v e n t h o u g h s u b s o i l d r a i n s . m a y be p r e s e n t . S u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s h o w t h a t d e e p r o a d d r a i n a g e i s n o t e f f e c t i v e in So i l~ of v e r y 10w p e r m e a b i l i t y a n d p o i n t t o t h e n e e d f o r b e t t e r m e t h o d s of d r a i n i n g the u p p e r l a y e r s o f r o a d s t r u c t u r e s f o u n d e d on i m p e r v i o u s s u b g r a d e s . "

2 . 2 . 2 P e r m e a b i l i t y of s u r f a c i n g l e s s t h a n p e r m e a b i l i t y of s u b g i - a d e . In c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e r o a d s u r f a c i n g i s l e s s p e r m e a b l e t h a n t h e so i l , : t he w a t e r f l o w to t h e d r a i n s is m a i n l y in a l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n f r o m o u t s i d e , the r o a d . In t he

c a s e o f l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n s w h i c h p e n e t r a t e i n to u n d e r l y i n g s o i l Whose p e r m e a b i l i t y f s l e s s t h a n o n e t e n t h of t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e t op s o i l , t he f l o w of w a t e r t h r o u g h t h e l o w e r s o i l s t r a t a c a n b e i g n o r e d c o m p l e t e l y . 3 T h e l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n w i l l t h e n a c t a s a n e f f e c t i v e c u t - o f f d r a i n a n d if t he p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e s u r f a c i n g i s v e r y m u c h l e s s t h a n the p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e t o p s o i l t h e n the f i n a l l e v e l of the w a t e r t a b l e w i l l t e n d t o w a r d s t he l e v e l o f t h e b o t t o m o f t h e d r a i n s .

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T h e d a t a g i v e n in F i g . 1 c a n be u s e d to e s t i m a t e t he l e v e l s o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e f o r g i v e n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s t o g e t h e r wi th the" d e p t h a n d s p a c i n g s of d r a i n s s i n c e the d i s c h a r g e r a t e q c a n be t a k e n to e q u a l t he r a t e o f i n f i l t r a t i o n o f w a t e r t h r o u g h the r o a d s u r f a c i n g . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d h o w e v e r , t o c a t e g o r i s e the v a r i o u s d r a i n a g e s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h a r i s e on r o a d s a n d t o p r o v i d e m e t h o d s f o r the c l e a r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t he d r a i n a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t y p e s of s u b g r a d e a n d r o a d s t r u c t u r e . F o r the p r e s e n t t i m e s o m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s w h i c h c a n be a c h i e v e d by l o w e r i n g t h e w a t e r t a b l e w i l l h e l p in t h e m a k i n g of c o r r e c t d e c i s i o n s a b o u t d r a i n a g e a n d t h i s i s d e a l t w i t h in t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n .

3. D R A I N A G E A N D S T R E N G T H O F S O I L

D r a i n a g e i n c r e a s e s t he s t r e n g t h of s o i l by r e d u c i n g t h e s o i l m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t . T h e C a l i f o r n i a B e a r i n g R a t i o (C. B. R . ) o f a s o i l i s a m e a s u r e of i t s s t r e n g t h a n d is u s e d to d e c i d e t h e d e s i g n t h i c k n e s s of f l e x i b l e r o a d p a v e m e n t s b u i l t o v e r t h e s o i l . 7 T h e C . B . R . v a l u e of t he s o i l i s n o r m a l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y l a b o r a t o r y t e s t b u t c a n be e s t i m a t e d f r o m a k n o w l e d g e of i t s s u c t i o n a n d p l a s t i c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o g e t h e r wi th t h e t r u e a n g l e of f r i c t i o n . 8

U s i n g the l a t t e r a p p r o a c h the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n C. B . R . v a l u e a n d s u c t i o n w e r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r s a t u r a t e d s o i l s in t he u n d i s t u r b e d s t a t e w i t h p l a s t i c i t y i n d i c e s r a n g i n g f r o m 10 t o 80. T h e r e l a t i o n s a r e g i v e n in F i g . 2 a n d s h o w t h a t a t l o w s u c t i o n s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e s in t h e C . B . R . v a l u e o c c u r a s t h e s u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i th a l l s o i l s but the e f f e c t i s l e s s m a r k e d a t h i g h e r s u c t i o n s w i t h t h e m o r e p l a s t i c s o i l s .

T h e s u c t i o n o f t h e s o i l is r e l a t e d to the p o s i t i o n o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e , a s e x p l a i n e d in t h e A p p e n d i x , and the i n f l u e n c e of w a t e r t a b l e d e p t h o n t h e n e c e s s a r y t h i c k n e s s e s of f l e x i b l e r o a d p a v e m e n t c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d . E x a m p l e s o f t h i s t y p e o f c a l c u l a t i o n a r e a l s o g i v e n in t h e A p p e n d i x .

T a b l e 1 g i v e s the s u b - b a s e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r f l e x i b l e r o a d p a v e m e n t s d e s i g n e d to c a r r y the l i g h t e s t and h e a v i e s t t r a f f i c c a t e g o r i e s in t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m o v e r u n d i s t u r b e d s o i l s w i t h v a r y i n g w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l s .

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D e s i g n C h a r t 6 of R N . 29 " (0 .45 c o m m e r c i a l v e h i c l e s p e r d a y 20 y e a r s a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n )

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( c m ) o v e r u n d i s t u r b e d s o i l T h i c k n e s s o f s u b - b a s e ( c m )

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4 0 . 5 3 9 . 0 3 4 . 0 30. 5 2 8 . 0 2 0 . 0 3 0 . 5 1 9 . 0 4 0 . 5 1 8 . 0 2 3 . 0 2 0 . 0

2 0 . 0 1 8 . 0 1 8 . 0 1 1 . 5 1 8 . 0 9 . 0 2 4 . 0 7 . 5

Page 7: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

T h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t the e f f e c t of d r a i n a g e in d e c r e a s i n g the t h i c k n e s s of s u b - b a s e m a t e r i a l i s l i m i t e d in the c a s e of h e a v y c l a y s but s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n s c o u l d r e s u l t f r o m d r a i n a g e of s i l t s a n d s a n d y c l a y s . In m a k i n g the c a l c u l a t i o n s it i s a s s u m e d t h a t the s o i l is a t i t s n a t u r a l in s i t u d e n s i t y and tha t wi th the w a t e r • t a b l e n e a r t h e s u r f a c e b a d d r a i n a g e c o n d i t i o n s p r e c l u d e the use of c o m p a c t i o n : p l a n t . W i t h s a n d y a n d s i l t y c l a y s t h e u s e of d r a i n s to l o w e r the w a t e r t a b l e wi l l r e s u l t in t he s o i l d r y i n g a n d h e n c e e n a b l e c o m p a c t i o n p l an t to be u s e d . T h e i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y wi l l r e s u l t in a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e in C . B . R . va lue and t h u s a f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n in t he s u b - b a s e t h i c k n e s s r e q u i r e d .

T h e e f f e c t o f c o m p a c t i o n on the m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t of s o i l in e q u i l i b r i u m wi th a w a t e r t a b l e d e p e n d s on t h e s o i l t y p e a n d i t s n a t u r a l s t r u c t u r e . In the c a s e o f t he m a j o r i t y o f B r i t i s h c l a y s w h i c h a r e o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d , the s h e a r and b r e a k d o w n o f t h e s o i l s t r u c t u r e r e s u l t s in the c o m p a c t e d s o i l hav ing a g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y f o r w a t e r t h a n t h e u n d i s t u r b e d s o i l a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y the c o m p a c t e d c l a y s w i l l i n c r e a s e in m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t and u l t i m a t e l y be w e a k e r t h a n the n a t u r a l so i l .

W i t h s o i l s c o n t a i n i n g a s m a l l a m o u n t of . c lay s i z e d p a r t i c l e s a n d a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f s i l t and s a n d , t he i n c r e a s e d s t r e n g t h d e r i v e d f r o m b e t t e r i n t e r g r a n u l a r f r i c t i o n i s g r e a t e r t h a n the l o s s o f s t a b i l i t y due. to the l o s s o f n a t u r a l s t r u c t u r e . Thus f o r s u c h s o i l s c o m p a c t i o n r e s u l t s in l o w e r m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t s and in i n c r e a s e d s t r e n g t h : In t h e Case of s a n d s , t he s t a t e of c o m p a c t i o n is the m a j o r f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s t r e n g t h of t he s o i l :

T h e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f c o m p a c t e d s o i l i n e q u i l i b r i u m wi th a w a t e r t a b l e c a n n o t a t p r e s e n t be p r e d i c t e d f r o m a k n o w l e d g e of the s o i l i n d e x p r o p e r t i e s but s o m e g u i d a n c e ' c a n be g i v e n , b a s e d on e x p e r i e n c e , and th i s ha s b e e n t a b u l a t e d in R o a d N o t e 29.

T a b l e 2 is b a s e d on t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n in R o a d No te No. 29 and" g i v e s the s u b - b a s e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r f l e x i b l e r o a d p a v e m e n t s d e s i g n e d . t o c a r r y the l i g h t e s t and h e a v i e s t t r a f f i c c a t e g o r i e s in the U n i t e d K i n g d o m o v e r c o m p a c t e d s o i l s and f o r two d r a i n a g e c o n d i t i o n s .

T A B L E 2

T h i c k n e s s of s u b - b a s e r e q u i r e d ( c m ) o v e r c o m p a c t e d s o i l

T y p e o f r o a d p a v e m e n t

D e s i g n C h a r t 1 of RN. 29 ( m o r e t h a n 4 , 5 0 0 c o m m e r c i a l v e h i c l e s p e r d a y 20 y e a r s a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n )

D e s i g n C h a r t 6 of RN. 29 ( 0 - 4 5 c o m m e r c i a l v e h i c l e s p e r d a y 20 y e a r s a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n )

T y p e of s u b g r a d e

H e a v y c l a y

S i l t y c l a y S a n d y c l a y

H e a v y c l a y

P l a s t i c i t y i n d e x

p e r cen t

P o o r l y drained ( .water t ab l e

• d e p t h 60 c m )

-80 51. 40 51. 30 20 10

8O 40

S i l t y c l a y 30 20 10

( T h i c k n e s s o f s u b - b a s e / c m ) I

Wel l d r a i n e d ( w a t e r t ab l e

dep th 60 cm)

5 5 1 . 5 5 3 7 . 0

3 7 . 0 2 5 . 5 1 9 . 0

2 9 . 0 29, 0

Sandy clay

1 9 . 0 1 5 . 0 1 5 . 0

2 9 . 0 1 8 . 0

1 8 . 0 7 . 5 1 0 . 5 7 .5

: 7 . 5 -. 7 . 5

4

Page 8: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

T h e c o n s i d e r a b l e S a v i n g due t o d r a i n a g e a n d c o m p a c t i o n o f s a n d y a n d s i l t y c l a y s c a n e a s i l y be s e e n f r o m T a b l e s 1 a n d 2. In t he c a s e of l i g h t l y , t r a f f i c k e d r o a d s the p o t e n t i a l s a v i n g wi l l be r e d u c e d b e c a u s e m a n y s i l t y s o i l s a r e l i k e l y to be f r o s t s u s c e p t i b l e a n d in t h e s e c a s e s a m i n i m u m s u b - b a s e t h i c k n e s s o f 25 c m (10 in) i s s p e c i f i e d .

In the c a s e of c o n c r e t e r o a d s t h e e f f e c t of i m p r o v e d d r a i n a g e i s m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c a l bu t it s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t R o a d No te No . 29 s u g g e s t s t h a t on s o i l s o t h e r t h a n h e a v y c l a y s t he t h i c k n e s s of c o n s t r u c t i o n ' m a y be r e d u c e d w h e n t h e w a t e r t a b l e is l o w e r t h a n 2 ft (60 c m ) b e n e a t h f o r m a t i o n l e v e l .

4. DISC USSION

S u b - s o i l d r a i n s f o r m p a r t of a r o a d d r a i n a g e s y s t e m w h i c h h a s s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s ; the m o s t c o m m o n of w h i c h a r e to r e m o v e s u r f a c e w a t e r and p e r m i t t h e d r a i n a g e of the u p p e r l a y e r s of t h e r o a d s t r u c t u r e . C o m p a r a t i v e l y s h a l i o w l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n s w h i c h p e n e t r a t e to d e p t h s of l e s s t h a n 0 . 5 m i n t o t he r o a d s u b g r a d e c a n p e r f o r m t h e s e f u n c t i o n s p r o v i d e d s u i t a b l e g r a d i e n t s a r e p r o v i d e d f o r t h e p i p e l i n e s .

D e e p e r d r a i n s m a y be n e c e s s a r y t o l o w e r a h igh w a t e r t a b l e t o a l e v e l t h a t r e s u l t s in an a p p r e c i a b l e i n c r e a s e in t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s u b g r a d e . I t h a s b e e n s h o w n h o w e v e r t h a t d e e p d r a i n s a r e l a r g e l y i n e f f e c t i v e in b o t h l o w e r t h e w a t e r - t a b l e a n d in i n c r e a s i n g t h e s t r e n g t h in r e l a t i v e l y i m p e r m e a b l e s o i l s s u c h a s h i g h l y p l a s t i c c l a y s . D r a i n a g e c a n be u s e d e f f e c t i v e l y in t h e m o r e p e r m e a b l e s o i l s s u c h a s s a n d y c l a y s and s i l t s t o i n c r e a s e t he s t r e n g t h a n d a l s o e n a b l e f u r t h e r c o m p a c t i o n to be c a r r i e d ou t .

In f l a t a r e a s wi th h i g h w a t e r - t a b l e s , d i f f i c u l t i e s c a n a r i s e in o b t a i n i n g s u i t a b l e g r a d i e n t s f o r b o t h s u r f a c e w a t e r and s u b - s o i l d r a i n a g e , di~e t o l a c k o f o u t l e t f a c i l i t i e s . C a s e s u n d o u b t e d l y o c c U r h o w e v e r ~ v h e r e t h e s o i l c a n b e d r a i n e d . w i thou t e n g i n e e r i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d t h e s e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e l y t o o c c u r in u n d u l a t i n g o r s i d e - l o n g g r o u n d .

H i g h w a t e r - t a b l e s o f t e n o c c u r d u r i n g w i n t e r m o n t h s in u n d u l a t i n g o r s i d e - l o n g g r o u n d w h e r e a l a y e r of p e r m e a b l e s o i l o v e r l i e s i m p e r m e a b l e h a r d p a n o r c l a y , and l a t e r a l m o v e m e n t of w a t e r , i . e . s e e p a g e , i s t h e o n l y n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e . S u c h s o i l s m a y d r y s u f f i c i e n t l y d u r i n g the s u m m e r m o n t h s t o a l l o w c o m p a c t i o n p l a n t t o o p e r a t e but 1 .ongi tudinal d r a i n s m a y be r e q u i r e d t o p r e v e n t t h e w a t e r t a b l e r i s i n g t o the f o r m a t i o n l e v e l d u r i n g the w i n t e r . C u t - o f f d r a i n s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e in s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s i f t h e y p e n e t r a t e down to t he i m p e r m e a b l e l a y e r .

D i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h c o n s t r u c t i o n t r a f f i c a n d e a r t h m o v i n g m a c h i n e r y h a v e a l s o b e e n r e p o r t e d a s due t o s e e p a g e of w a t e r , o f t e n in d e p o s i t s w i t h i n t e r s p e r s e d l a y e r s of g r a v e l , s a n d a n d c l a y . D e e p d r a i n s i n s t a l l e d o n e i t h e r S ide o f c u t t i n g s in s u c h c o n d i t i o n s b e f o r e e x c a v a t i o n h a s s t a r t e d c a n e n s u r e t h a t w o r k p r o c e e d s d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r and r e s u l t in t h e s p o i l b e i n g d r y , e a s i l y m o v e d a n d s u i t a b l e f o r u s e in e m b a n k m e n t s e l s e w h e r e .

W h e r e a w a t e r t a b l e is c l o s e to t h e s u r f a c e t h e US_U_a! s_oi_u_tio_n__adopted i s t o t d e s i g n f o r t he i n c r e a s e d t h i c k n e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n b y r a i s i n g t h e r o a d o n a s h a l l o w e m b a n k m e n t . T h e u s e of the e m b a n k m e n t m e t h o d of c o n s t r u c t i o n u s u a l l y s i m p l i f i e s the d r a i n a g e of s u r f a c e w a t e r and a n y w a t e r p e n e t r a t i n g t h e r o a d s t r u c t u r e .

A r e a s wi th h i g h w a t e r t a b l e s a r e o f t e n s U b j e c t e d t o f l o o d i n g a n d h e r e a g a i n e m b a n k ~ n e n t s a r e l i k e l y to be of m o r e b e n e f i t t o t h e r o a d u s e r t h a n i n c r e a s e d d r a i n a g e .

Page 9: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

It i s d i f f i c u l t t o g e n e r a l i s e a b o u t c o s t s of d r a i n a g e and e m b a n k m e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e s e v a r y a c c o r d i n g to l o c a l i t y but it wou ld s e e m tha t e v e n w h e r e t he s o i l i s a s a n d y c l a y o r s i l t t h e r e is l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e in e c o n o m i c t e r m s b e t w e e n the c o s t s of d e e p d r a i n a g e a n d the c o s t of e x t r a s u b - b a s e t h i c k n e s s i f d e e p d r a i n s a r e no t i n s t a l l e d . T h e d e c i s i o n a s t o w h e t h e r d e e p d r a i n s s h o u l d be i n s t a l l e d o r t h e r o a d r a i s e d m u s t t h e r e f o r e r e s t wi th the d e s i g n e r w i t h h i s d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e of s i t e c o n d i t i o n s a n d l o c a l c o s t s Of m a t e r i a l s .

C i r c u m s t a n c e s m a y a r i s e w h e r e t h e r o a d c a n n o t be r a i s e d on e m b a n k m e n t a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the b e n e f i t s of d r a i n a g e m a y s h o w t h a t d e e p l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n s a r e w o r t h w h i l e r a t h e r t h a n the u s e of e x c a v a t i o n p l a n t and p u m p s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m o r e e x p e n s i v e a n d s t r o n g e r r o a d s u b - b a s e m a t e r i a l wh ich wi l l have t o be u s e d if t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s no t p r e v e n t e d f r o m r i s i n g . On e x i s t i n g r o a d s , c o n s i d e r a t i o n h a s s o m e t i m e s t o be g i v e n t o the p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t s w h i c h m a y be d e r i v e d f r o m l o w e r i n g t h e w a t e r t a b l e b y i m p r o v i n g the d r a i n a g e . In b o t h c a s e s t h e a p p r o a c h o u t l i n e d i n t h i s p a p e r m a y p r o v e u s e f u l in d e c i d i n g w h e t h e r d r a i n a g e is l i k e l y t o be o f b e n e f i t a n d h e n c e a s s i s t in t he m a k i n g of r a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s .

5. C O N C L U S I O N S

S h a l l o w l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n s a r e a d e q u a t e t o d r a i n the r o a d s t r u c t u r e and r e m o v e s u r f a c e w a t e r r u n - o f f . D e e p e r d r a i n s m a y be u s e d t o l o w e r the w a t e r t a b l e a n d in p e r m e a b l e s o i l s - w i t h a P l a s t i c i t y I n d e x of l e s s t h a n 30 p e r c e n t , d e e p d r a i n s c a n be e f f e c t i v e in l o w e r i n g t he w a t e r t a b l e r a p i d l y . T h u s t h e y c a n be of b e n e f i t d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a s w e l l a s i n c r e a s i n g the s t r e n g t h of the s u b g r a d e . In m o s t c a s e s h o w e v e r , w h e r e r o a d s a r e t o be c o n s t r u c t e d in a r e a s of h i g h w a t e r t a b l e the m o s t p r a c t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c s o l u t i o n is l i k e l y t o be t o r a i s e t h e r o a d on a s h a l l o w e m b a n k m e n t .

T h e m a j o r u s e f o r d e e p d r a i n s i s t o cu t of f s e e p a g e w a t e r in s l o p i n g g r o u n d w h e r e t he s o i l c o n s i s t s of i n t e r s p e r s e d p e r m e a b l e and i m p e r m e a b l e l a y e r s .

F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h is r e q u i r e d on t h e d r a i n a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s u b g r a d e s and t he l a y e r s o f t he r o a d s t r u c t u r e , and on m e t h o d s f o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the v a r i o u s d r a i n a g e s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h a r i s e on r o a d s .

6. R E F E R E N C E S

1. C R A M , I . A . D e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e m a t e r i a l s a n d t e c h n i q u e s of r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n . P u b l i c W o r k s a n d M u n i c i p a l S e r v i c e s C o n g r e s s , Nov . 1964.

2. N A T I O N A L E C O N O M I C D E V E L O P M E N T O F F I C E . E f f i c i e n c y in R o a d C o n s t r u c t i o n . ' L o n d o n 1966 (H: M. S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e ) .

3. L U T H I N , J . N. D r a i n a g e E n g i n e e r i n g . 1965 ( John W i l e y & Sons I n c . , N e w Y o r k ) .

4. M c C L E L L A N D , B. L a r g e s c a l e m o d e l s t u d i e s of h i g h w a y s u b d r a i n a g e . P r o c . H . R . B . V o l . 23 , 1943.

5. B A R B E R , E . S. a n d C. L . S A W Y E R . H i g h w a y s u b d r a i n a g e . P r o c . H . R . B . V o l . 31, 1952 .

6. G R E E N , R . D. a n d G. P . A S K E W . O b s e r v a t i o n s on t he b i o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of m a c r o p o r e s in s o i l s of R o m n e y M a r s h . J . Soi l Sc i . No. 16 M A R . 1965.

Page 10: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

7.

8.

9.

10.

R O A D R E S E A R C H L A B O R A T O R Y . A gu ide t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n o f f l e x i b l e and r i g i d p a v e m e n t f o r new r o a d s . R o a d N o t e No . 29, 2nd E d i t i o n , L o n d o n , 1965 (H. M. S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e ) .

B L A C K , W. P . M. A m e t h o d of e s t i m a t i n g t h e C a l i f o r n i a B e a r i n g R a t i o of c o h e s i v e s o i l s f r o m p l a s t i c i t y d a t a . G e o t e c h n i q u e . D e c . ; , 1962.

B L A C K , W. P . M. D: C R O N E Y a n d J . C. J A C O B S . F i e l d s t u d i e s of t he m o v e m e n t of s o i l m o i s t u r e . D e p a r t m e n t of S c i e n t i f i c a n d I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a r c h , R o a d R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y T e c h n i c a l P a p e r No . 41 , L o n d o n , 1958 (H. M . S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e ).

RUSSAM, K. T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of m o i s t u r e in s o i l s a t o v e r s e a s a i r f i e l d s . D e p a r t m e n t of S c i e n t i f i c a n d I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a r c h , R o a d R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y T e c h n i c a l P a p e r No. 58, L o n d o n , 1962 {H. M. S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e ) .

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7. A p p e n d i x

S O I L S U C T I O N A N D T H E L E V E L OF T H E W A T E R T A B L E

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an i m p e r v i o u s p a v e m e n t p r e v e n t s m o i s t u r e c h a n g e s in the s u b g r a d e due t o r a i n f a l l a n d e v a p o r a t i o n and th i s r e s u l t s in a f a i r l y s t a b l e m o i s t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y a w a y f r o m the p a v e m e n t e d g e . It has b e e n s h o w n bo th in t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m 9 and in t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s l 0 t h a t the s u b g r a d e m o i s t u r e u n d e r t he p a v e m e n t t e n d s t o w a r d e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e when t h i s c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e .

U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e , u , a t a n y po in t in the s o i l x u n i t s a b o v e t he w a t e r t a b l e , i s l e s s t h a n a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e by the h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d by x u n i t s of w a t e r . I f a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e is t a k e n a s t he r e f e r e n c e l e v e l t h e n the s u c t i o n of the s o i l f r e e f r o m s t r e s s e s due t o t h e o v e r b u r d e n and r o a d s t r u c t u r e is g i v e n by the r e l a t i o n

S = a P - u w h e r e P is t h e v e r t i c a l p r e s s u r e due to the o v e r b u r d e n e t c . on t h e s o i l " in s i t u " , a n d a i s t he f r a c t i o n of t h i s p r e s s u r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o the s o i l w a t e r .

a c a n be m e a s u r e d in t he l a b o r a t o r y w h e r e it m a y be found to v a r y s l i g h t l y wi th m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t bu t it i s m a i n l y d e p e n d e n t on the p l a s t i c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s o i l a n d c a n be e s t i m a t e d a s f o l l o w s :

P l a s t i c i t y I n d e x < 5 ; a = 0

P l a s t i c i t y I n d e x > 40 ; a = 1

5 ~< P l a s t i c i t y I n d e x .< 40 ; a = 0 . 0 2 7 P . I . - 0 . 1 2

U n d e r e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n t h e r e f o r e t he s u c t i o n at a n y d e p t h in the s o i l u n d e r a r o a d p a v e m e n t c a n be e a s i l y c a l c u l a t e d f r o m a k n o w l e d g e of the P p l a s t i c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o i l , t h e d e n s i t y of the s o i l and p a v e m e n t , and t h e p o s i t i o n of the w a t e r t a b l e .

E X A M P L E S O F T H E C A L C U L A T I O N OF T H E E F F E C T OF D R A I N A G E ON P A V E M E N T D E S I G N

E x a m p l e 1.

A r o a d p a v e m e n t of a v e r a g e b u l k d e n s i t y 2 .16 g / c m 3 c o n s i s t s of 5 c m t h i c k n e s s o f b i t u m i n o u s s u r f a c i n g , 15 c m t h i c k n e s s of b a s e a n d 28 c m t h i c k n e s s of s u b - b a s e . T h e s u b g r a d e is a s i l t y c l a y of p l a s t i c i t y index 25 p e r c e n t . E s t i m a t e t h e d e p t h t o w h i c h t he w a t e r t a b l e s h o u l d be l o w e r e d t o e n a b l e the r o a d to c a r r y up t o 250 c o m m e r c i a l v e h i c l e s p e r d a y .

T h e d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e r o a d a r e g i v e n by D e s i g n C h a r t No. 4 of R o a d N o t e 29 and s h o w t h a t t h e r o a d s t r u c t u r e wil l be a d e q u a t e if the s u b g r a d e has a C B R v a l u e of 3 . 2 .

T h e s u c t i o n s , a t w h i c h a s i l t y c l a y o f P . I . 25 ha s a C B R va lue of 3 . 2 i s , f r o m F i g . 2 , 117 c m of w a t e r .

f o r t h e s o i l = 0 . 0 2 7 x 25 - 0 . 1 2 = - . 5 5

T h e o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e P i s due t o the p a v e m e n t on ly and

Page 12: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

P = 104 g / c m 2, e q u i v a l e n t t o 104 c m of w a t e r . • . . . .

S i n c e s = a P u

117 = - . 5 5 x 104 u

u = - 60 c m Of w a t e r

T h u s t h e w a t e r t a b l e s h o u l d be l o w e r e d t o a d e p t h of 60 c m b e l o w t h e t o p of t he s u b g r a d e .

E x a m p l e 2.

C a l c u l a t e t h e r e d u c t i o n in s u b - b a s e t h i c k n e s s r e q u i r e d f o r a r o a d p a v e m e n t d e s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e m a x i m u m t h i c k n e s s e s g i v e n i n D e s i g n C h a r t 2 of R o a d N o t e 29 i f t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s l o w e r e d 60 c m f r o m i t s p r e s e n t l e v e l a t t h e t o p o f t h e f o r m a t i o n . T h e s o i l i s a s i l t y c l a y of p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x 25 p e r c e n t a n d t h e b u l k d e n s i t y of t he p a v e m e n t c a n be t a k e n a s 2 . 2 0 g / c m 3.

T h e C B R of t h e s u b g r a d e w i l l b e l e s s t h a n 30 s o i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e t h e s u b - b a s e t h i c k n e s s i s t a k e n a s 15 c m .

T h e t o t a l t h i c k n e s s of p a v e m e n t i s t h u s 45 c m a n d

= 99 g / c m 2, e q u i v a l e n t t o 99 c m of w a t e r

= 0 . 5 5 a s b e f o r e

P 1

0 C

and u =

Thus s I

0

= P1 u I = 0 . 5 5 x 99 = 54 c m o f w a t e r

A t a s u c t i o n of 54 c m of w a t e r t h e C B R v a l u e of t h e s o i l i s 1 . 9 g i v i n g a s u b - b a s e r e q u i r e m e n t of 48 c m a s t h e f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t e e s t i m a t e .

R e c a l c u l a t i n g , t h e n e w o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e P 2 , d u e t o 78 c m o f p a v e m e n t i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 172 c m of w a t e r a n d t h e n e w s u c t i o n s 2 = 0 . 5 5 x 172 = 95 c m o f w a t e r . T h e r e v i s e d e s t i m a t e f o r t h e C B R v a l u e of t h e s u b g r a d e i s 2 . 7 n e c e s s i t a t i n g 27 c m of s u b - b a s e .

A f i n a l r e p e a t of t he p r o c e s s g i v e s t h e s u b - b a s e r e q u i r e m e n t a s 40 c m w h e n t he w a t e r t a b l e i s i n t he s u r f a c e of t h e f o u n d a t i o n .

W h e n t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s l o w e r e d t o a d e p t h o f 60 c m t h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e a t t h e t o p of t h e s u b g r a d e i s - 60 c m of w a t e r .

R e p e a t i n g t h e s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n a s a b o v e , t a k i n g t h e i n i t i a l s u b - b a s e t h i c k n e s s a s 40 c m a n d P t h e r e f o r e a s 154 g ] c m 2.

u

( c m w a t e r

1s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n - 60

2nd a p p r o x i m a t i o n - 60

3 r d a p p r o x i m a t i o n - 60

P ) ( c m w a t e r )

85

67

73

S ( c m w a t e r )

145

127

133

C B R ( p e r c e n t )

3.9

3.4

3.6

S u b - b a s e (cm)

25

30

2 7 . 5

New P

(cm water)

121

132

T h u s t h e e f f e c t of t he d r a i n a g e i s t o r e d u c e t h e s u b - b a s e r e q u i r e m e n t f r o m 40 c m

t o 2 7 . 5 c m .

9 ¸

Page 13: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

I f i t c a n be a s s u m e d t h a t t he s o i l c a n be c o m p a c t e d t h e n R o a d Note 29 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s u b g r a d e s t r e n g t h w i l l be C B R 3 . 5 w h e n t h e w a t e r t a b l e r i s e s c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e a n d C B R 5 . 5 i f t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s k e p t a t a d e p t h of 60 c m . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g t h i c k n e s s of s u b - b a s e a r e 30 c m a n d 15 c m i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t he e f f e c t of d r a i n a g e in r e d u c i n g t h e s u b - b a s e r e q u i r e m e n t i s s i m i l a r f o r b o t h c o m p a c t e d a n d n a t u r a l s o i l s of t h i s t y p e .

10

Printed by Direct Design Products, Christchurch, Hants. Dd. 398185 11/67

Page 14: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

0

0

O :

!

. ~ .

C

E 0 ~

t -

E

0

~ o ~

~1~

0 0 0

o 6 o o

" ~ o

, - - . _ 0 0

I I II I I I I

. a , .

W

3

W

Z

U J

0

Z LLJ : [

o ~

11

Page 15: SUB-SOIL DRAINAGE AND THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS · Drainage increases the strength of soil by reducing the soil moisture content. The California Bearing Ratio (C. B. R.) of a

12

10

9

8

7

6

5

~E (.3

2 .

S

I I / I I

L T

S A N D Y

C L A Y /

S I L T Y J C L A Y

1 ! I I I I 0 60 120 180 2/,0 300

Suct ion (cm of water)

HEAVY C L A Y

~,I 80

Fig.2. RELATIONS BETWEEN C.B.R. VALUE ANO SUCTION FOR SOILS OF VARIOUS PLASTICITIES

360