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Introduction to Photography

Study Material for Students

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: Introduction to Photography

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CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN MEDIA WORLD

Mass communication and Journalism is institutionalized and source specific.It functions through well-organized professionals and has an ever increasinginterlace. Mass media has a global availability and it has converted the wholeworld in to a global village. A qualified journalism professional can take up ajob of educating, entertaining, informing, persuading, interpreting, andguiding. Working in print media offers the opportunities to be a newsreporter, news presenter, an editor, a feature writer, a photojournalist, etc.Electronic media offers great opportunities of being a news reporter, newseditor, newsreader, programme host, interviewer, cameraman, producer,director, etc.

Other titles of Mass Communication and Journalism professionals are scriptwriter, production assistant, technical director, floor manager, lightingdirector, scenic director, coordinator, creative director, advertiser, mediaplanner, media consultant, public relation officer, counselor, front officeexecutive, event manager and others.





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INTRODUCTION

The book will introduce the student to the techniques of photography. The bookdeals with the basic steps in photography. Students will also learn the differenttypes of photography. The book also focuses of the various parts of a photographiccamera and the various tools of photography. Students will learn the art of taking agood picture.

The book also has introduction to photojournalism and the basic steps of filmdevelopment in photography.





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INDEX

402 Introduction to Photography

I. INTRODUCTION 5-33

1.1 Photography;1.2 Photographic Camera & Types of camera1.3 Camera; Parts of a Camera

1.3.1 Shutter1.4 Kinds of Photography,

1.4.1 Infrared Photography1.4.2 Ultraviolet Photography1.4.3. High-speed Photography1.4.4. Aerial Photography1.4.5 Digital Photography1.4.6. The Invention of Photography1.4.7. The Daguerreotype1.4.8. The Calotype1.4.9. The Collodion Process1.4.10. The Impact of Early Photography1.4.11. Further Developments

1.5 History & Development of Photography,1.6 Tools of Photography,

1.6.1. Photography Styles

UNIT 2. PHOTOJOURNALISM 33-57

2.1. Role of Photojournalism2.2. Importance of Photojournalism2.3. Elements of Photography2.4. Point of Interest2.5. Rule of Thirds2.6. Role of Visualizations2.7. Photographer’s jargon2.8. Photographic equipment: Choice of Cameras2.9. The Role Film and the Cut Film2.10. Compositions2.11. Cameras and Photo:

2.11.1. Shutter2.11.2 Film Format2.11.3 Basics of Film Speed2.11.4 Processing your Photo

2.12. Photo editing





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UNIT 3. TYPES OF PHOTOS 57-77

3.1. Portrait Photography3.2. Still Photography3.3. Wildlife Photography3.4. Disaster Photography3.5. Sports Photography3.6. Political Photography3.7. Weather & Environment Photography3.8. War Photography3.9. Advertising Photography3.10. Landscape Photography3.11. Social Photography3.12. News Photography

UNIT 4. NEWS VALUES FOR PICTURES: 77-95

4.1. PHOTO ESSAY5.1 Photo Features5.2 Picture Magazines5.4 Color Photography5.5 Impact Of Technology5.6. Photography Lighting Techniques5.7. Film Development5.8. Photo Paper5.9. Chemicals And Equipment

Summery 95Questions for practice 99Suggested Readings 100





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SYLLABUS


Photography;Meaning,Definition & History of Photography,Tools of Photography,Camera; Parts of a Camera Shutter, Apertures, Lens, Films,Types of Camera,Quality of Photograph,Role of Visualizations,Shots,Roles of Lightings,How to take a good picture,Role of Subject,Editing & Development of Photograph.Manual & ComputerizedComposition of Photograph,Photo Journalism, its Role & Importance





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INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY

OBJECTIVES

to introduce the student to the techniques of photography to deal with the basic steps in photography learn the different types of photography to know the various parts of a photographic camera and the various tools of

photography to learn the art of taking a good picture. to introduce the students to photojournalism and the basic steps of film

development in photography

INTRODUCTION

Photography is the process of forming stable or permanent visible imagesdirectly or indirectly by the action of light or other forms of radiation onsensitive surfaces. Traditional photography uses the action of light to causechanges in a film of silver halide crystals in which development converts exposedsilver halide to non -sensitive) metallic silver. Following exposure in a camera orother device, the film or plate is developed, fixed in a solution that dissolves theundeveloped silver halide, washed to remove the soluble salts, and dried. Printingfrom the original, if required, is done by contact or optical projection onto a secondemulsion-coated material, and a similar sequence of processing steps is followed.Digital photography captures images directly with an electronic photo sensor.

1.1. Photography is the process of making pictures by means of capturing lighton a light-sensitive medium, such as a sensor or film. Light patterns reflected oremitted from objects are recorded onto a sensitive medium or storage chip througha timed exposure. The most common process is done through mechanical,chemical or digital devices known as cameras.





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The word comes from the Greek words phos "light", and graphis "stylus","paintbrush" or "representation by means of lines" or "drawing", togethermeaning "drawing with light." Traditionally the product of photography has beencalled a photograph. The term photo is an abbreviation; many people also call thempictures. In digital photography, the term image has begun to replace photographthe term image is traditional in geometric optics.

1.2. Photographic Cameras

The camera is the image-formingdevice, and photographic film isthe recording medium. A cameraworks somewhat like the humaneye, capturing reflected lightfrom objects and through acamera lens and focusing thoselight rays into an image.Traditionally cameras recordedthe image onto film. Morerecently through thedevelopment of computer chips,many cameras capture theirimages on a computer chip. Thecomputer chip then allows theconversion of the image todigital data. Regardless of

whether the photography is film or digital-based, the images can be madepermanent and seen by an unlimited number of people.

Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light recording materialusually film or a charge-coupled device; a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor may also be used to the required amount of light. After processing,this produces an image.

Types of Camera

SLR Single Lens Reflex : The viewfinder sees the same image as the mainlens, i.e. what you see is what you get. SLRs also allow you to changelenses for different purposes. This is a hugely popular type of camera, prettymuch the standard for enthusiasts and professionals.




ntroduction to Photography

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Viewfinder or range f inder): In this type of camera the viewfinder isseparate to the lens. This is common in cheap cameras, although someprofessional cameras also use this configuration. The main problem with aseparate viewfinder is that the image you see may not be quite the same asthe image that gets recorded. This limitation is overcome in professionalcameras by using viewfinders that compensate for the different positions.Viewfinder cameras do have some advantages; for example, lower noise andhigher light levels to the viewfinder.

Twin reflex: The camera has two lenses — one for the photograph and onefor the viewfinder. This type of camera has certain advantages in someprofessional situations.

View: A flexible bellows joins two standards — one with the lens and theother with the viewfinder or film. This allows for unusual types ofcomposition; for example, distorting the shape of the image by skewing thefilm plane.

Pinhole: A very simple camera without a lens.

The controls usually include but are not limited to the following:

Focus of the lens

Aperture of the lens – adjustment of the iris, measured as f-number, whichcontrols the amount of light entering the lens. Aperture also has an effect onfocus and depth of field, namely, the smaller the opening aperture), the lesslight but the greater the depth of field--that is, the greater the range withinwhich objects appear to be sharply focused.

Shutter speed – adjustment of the speed often expressed either as fractionsof seconds or as an angle, with mechanical shutters of the shutter to controlthe amount of time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light foreach exposure. Shutter speed may be used to control the amount of lightstriking the image plane; 'faster' shutter speeds that is, those of shorterduration decrease both the amount of light and the amount of imageblurring from subject motion or camera motion.

White balance – on digital cameras, electronic compensation for the colortemperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring thatwhite light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that thecolors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras,this function is served by the operator's choice of film stock. In addition tousing white balance to register natural coloration of the image,





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photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for examplewhite balancing to a blue object in order to obtain a warm color temperature.

Metering – measurement of exposure at a midtone so that highlights andshadows are exposed according to the photographer's wishes. Many moderncameras feature this ability, though it is traditionally accomplished with theuse of a separate light metering device.

ISO speed – traditionally used to set the film speed of the selected film onfilm cameras, ISO speeds are employed on modern digital cameras as anindication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to controlthe automatic exposure system. A correct combination of ISO speed,aperture, and shutter speed leads to an image that is neither too dark nor toolight.

Auto-focus point – on some cameras, the selection of a point in the imagingframe upon which the auto-focus system will attempt to focus. Many SLRsingle Lens Reflex cameras feature multiple auto-focus points in theviewfinder.

Many other elements of the imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect onthe quality and/or aesthetic effect of a given photograph; among them are:

Focal length and type of lens telephoto, macro, wide angle, or zoom Filters or scrims placed between the subject and the light recording

material, either in front of or behind the lens Inherent sensitivity of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths. The nature of the light recording material, for example its resolution as

measured in pixels or grains of silver halide.

Camera controls are inter-related, the total amount of light reaching the film planethe "exposure" changes with the du ration of exposure, aperture of the lens, andfocal length of the lens which changes as the lens is zoomed. Changing any ofthese controls alters the exposure. Many cameras may be set to adjust most or allof these controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful in manysituations, and in most situations to occasional photographers.

The duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even incameras that don't have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions ofa second. Aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop derived from focal ratio,which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture.If the f-number is decreased by a factor of , the aperture diameter is increased by

a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be





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found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up "onestop" doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and stopping down one stophalves the amount of light.

Exposures can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed andaperture. For example, f/8 at 1/125th of a second and f/4 at 1/500th of a secondyield the same amount of light. The chosen combination has an impact on the finalresult. In addition to the subject or camera movement that might vary depending onthe shutter speed, the aperture and focal length of the lens determine the depth offield, which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be in focus. Forexample, using a long lens and a large aperture f/2.8, for example), a subject'seyes might be in sharp focus, but not the tip of the nose. With a smaller aperturef/22, or a shorter lens, both the subject's eyes and nose can be in focus. With verysmall apertures, such as pinholes, a wide range of distance can be brought intofocus.

Image capture is only part of the image forming process. Regardless of material,some process must be employed to render the latent image captured by the camerainto the final photographic work. This process consists of two steps,development, and printing.

During the printing process, modifications can be made to the print by severalcontrols. Many of these controls are similar to controls during image capture, whilesome are exclusive to the printing process. Most controls have equivalent digitalconcepts, but some create different effects. For example, dodging and burningcontrols are different between digital and film processes. Other printingmodifications include:

Chemicals and process used during film development Duration of exposure — equivalent to shutter speed Printing aperture — equivalent to aperture, but has no effect on depth of

field Contrast Dodging — reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in a lighter

areas Burning — increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas Paper quality — glossy, matte, etc

1.3. PARTS OF CAMERA





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Despite advances in technology, the camera hasn't changed a whole lot, as far asmechanics go. A camera is essentially a light-tight box with a hole in it. Everythingelse is an elaboration. Here we’ll look in general how the box is arranged andwhere the elaborations usually are, for the 35mm SLR.The bodyThe body is the box, to which everything else is attached. Can be made from metal,plastic, space-age composite, wood, cardboard, or just about anything opaque. Aswell as the attaching point, the body holds the film. In the case of a view camera,the body is simply a frame which holds a film holder on one side and a bellows, orextendable tube on the other, which is attached to a separate lens-holding frame.

ViewfinderThe viewfinder is what you look through to compose the picture. Most oftenintegral to the body, pro cameras have viewfinders that can be switched. Theviewfinder contains a lens, through which you look, a mirror, and a groundglass view screen, which again, in pro cameras, can be replaced or swapped fordifferent types. Most viewfinders only show some 85-90% of the scene, so watchyour edges, and get closer

1.3.1. Shutter releaseUsually located on the right front as you hold the camera), the shutter release isthe button you push to, hey, release the shutter. The button may be threaded toaccept a cable release, which you attach as an extension, and use when you want toeliminate vibration. Mounted with the shutter release, at least on those old-timeycameras, is the film advance lever. Many newer cameras with auto winders built-indon't have a film advance lever.

Shutter speed dialUsually located on the right front as you hold the camera), closer to theviewfinder. Many newer, electronic cameras don't have this dial, and you set theshutter speed using buttons or different dial, usually located near the release onthe body. The shutter speed dial will have a series of numbers, usually from 8 or 4to 1000 or 2000. These are shutter speeds, and are parts of a second. Also, you maysee A or P for automatic or program, T for time, which opens the shutter when youpress the release, and leaves it open until you press it again. B is the bulb setting,which keeps the shutter open for as long as you keep the release held down. Therewill also be a flash-sync speed, which is the speed setting for your camera whenusing a strobe.

Rewind/ASA dial





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This, at least on cameras without a built-in winder, is a kind of multi-functionknob. The upper part has a small flip-out crank, which is used in conjunction witha release button on the bottom of the body to rewind the film back into thecanister. Pull the crank up, and it releases the camera back, to load and unload film.The bottom part is the ASA, or film speed, setting. Pulling up on the outer ringallows you to rotate a dial to change the ASA setting. Cameras that do not haveeither of these will have a rewind switch, or rewind the film automatically whenyou reach the end of a roll. There will be a lever or release for the back, usually onthe side of the body. The ASA may be set automatically reading the DX codefrom the film canister, with an override available through the onboard computer.

Lens releaseA button or lever which unlocks the lens for removal, the lens release is one of thefew controls on the front of the camera which hasn't been replaced by a selection inan LED menu. Work the release and twist the lens to remove, with bayonet-mountlenses. To replace the lens, line up the slots, or two dots one on the lens and oneon the body and twist until th e lens clicks into place. Do not force the lens! If it islined up properly, it should go right on.

OthersWhile the above controls/parts are pretty much standard, there are more that areless so. The first is a depth of field preview. This is a button or lever, which whenmanipulated, will stop down the lens to the aperture setting selected, allowing youto look through the viewfinder and actually see the depth of field. An excellentthing, with one problem: many 35mm SLRs have viewfinders that are too smalland dim to see anything once you've stopped down past about ƒ/8. Another controlis a self-timer, a button or switch which will release the shutter after a giveninterval, so that you can be in those wonderful group pix with everyone else.Usually there is a socket for a sync cord a small double -circle), which is used toattach the camera to a strobe unit. There may be a manual shutter release, for usewhen batteries are well and truly gone.

Cameras that do not have auto-advance and rewind usually have a small button onthe bottom of the body which must be depressed when rewinding the film. Thisbutton disengages the film advance drive mechanism. If you don’t hold this downand insist in rewinding the film, you will do one of several bad things: break therewind lever/handle, rip the film, and/or strip the gearing

The basic idea behind a photographic camera has not changed much since itsinvention, although new advancements such as digital technology have changed





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the art form. Knowing the mechanism behind a camera gives the photographer abetter understanding of the craft of photography.

Casing and Viewfinder: The camera casing is the solid outer shell that providesprotection for the inner parts. The casing also helps keep light out of the camera,preventing light from exposing the film. The viewfinder is used by the cameraoperator to aim and focus the image and adjust the settings.Lens and Mirror: The lens allows light to enter the camera and focuses the lighton the film. It also allows light to reflect off the mirror, allowing the operator tosee the image to be photographed in the viewfinder. An image that is not focusedin the viewfinder will appear blurry when printed. The mirror is only in use whenthe shutter is closed. It allows the operator to see the image in the viewfinder toprepare the image to be photographed. When the shutter is opened, the mirrormoves up, allowing light to enter the camera and exposing the film to the lightedimage.Prism: The prism refracts light, allowing the operator to see the image in theviewfinder when the shutter is closed.Aperture and Shutter Speed Dial: The opening in the lens that controls theamount of light allowed into the camera and the length of time the film is exposedto light is called the aperture. The shutter speed dial is set by the camera operatorand regulates how long the aperture stays open. The slower the shutter speed, themore light the aperture allows into the camera; a slow shutter speed would be setaround 60.F-Stop Ring and ASA Dial: The F-Stop ring has settings from 2 to 22, with 2being the largest and 22 the smallest. These settings are for the size of the apertureopening when the picture is taken; the smaller the setting, the less light is allowedinto the camera to expose the film. The ASA dial is set according to the speed ofthe film used in the camera. Faster film is used for fast-moving action and lowlight levels; a film with a setting of 200 or above is classified as fast.Film Advance Lever, Rewind Crank and Frame Advance Box: The filmadvance lever is used to advance the film through the camera. The frame advancebox displays the number of pictures taken and helps the operator judge how manypictures are left on a roll of film. The rewind crank is used when a roll of film isfinished and is used to rewind the exposed film back into the canister.

Uses of Photography

Photography is practiced on a professional level for portraiture and for variouscommercial and industrial applications, including the preparation of photographsfor advertising, illustration, display, and record-keeping. Press photography is for





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newspaper and magazine illustrations of topical events and objects. Photography isused at several levels in the graphic arts to convert original photographs or otherillustrations into printing plates for high-quality reproduction in quantity. Industrialphotography includes the generation and reproduction of engineering drawings,high-speed photography, and many other forms of technical photography, whichcan aid in the development, design, and manufacture of various products. Aerialphotography is used for military investigation and mapping, civilian mapping,urban and highway planning, and surveys of material resources. Biomedicalphotography is used to reveal or record biological structures, often of significancein medical research, diagnosis, or treatment. Photography is widely applied topreparing projection slides and other displays for teaching through visualeducation.

Photography is one of the most important tools in scientific and technical fields. Itextends the range of vision, allowing records to be made of things or events whichare difficult or impossible to see because they are too faint, too brief, too small, ortoo distant, or associated with radiation to which the eye is insensitive. Technicalphotographs can be studied at leisure, measured, and stored for reference orsecurity. The acquisition and interpretation of images in scientific and technicalphotography usually requires direct participation by the scientist or skilledtechnicians.

1.4. KINDS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Infrared Photography

Emulsions made with special sensitizing dyes can respond to radiation atwavelengths up to 1200 nanometers, though the most common infrared filmsexhibit little sensitivity beyond 900 nm. One specialized color film incorporates alayer sensitive in the 700–900-nm region and is developed to false colors to showinfrared-reflecting subjects as bright red.





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Photographs can thus be made of subjects, which radiate in the near-infrared, suchas stars, certain lasers and light-emitting diodes, and hot objects with surfacetemperatures greater than 500°F 260°C). Infrared films are more commonly usedto photograph subjects, which selectively transmit or reflect near-infraredradiation, especially in a manner different from visible radiation. Infraredphotographs taken from long distances or high altitudes usually show improvedclarity of detail because atmospheric scatter haze is diminished with increasingwavelength and because the contrast of ground objects may be higher as a result oftheir different reflectance in the near-infrared. Grass and foliage appear whitebecause chlorophyll is transparent in the near-infrared, while water is renderedblack because it is an efficient absorber of infrared radiation.

Ultraviolet Photography

Two distinct classes of photography rely on ultraviolet radiation. In the first, therecording material is exposed directly with ultraviolet radiation emitted, reflected,or transmitted by the subject; in the other, exposure is made solely with visibleradiation resulting from the fluorescence of certain materials when irradiated in theultraviolet. In the direct case, the wavelength region is usually restricted by thecamera lens and filtration to 350–400 nm, which is readily detected with





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conventional black-and-white films. Ultraviolet photography is accomplished atshorter wavelengths in spectrographs and cameras fitted with ultraviolet-transmitting or reflecting optics, usually with specialized films. In ultraviolet-fluorescence photography, ultraviolet radiation is blocked from the film byfiltration over the camera lens and the fluorescing subject is recorded readily withconventional color or panchromatic films. Both forms of ultraviolet photographyare used in close-up photography and photomicrography by mineralogists,museums, art galleries, and forensic photographers.

High-speed Photography

Photography at exposure durations shorter than those possible with conventionalshutters or at frequencies frame rates greater than those achievable with motionpicture cameras with intermittent film movements is useful in a wide range oftechnical applications.





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Aerial Photography

The art of aerial photography, in which photographs of the Earth's surface aremade with specialized roll-film cameras carried aloft on balloons, airplanes, andspacecraft, is an important segment of a broader generic technology, remotesensing. The film is often replaced with an electronic sensor, the sensor systemmay be mounted on an aircraft or spacecraft, and the subject may be the surface ofa distant planet instead of Earth. Remote sensing is used to gather militaryintelligence; to provide most of the information for plotting maps; for evaluatingnatural resources minerals, petroleum, soils, crops, and water and naturaldisasters; and for planning cities, highways, dams, pipelines, and airfields. Aerialphotography normally provides higher ground resolution and geometric accuracythan the imagery obtained with electronic sensors, especially when covering smallareas, so it continues as the foundation for mapmaking, urban planning, and someother applications.

Digital Photography

The process of electronic acquisition, the equivalent of taking a photograph, isoften referred to as image capture.





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Light intensity is detected in digital camera by a photo sensor. This is normally acharge-coupled device CCD, although complementary metal oxide siliconCMOS) devices are beginning to appear in some systems.

When photons strike the sensor, they give up energy. This causes electrons to beemitted, turning the energy of the photons into electrical energy. The number ofelectrons that are emitted can be measured to determine how many photons struckthe capture element, and from this the scanner can generate a value for the intensityof light arriving from the point on the original being analyzed.

The aim of the digitization stage is to capture all the information from an originalthat will be needed in the reproduction and convert it into an array of binarynumbers that a computer can process. The human visual system actively seeks cuesthat will give it information about the objects within the visual field, and areproduction of an image that contains a large amount of detail is almost alwayspreferred to one in which some of the detail has been lost.

Like conventional cameras, digital cameras come in compact, single-lens reflex,and large-format varieties. Low-resolution compacts are useful for producingclassified advertisements and tend to have relatively simple optics, image-sensingelectronics, and controlling software. Digital cameras are often based on existingsingle-lens reflex camera designs with the addition of CCD backs and storagesubsystems. The capture resolution of these cameras is ideal for news photographyand other applications with similar quality requirements.

The Invention of Photography

The necessary first breakthrough in photography was in a different, not eye-centered area—that of making permanent photographic images. Employing datafrom the researches of Johann Heinrich Schulze—who, in 1727, discovered thatsilver nitrate darkened upon exposure to light—Thomas Wedgwood and SirHumphry Davy, early in the 19th cent., created what we now call photograms.These were made by placing assorted objects on paper soaked in silver nitrate andexposing them to sunlight. Those areas of the paper covered by the objectsremained white; the rest blackened after exposure to the light.





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Born in 1765 in France, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce enjoyed a comfortable middle-class upbringing.After pursuing early careers in teaching and the military, he returned to his birthplace in 1801 tosettle on and administer his family estate. Joining with his brother, Claude, in several experimentsand inventions, he adopted the mantle of a scientifically-minded gentleman. As early as 1793 thebrothers had discussed the possibility of utilizing light-sensitive compounds to reproduce imagery.Joseph's earliest experiments in this direction appear to have begun in 1816, but it was not until1824 that he had some degree of success with permanent photographs from nature. This slowprogress is accounted for by the fact that photography was not his sole, or even his main, interest;the invention on which the brothers expended most of their efforts, genius, and ultimately theirentire family fortune, was a combustion engine called the "Pyreolophore" for propelling boats.Patented in 1807, this ingenious and surprisingly early combustion engine did actually propel amodel boat on the rivers Saône and Seine. The next twenty years were spent in improving andendeavoring to exploit the engine, the latter involving Claude's eventual move to England.When the craze for the newly invented art of lithography swept France in 1813, it naturallyattracted Joseph's attention. Unable to draw well, he placed engravings, made transparent, onstones coated with light-sensitive varnish of his own composition. Thus lithography led to whatNiépce later termed Heliography, and subsequently to the first permanent photography fromnature, produced on pewter around 1826.In September 1827, Joseph traveled to Kew near London to visit his brother Claude, who laydangerously ill. While there, he was introduced to the noted botanist, Francis Bauer, FRS, whoexamined the specimens Niépce had brought with him and immediately recognized the importanceof his discovery. Bauer advised Joseph to write a memoir and provided him with introductions topresent the paper and show the specimens to the Royal Society on December 8th. Thesespecimens—which were all referred to by Niépce as "Les premiers resultats obtenus spontanementpar l'action de la lumiere"—were returned to him together with the memoir, for the Royal Societyfelt unable to take cognizance of an invention for which the inventor was unwilling to disclose thedetails. Joseph left England shortly afterwards. Before his departure he presented his handwrittenmemoir and his heliograph specimens including the First Photograph to Francis Bauer. Thebotanist dutifully inscribed the gifts, labeled them 1827 the year of their presentation to him, andset them aside. Within two weeks of his return to France, Joseph would learn of his brotherClaude's death.Upon his return Joseph continued his experiments. Courted by Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre,the painter, and entrepreneur, Niépce eventually formed a ten-year partnership with him in 1829.He continued to experiment with heliography, dreaming of eventual recognition and economicsuccess, until his death in 1833. In 1839 Daguerre focused the world's attention upon his owninvention, the daguerreotype, and the pioneering work of Joseph Nicéphore Niépce was largelyoverwhelmed and easily ignored. It would take the combination of Niépce's kind gift to Bauer, thecare which Bauer gave to the precious artifacts, and Helmut Gernsheim's persistence and insight,to restore Joseph Nicéphore Niépce to his rightful position as the world's first successfulphotographer.





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Davy and Wedgwood found no way of arresting the chemical action at this stage,however, and their images lasted only a short time before darkening entirely.

Photography's basic principles, processes, and materials were discovered virtuallysimultaneously by a diverse group of individuals of different nationalities, workingfor the most part entirely independently of one another. The results of theirexperiments coalesced in the first half of the 19th cent., creating a tool forcommunication that was to become as powerful and significant as the printingpress. Four men figure principally in the establishment of the rudiments ofphotographic science.

The French physicist, Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, made the first negative onpaper) in 1816 and the first known photograph on metal; he called it a heliographin 1826. By the latter date he had directed his investigations away from papersurfaces and negatives having invented, in the meantime, what is now called thephotogravure process of mechanical reproduction and toward sensitized metallicsurfaces.

In 1827 Niepce had also begun his association with Louis Jacques MandéDaguerre, a French painter who had been experimenting along parallel lines. Apartnership was formed and they collaborated until Niepce's death in 1833, afterwhich Daguerre continued their work for the next six years. In 1839 he announcedthe invention of a method for making a direct positive image on a silver plate—thedaguerreotype.

Daguerre's announcement was a source of dismay to the English scientist WilliamHenry Fox Talbot, who had been experimenting independently along related linesfor years. Talbot had evolved a method for making a paper negative from which aninfinite number of paper positives could be created. He had also worked out aneffective although imperfect technique for permanently “fixing” his images.Concerned that he might lose the rights to his own invention, the calotype process,Talbot wrote to the French Academy of Sciences, asserting the priority of his owninvention. He then lost no time in presenting his researches to England's RoyalSociety, of which he was a distinguished member.

All three pioneers, Niepce, Daguerre, and Talbot, along with Sir John Herschel—who in 1819 discovered the suitability of hyposulfite of soda, or “hypo,” as afixing agent for sensitized paper images and who is generally credited with givingthe new medium its name—deserve to share the title Inventor of Photography.Each made a vital and unique contribution to the invention of the photographic





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process. The process developed by Daguerre and Niepce was, in a grand gesture,purchased from them by the French government and given, free of patentrestrictions, to the world. Talbot patented his own process and then published adescription of it, entitled The Pencil of Nature 1844 –46. This book, containing 24original prints, was the first ever illustrated with photographs.

The Daguerreotype

Daguerreotype Camera

Daguerreotype spread rapidly, except in England, where Daguerre had secretlypatented his process before selling it to the French government. The legal problemsattending the pursuit of photography as a profession account in part for thewidespread influence of amateurs e.g., Nadar, the French pioneer photographeron the early development of the medium. The popularity of the daguerreotype isattributable to two principal factors. The first of these was the Victorian passion fornovelty and for the accumulation of material objects, which found its perfectparadigm in these silvery, exquisitely detailed miniatures. The second was thegreatly increasing demand from a rising middle class for qualitatively good but—compared to a painter's fee—inexpensive family portraits. The cheaper tintypeeventually made such likenesses available to all.

The Calotype

The calotype's paper negative made possible the reproduction of photographicimages. The unavoidably coarse paper base for the negative, however, eliminatedthe delicate detail that made the daguerreotype so appealing. This lack of precisionwas understood and used to advantage by the Scottish painter David Octavius Hilland his assistant, Robert Adamson. From 1843 to 1848 they made an extensiveseries of calotype portraits of Scottish clergymen, intended to serve only as studies





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for a group portrait in oils, that stands today among the major bodies of work in themedium. Hill and Adamson composed their portraits in broad planes, juxtaposingbold masses of light and dark, creating works that are monumental in feelingdespite their small size.

Clergymen who had been at the assembly, photographed at Dumbarton Presbytery in 1845 asthe basis for their portraits.

Robert Adamson, was a Scottish pioneer photographer. Adamson was born in St. Andrews,he was hired in 1843 by David Octavius Hill 1802 -1870), a painter of romantic Scottishlandscapes. He was commissioned to make a group portrait of the 470 clergymen whofounded the Free Church of Scotland. Hill required calotypes from which he would paint.Distinguished persons from many fields came to be photographed by the partners. Togetherthey made more than 1,000 portraits and numerous views of Edinburgh between 1843 and1848, until Adamson died at the age of 26. Hill returned to painting and the partners’ greatwork was not rediscovered until 1872. The Scottish painter and arts activist David OctaviusHill collaborated with the engineer and photographer Robert Adamson between 1843 and1847 to pioneer many aspects of photography in Scotland.





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The Collodion Process

The dilemma of detail versus reproducibility was resolved in 1851 by anEnglishman, Frederick Scott Archer, who introduced the collodion process. Thismethod, also known as the “wet plate” technique, involved coating a glass platewith silver iodide in suspension, exposing it while still wet, and developing itimmediately. Once fixed and dried, the glass plate was covered with a thin, flexiblefilm containing the negative image, the definition and detail of which approachedthat of the daguerreotype. As this process merged the advantages of both itspredecessors, it was universally adopted within a very short time.

The Impact of Early Photography

With the advent of the collodion process, came mass production and disseminationof photographic prints. The inception of these visual documents of personal andpublic history engendered vast changes in people's perception of history, of time,and of themselves. The concept of privacy was greatly altered as cameras wereused to record most areas of human life. The ubiquitous presence of photographicmachinery eventually changed humankind's sense of what was suitable forobservation. The photograph was considered incontestable proof of an event,experience, or state of being.

To fulfill the mounting and incessant demand for more images, photographersspread out to every corner of the world, recording all the natural and manufacturedphenomena they could find. These were in three main forms: the family album,which contained cabinet portraits and scrapbooks containing large prints of viewsfrom various parts of the world; and boxes of stereoscope cards, which incombination with the popular stereo viewer created an effective illusion of three-dimensionality.

A number of photographers, including Timothy O'Sullivan, J. K. Hillers, and W.H. Jackson, accompanied exploratory expeditions to the new frontiers in theAmerican West, while John Thomson returned from China and Maxime Du Campfrom Egypt with records of vistas and peoples never before seen by Western eyes.Roger Fenton, who photographed the Crimean conflict, and Mathew Brady'sphotographic corps, who documented the American Civil War, provided graphicevidence of the hellishness of combat.

Further Developments





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E. J. Marey, the painter Thomas Eakins, and Eadweard Muybridge all devisedmeans for making stop-action photographs that demonstrated the gap betweenwhat the mind thinks it sees and what the eye actually perceives. Muybridge'smajor work, Animal Locomotion 1887, remains a b asic source for artists andscientists alike. As accessory lenses were perfected, the camera's vision extendedboth telescopically and microscopically; the moon and the microorganism becameaccessible as photographic images.

The introduction of the halftone process in 1881 made possible the accuratereproduction of photographs in books and newspapers. In combination with newimprovements in photographic technology, including dry plates and smallercameras, which made photographing faster and less cumbersome, the halftonemade immediate reportage feasible and paved the way for news photography.George Eastman's introduction in 1888 of roll film and the simple Kodak boxcamera provided everyone with the means of making photographs for themselves.

1.5. History & Development of Photography

When photography was announced to the world in 1839, almost immediately threerelationships to the body were established. The most pervasive of these was its useto produce portraits and snapshots that have served as surrogates, even fetishistictokens, of the human body. As new technologies made photography progressivelycheaper throughout the nineteenth century, photographic portraiture, produced inthe studios of trained technicians, worked its way down to ever lower classes ofsociety. Photographic portraits made present to broad classes of people images ofthe bodies of family members who had emigrated, gone off to war, died, orotherwise absented themselves, a privilege enjoyed previously only by the rich. Forthe last third of the nineteenth century photographic portraits were also collectedand assembled into albums as a way for the public to see the leading political,artistic, and literary figures of the day.

As a different kind of surrogate, photography itself extended the reach of thebody's comprehension of the world. Doing so more insistently than did other formsof mimetic representation, photography seemed to stand in for the direct, bodilyexperience of the individual, its lens becoming the roving eye of the beholder.Most obviously one sees this in travel and expeditionary photographs of thenineteenth century, for which skilled professionals traveled forth from WesternEurope and the eastern USA to record and bring back views of sites as various asIndia, the American West and the Middle East.





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Finally, photography played a role in the nineteenth-century comprehension of thebody itself within the emerging sciences. Ethnographers saw in photography thepotential to prove theories of racial difference, using photographs showing facesand full frequently unclothed bodies that had been produced both for the touristtrade and specifically for ethnographic study. Early investigators of psychiatry andeugenics considered the medium an objective tool of research, finding evidence instraightforward face shots as well as those that had been manipulated. Studies ofphysiognomy and the emotions were illustrated with photographs of facesstimulated by electrical charges, while eugenicists sought to arrive visually ataverage ‘types’ by exposing a single piece of photographic paper to multipleportrait negatives, one on top of the next, so that only the most commonly heldtraits appeared in the final picture. Within criminology, photographic ‘mug’ shotsfixed the identities of convicted criminals, while detailed pictures of ears and otherbody parts enabled a crude method of tracking suspects, as today fingerprints andDNA are used. Physiology was advanced by studies of motion in the 1870s and80s, which fixed the positions the body held through the course of a variety of

activities. Using lightwaves beyond thevisible spectrum, theinvention of the X-raytoward the end of thecentury let physiciansstudy internal bodyparts.

An original Brownie camera from 1900

At the end of the nineteenth century, photography's relationship to the bodychanged with the invention and mass marketing of George Eastman's Kodak, the





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first snapshot camera. The ease of use and mobility of this hand-held camera ‘youpush the button; we do the rest,’ boasted the ads made it an extension of o ne's ownbody. Already a ‘point and shoot’ camera, this early Kodak allowed individuals totake over many of the functions previously performed by professionalphotographers. Ever-growing masses of people could now make portraits andtravel views of their own, with a camera handily carried anywhere. Within thesnapshot photographs that emerged, the body itself was recorded in increasinglycommon and casual ways.

Also beginning at the end of the nineteenth century, mass reproduction ofphotographs through new printing technologies expanded the audience fordocumentary and journalistic photography, which depended for its claim toveracity upon the imagined elision between the human eye and the mechanicalcamera.

Photograph taken with a Brownie camera. Notice how the photograph is round, just like theopening in the camera.

Almost from the time of its invention, photography included the production oferotic imagery as a covert subset of its representations of the body. In thenineteenth century as well as the twentieth, such imagery often finessed the fineline between art and pornography. Nineteenth-century photographers of theusu ally female) nude included among their customers both artists seeking escape





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from the expense and possible tedium of working from live models and a moregeneral public seeking this imagery for its potential eroticism. In the first third ofthe twentieth century, many photographers mostly male) turned to the femalenude body as a subject that would align their work in this new medium with themore traditional arts.

In the decades after World War II, photography of the body within the burgeoningmass media largely reinforced gender differences the war had momentarily eased.Fashion magazines returned in their imagery to a level of elegance and fancy dressnot seen since the 1920s. Advertising photography, now in its heyday, constructedsafely differing roles for men and women through images in which body posture,facial expression, grooming, and dress figured prominently.

In the 1960s photography made evident the centrality of the body to radicalchanges in society. While battlefield corpses had figured prominently inphotographs from the American Civil War, government censors successfully ruledout any large-scale photographic representation of battle carnage until the VietnamWar, when widespread disapproval of the war propelled photographers to defycensors. Not only did journalistic pictures record the carnage brought to the bodyby the war in Southeast Asia and the protest against it in Europe and America, butartistic pictures seemed to reflect symbolically the psychic stress of world eventson otherwise normal bodies.

In the 1970s photography and the body intersected in new ways. No longerconsidered a transparent record or means of abstraction, as it had been for much ofits history, photography was now seen as marking the extent to which the world is

George Eastman, was only 24 years old when he set up his Eastman Dry Plate Company inNew York in 1880 and the first half-tone photograph appears in a daily newspaper. In 1888he introduces the first Kodak camera that cost $25.00 a great deal of money then. It had a20 foot roll of paper, enough for 100 pictures already put in it. To get the film developed youhad to return the camera to the Eastman Dry Plate Company in Rochester, New York. For$10.00 they would develop the photographs, put more film in your camera and maileverything back to you. One year later an improved Kodak camera with a roll of film insteadof a 20 foot roll of paper appears.Mr. Eastman wanted everybody to be able to take photographs. He worked hard to develop acamera that everybody could afford to buy. He did it in 1900! It was the Kodak Brownie boxroll-film camera. It cost $1.00! Now everyone can take photographs, not just professionalphotographers.




troduction to Photography

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mediated, coming to us already as a representation. Using photography this way,artists explored the social and cultural bases of such attributes of the body asgender, race, class, and sexual orientation. Artists used photography to documentartistic performances that used the body in a very physical way to redefineexperience. Feminist artists employed photography as a means to record andcomment upon transformations to which they submitted their bodies.

1.6. PHOTOGRAPHY TYPES

Black-and-white Photography

"Casting Winds" - this black & white displays the classicmonochrome look, as well as the use of simulated opticalfiltering to enhance or diminish the rendering of certainlight wavelengths.

All photography was originally monochrome, or black-and-white. Even after color film was readily available,black-and-white photography continued to dominate fordecades, due to its lower cost and its "classic"photographic look. In modern times, black-and-white hasmostly become a minority art form, and mostphotography has become color photography.

Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images. Some fullcolor digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black andwhites, and some cameras have even been produced to exclusively shootmonochrome.

Color Photography

Color photography was explored beginning in the mid 1800s. Early experiments incolor could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The firstpermanent color photo was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell.

Maxwell made contributions to the area of optics and color vision, being creditedwith the discovery that color photographs could be formed using red, green, andblue filters. He had the photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbonthree times, each time with a different color filter over the lens. The three imageswere developed and then projected onto a screen with three different projectors,





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each equipped with the same color filter used to take its image. When brought intofocus, the three images formed a full color image. The three photographic platesnow reside in a small museum at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, the house whereMaxwell was born.

One of the early methods of taking color photos was to use three cameras. Eachcamera would have a color filter in front of the lens. This technique provides thephotographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image in adarkroom or processing plant. Russian photographer Sergei MikhailovichProkudin-Gorskii developed another technique, with three color plates taken inquick succession.

Practical application of the technique was held back by the very limited colorresponse of early film; however, in the early 1900s, following the work of photo-chemists such as H. W. Vogel, emulsions with adequate sensitivity to green andred light at last became available.

The first color plate, Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers,reached the market in 1907. It was based on a 'screen-plate' filter made of dyeddots of potato starch, and was the only color film on the market until German Agfaintroduced the similar Agfacolor in 1932. In 1935, American Kodak introduced thefirst modern 'integrated tri -pack' color film, Kodachrome, based on three coloredemulsions. This was followed in 1936 by Agfa's Agfacolor Neue. Unlike theKodachrome tri-pack process the color couplers in Agfacolor Neue were integralwith the emulsion layers, which greatly simplified the film processing. Mostmodern color films, except Kodachrome, are based on the Agfacolor Neuetechnology. Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

Color photography may form images as a positive transparency, intended for use ina slide projector or as color negatives, intended for use in creating positive colorenlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common formof film non -digital color photography owing to the introduction of automatedphoto printing equipment.

Digital Photography

Traditional photography burdened photographers working at remote locationswithout easy access to processing facilities, and competition from televisionpressured photographers to deliver images to newspapers with greater speed. Photojournalists at remote locations often carried miniature photo labs and a means of





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transmitting images through telephone lines. In 1981, Sony unveiled the firstconsumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the needfor film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the imageswere displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1990, Kodakunveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital camera. Althoughit’s high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professionalphotography, commercial digital photography was born.

Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set ofelectronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. The primary differencebetween digital and chemical photography is that analog photography resistsmanipulation because it involves film, optics and photographic paper, while digitalimaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree ofimage post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography,permitting different communicative potentials and applications.

Digital imaging is rapidly replacing film photography in consumer andprofessional markets. Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespreadconsumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such asvideo and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would nolonger produce reloadable 35 mm cameras after the end of that year. This wasinterpreted as a sign of the end of film photography. However, Kodak was at thattime a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, Nikonfollowed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but twomodels of their film cameras: the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end NikonF6. On May 25, 2006, Canon announced they will stop developing new film SLRcamera.

Because photography is popularly synonymous with truth "The camera doesn'tlie.", digital imaging has raised many ethical concerns. Many photojournalistshave declared they will not crop their pictures, or are forbidden from combiningelements of multiple photos to make "illustrations," passing them as realphotographs. Many courts will not accept digital images as evidence because oftheir inherently manipulative nature. Today's technology has made picture editingrelatively easy for even the novice photographer.

1.6.1. Photography Styles





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Commercial Photography

The commercial photographic world can be broken down to:

Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell aservice or product. These images are generally done with an advertisingagency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team.

Fashion and glamour photography: This type of photography usuallyincorporates models. Fashion photography emphasizes the clothes orproduct, glamour emphasizes the model. Glamour photography is popular inadvertising and in men's magazines. Models in glamour photography may benude, but this is not always the case.

Crime Scene Photography: This type of photography consists ofphotographing scenes of crime such at robberies and murders. A black andwhite camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details.

Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typicallycommonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made.

Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use.Food photography is similar to still life photography, but requires somespecial skills.

Editorial photography: photographs made to illustrate a story or ideawithin the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by themagazine.

Photojournalism: this can be considered a subset of editorial photography.Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a newsstory.

Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly tothe end user of the images.

Fine art photography: photographs made to fulfill a vision, and reproducedto be sold directly to the customer.

Landscape photography: photographs of different locations made to besold to tourists as postcards

The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "one picture isworth a thousand words," which has an interesting basis in the history ofphotography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites,advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography.

Many people take photographs for self-fulfillment or for commercial purposes.Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they





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can assign a member of the organization or hire someone to shoot exactly whatthey want, run a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs.

Photography as an art form

During the twentieth century, both fine art photography and documentaryphotography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallerysystem. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including AlfredStieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, and Edward Weston, spent their livesadvocating for photography as a fine art.

At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement iscalled Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. Inreaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the f/64 Group toadvocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a sharply fo cused thing initself and not an imitation of something else.

The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly,especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was themechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, thenphotography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determiningwhat component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversybegan with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, LouisDaguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met withacclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art.

Social Implications of Photography

Photography is another development of media forms. It serves as scientificevidence, conveyers of news, historical documents, works of art, and record offamily. Millions of people around the world own cameras and enjoy taking picture.They just point the camera at a face, an object, a scene, or an event and take it.Unlike other kind of media forms such as painting and writing photographyproduced lifelike images much more efficiently and reliably. It offered an excellentfunction of communication.

Just like other media technologies, photography extended the ability ofcommunication. Time and space are no longer important. People can be in touchwith someone a hundred year in the past and learn human histories fromphotographs. Also, photographs furnish evidence. Something we hear about, butdoubt, seems proven when we are shown a photograph of it. A photograph passes





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for incontrovertible proof that a given thing happened. For example, the use ofphotography for crime investigation.

The industrialization has made photography become much easier to reproduce.Moreover, the digitization of photography via all manner of computers- which canreconstruct an image as fast as mouse running across a screen- is now underminingthat very reliability of the photograph as a mute, unbiased witness of reality. It isimportant to say that this media technology allows everyone to be producers aswell as consumers at the same time.

UNIT 2. PHOTOJOURNALISM

Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism the collecting, editing, andpresenting of news material for publication or broadcast that creates images inorder to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images,and in some cases to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism can fallunder all subjects’ of photography but the image needs to be news wordy to end upbeing published.

There are two types of photojournalism.

The first type is where an image is used to illustrate a story. Many featurejournalists work closely with photographers and commission them to produceimages that will be published with their articles. There is no limit to how manyimages used. This is usually the photo editor decision.

The second is where an image is used to tell a story without any words. One singleimage may be used or as many as ten images are often used in magazines. If youcan write - do so; it will be an advantage when you submit some images.

2.1. Role of Photojournalism

The best way to gain experience in photojournalism is to do it. Classroom study,photo books, even making pictures cannot completely prepare one for the feelingthat comes when you accept a photographic assignment for money. There is atremendous sense of responsibility when someone is willing to put cash on yourability to deliver a professional looking photograph. It can be almost devastating ifthe first assignment is one that cannot easily be re-shot or if something should go





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wrong. But the feeling of achievement is equally great when you are able to delivera good print.

Many beginning photojournalists aspire to start at the top by submitting pictures tothe national magazines. If you can sell your work to them, fine as starting at the topsaves time. But in photography, as in any other business, most people find easier tostart at the bottom and advance as they gain experience. The main danger inattempting to sell to the national magazines at the start is that you may becomediscouraged and quit without ever really discovering whether or not you are suitedto a career in photojournalism.

Instead of trying to compete with the world’s top photographers for space in thebig magazines, you will profit more by turning your attention to your localnewspaper. These local publications offer the serious beginner a chance to try hisluck in photojournalism without leaving his home areas. The photographer on alocal newspaper is required to shoot every sort of picture imaginable from newsand sports to fashion and architecture.

There are many qualities that go into the making of a successful photographer.Most virtues such as determination, imagination and perseverance are the key tosuccess. Anyone who seriously has these qualities and vision can be competent andexcel in the field of photojournalism. The minute a photojournalist sees his subject,he knows from past experience what exposure, shutter speed, and type of lightinghe should use.

One of the most important qualities of a photojournalist is his ability to reactquickly when he comes along a scene that may be news wordy.

List items, which may be news wordy, are Impact pictures, Pictures of theEnvironment People, New buildings.

If you are serious about photojournalism build a collection of images from yourarea. Many of these pictures will not be immediate news wordy but may be newswordy down the road. Take pictures of all the factories and buildings in the area.Someday a factory may close and you may not be able to get to the scene. Alsohave plenty pictures of local businessmen and politicians.

Some photojournalists are lucky enough to get assignments from newspapers ormagazines, most have to follow or find the news to make a living. For thoseshowing still photographs accurate, correctly spelled caption information is stillconsidered a must. This may go away as more projects are shown in a multimedia





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environment. However for the foreseeable future hiring editors want clear, clean,communicative captions that are spell checked and grammar checked.

The world of digital photography has made the work of the photojournalist a loteasier. Being able to view, scan and e-mail images to a publisher instantly is amassive advantage.

The work of a photojournalist can be extremely harsh - taken pictures in all kindsof extreme conditions and in very dangerous situations. Many photojournalists dieeach year in war zones and at different natural disasters around the world.

We live in a world, where today’s news is forgotten tomorrow and the need to getthe images quickly to the publisher is so important. If you have images that arenews wordy don’t delay sending them to a news agency or publisher. They won’tstay in the news very long.

What qualities are most important for those who want to pursue such acareer?

A desire to be “out in the world”: The storytelling photographers do takethem into the community. That could be the local community where aphotographer makes his or her home. It could also be the world community.The options are endless, depending on how far a field the photographerwants to work. But the key is that the storytelling photojournalists do,whatever tools they choose to use, are not at home in their studio orapartment. The work is out in the world with people. Unlike the world offine art where the aim is for the photographer to tell their story to the world,in photojournalism the photographer/storyteller concentrates on the story ofother people.

Technical proficiency: Whether one is a documentary filmmaker, amultimedia storyteller or still photography photojournalist, the tools todayconsist of electronic cameras and computers. Film and videotape are gone.Pictures are captured on digital media. The darkroom is gone. Todaycomputers serve as the digital darkroom and as video editing machines.Photographers need to be willing to learn the essentials, buy the key gearthey need, and then keep up with the evolving technological changes. Newsoftware, improved cameras, hard drives and computers come flying atworking pros with increasing speed requiring upgrades and significantadditional investment at least every 18 months, probably every 12 months.





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Understanding of and a commitment to ethical standards: With the vastdegree of image manipulation visible in advertising, television commercialsand the special effects in movies, it is easy to assume “anything goes” nomatter which part of the visual world one works in today. Such is not thecase for the photojournalist. Photographers who cover the world and itsstories are much more in the mode of, “Record what you see, present whatyou saw.” Yes, pictures and video are adjusted electronically to make thisplain to the viewer. But the concept of not manipulating images to alter theirmeaning is still in play for the modern photojournalist.

Persistence: This comes from a drive to get the story. Photojournalists, likewriting journalists, are often told “no”. The most successful journalists justdon’t accept the most recent ‘no’ as the final answer. The best journalistspress on without being obnoxious about it and just continue to pursue thestory with the next phone call, the next request for an interview.

This same persistence comes into play when it comes to breaking into the businessand then once in, to advancing up the ladder. Moving from one publication toanother, one company to another or climbing the ranks to the “better” publicationsor video outlets takes time, energy and often, repeated visits to show your work.

2.2. Importance of Photojournalism

Photojournalism is an important aspect to the news media. For most people whoread newspapers or watch the news, it is the photographs that summarize what hasbeen written. This makes newspaper reading and news reporting much moreeffective as now one can relate the news to real life scenes and understand fullywhat it must be like to be in that actual place at that actual time. This appliesespecially for people who are not too fond of reading the newspaper or watchingthe news. For such people, it is the pictures that convey the news.

Photojournalism is a type of journalism that depends on images to tell a story. It isnot classical photography as the pictures taken are mostly or entirely related to anews story or event. They are not usually for entertainment or appreciation butmore for conveyance of a news event. These images have to be relevant to society,informative and should be able to convey what is happening in the world. Theimages should also possess an objective quality. It is very important that thephotograph is relevant to the context of the story being reported.

Photojournalism has reached the same status as all other forms of journalism. Astatus as a medium which is part of the daily stream of information and to which





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readers have a critical attitude. Photojournalism has not become more or lesscredible, just as journalism has not become more or less credible. Photojournalistsmust take on the role of storytelling rather than seeing themselves as illustrators ofarticles.

Greater demands are made on photojournalists but also on other users of picturessuch as journalists, editorial assistants, and editors. Photojournalists are trying toget attention in an increasingly visually oriented environment and thereforephotojournalists must make use of visual storytelling techniques to become betterstorytellers. Every journalistic photograph should tell its own story. The portraitwhere the eyes catch the reader and tell stories about the person's life. The strangelight over a natural landscape. Or the funny moment from everyday life whichstimulates the reader's memory.

All photographic stories should be based on a photographic angle which createsidentification for the reader. Makes the reader feel surprised, emotional, or juststimulated to think about something. That is the strength of the photograph! Thestory is always the most important – the main contents. The storytelling toolsframe the photograph in ways that underpin and strengthen the contents. A wellcomposed photograph that makes good use of its mode of expression to fit thestory is more effective and makes a greater impression on the reader. Itcommunicates better.

Photographs do not provide readers with answers. A photograph will not tell youwhy a child is crying. Therefore it is doubly important that the written and thephotographic story complement each other and use each others' strengths. Thestrength of photojournalism lies in the ability to communicate feelings and theimmediate reaction from readers. Written journalism gives you the answers to who,what and why. The photojournalist must reflect on his and the journalist's storyand the best way to express it visually. The means and the options must beconsidered and a common angle determined, so the final story provides the readerwith information as well as experiences.

2.3. Elements of Photography

Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception.Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such asEadweard Muybridge's study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists areequally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than thephoto-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement.





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Military, police and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognitionand data storage. Photography is used to preserve memories of favorites and as asource of entertainment.

In its simplest definition, a composition is a combination, or arrangement, ofelements. A photographic composition is the arrangement of visual elements andas such is the product of a photographer's vision and their skill in seeing,identifying, arranging, and framing the finished image. This is a clearly distinctskill from those necessary to successfully operate a camera or calculate exposure.

In general, good pictures result from careful attention to some basic elements ofcomposition, together with appropriate lighting and an interesting subject. There is,however, no "right" way to take a picture. Three photographers recording the samescene may create equally appealing photographs with entirely differentcomposition.

2.4. Point of Interest

Identify a primary point of interest before taking the picture. When you’vedetermined which area is the most important to you, you can compose toemphasize it. Studying advertising photographs is a good way to get acquaintedwith emphasis in composition.





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SimplicityBe sure that only the things you want the viewer to see appear in the picture. Ifthere are numerous objects cluttering up the background, your message will belost. If you can’t find an angle or framing to isolate your subject, consider usingdepth of field control to keep the background out of focus.

ContrastA light subject will have more impact if placed against a dark background and viceversa. Contrasting colors may be used for emphasis, but can become distracting ifnot considered carefully.

BalanceGenerally, asymmetric or informal balance is considered more pleasing in aphotograph than symmetric formal balance. In other words, placing the mainsubject off-center and balancing the "weight" with other objects smaller or lowerimpact will be more effective than placing the subject in the center.

FramingA "frame" in a photograph is something in the foreground that leads you into thepicture or gives you a sense of where the viewer is. For example, a branch andsome leaves framing a shot of rolling hills and a valley, or the edge of an imposingrock face leading into a shot of a canyon. Framing can usually improve a picture.The "frame" doesn’t need to be sharply focused. In fact if it is too sharply detailed,it could be a distraction.

ViewpointYou can often change a picture dramatically by moving the camera up or down or,stepping to one side. One of the best ways to come up with a prize-winningphotograph is to find an "unusual" point of view.

Direction of MovementWhen the subject is capable of movement, such as an animal or person, it is best toleave space in front of the subject so it appears to be moving into, rather than outof, the photograph.

DiagonalsLinear elements such as roads, waterways, and fences placed diagonally aregenerally perceived as more dynamic than horizontals.





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2.5. Rule of ThirdsLast, but not least, is something called the "rule of thirds." This is a principletaught in graphic design and photography and is based on the theory that the eyegoes naturally to a point about two-thirds up the page. Also, by visually dividingthe image into thirds either vertically or horizontally you achieve the informal orasymmetric balance mentioned above.

Although there are many ways a photograph can be composed effectively bybasing it on the use of "thirds," the most common example is the placement of thehorizon line in landscape photography. If the area of interest is land or water, thehorizon line will usually be two-thirds up from the bottom. On the other hand, ifthe sky is the area of emphasis, the horizon line may be one-third up from thebottom, leaving the sky to occupy the top two-thirds.

2.6. Role of Visualizations

It has been said that a really good photographer can make a picture with a pinholecamera made from a shoe box. Currently, a good photographer can make a goodimage of anything that he can see. But seeing requires an "eye." One has to "see"the picture before the shutter is released. Not everyone sees the subject in the sameway, and not everyone can see the picture. But most people can learn to "see"through training and experience. It is a slow process that has its own reward.

The point in "seeing" is well illustrated when we come upon an interesting subject.The immediate reaction is to make several exposures on the spot. But it is far betterto pause and examine the subject from different points of view, from differentangles, and to walk around it if it is not too big or at least to view it over 180degrees.

Observe the lighting as you change positions; observe the foreground, thebackground, and the composition. Use a punched out readymount for framing, andby moving it back and forth you will know how long a lens you need. This iswhere the zoom lens is better since you can fill the frame exactly without moving.Then, with the camera on a tripod, make your exposure. Do not hand hold; the bestlens will not produce a critically sharp image if there is the slightest movement ofthe camera.

How many slides of the same subject do you need? Two or three at the most if theyare intended for competition. It is quality, not quantity that counts. The latter is awaste of film. It has been heard about people bragging that they shot 60 rolls of





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film on a 12-day trip. That is five rolls per day, 180 exposures. Certainly therewere not 180 subjects; so many shots had to be made of each subject. It is true thatwe are often advised to take lots of film, twice as much as we think we need. Butthat does not mean that we should use all of it. It is simply an insurance that we donot run out of film.

Bracketing is good insurance for the best results in difficult lighting situations, buthardly necessary for everything. However, it is good photography to make morethan one shot of a subject from different angles and at different image sizes with azoom lens.

What about indoor workshops and home setups where the photographer hascomplete control over everything? Visualization plays an important part in stilllife photography as well. We usually visualize the image before setting up thesubject and photographing it. Many great photographs have been made this way.Another technique is to create a subject from workshop materials.

Visualization means to form a mental image. Please note that there is no suchword as previsualization. When you have complete control there is no need tobracket exposures. To do so shows uncertainty of technique.

The art of seeing extends also to competition, both in the camera club and in othercompetitions, including international exhibitions, where some judges are long on"rules" and short on creativity; long on triteness; short on constructive criticismand weak on aesthetics. Have you heard a judge say "I don't know what this is"when an abstract, creative image appears on the screen, such as crystals? He/she isat a loss for words. At least the judge could comment on compositional elementssuch as line, color and mass. New concepts appear from time to time and representprogress. We must be on the alert for them and be objective and free from bias.

Cameras at the top of the line are expensive precision instruments for bothadvanced amateur and professional photographers. Such cameras should not bebought for status symbols. When all is said and done about photography, precisioncameras are still only sophisticated tools. Less expensive cameras can produceequally good photographs for the average worker. A skillful, creative andaesthetic person is required in order to utilize the camera's features to fulladvantage. Simply pointing and shooting, letting the camera do the restautomatically often does not produce prize winning images. The camera does notthink, but is the tool of the thinking photographer who can formulate in his/hermind a superior image.





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Photography is a language. Like the written or spoken word, photography has itsown vocabulary and its own grammar. Photography might be called an art ofselection. A photographer works with a vocabulary made up of the visual elementsthat exist all around us. Anything we see can be a visual element.

The grammar of photography is the order in which visual elements are selected,isolated, related to other elements, or otherwise emphasized in a photograph. Thechoice and arrangement of visual elements are techniques a photographer uses tocommunicate an idea.

2.7. PHOTOGRAPHER’S JARGON

Anyone may have problems and can mistakes. So what are these jargons faced bynew photographer, which causes them to make mistakes? Most of them are usuallycaused by lack of concentration.

1 Blurry Pictures : Blurry photos are usually the result of camera shake. Thesimplest way to remedy this problem is to buy and use a good, sturdy tripod. If youcan't shoot with a tripod, remember to use a faster ISO on digital cameras or fasterfilm on film cameras. This allows you to increase your shutter speed. The faster theshutter speed, the less likely you are to suffer from camera shake.

2 Contrast Pictures : These come from high contrast lighting situations. Learn torecognize them. Photographing in the forest on a sunny day is an example of a highcontrast situation. Photographing at noon on a bright, sunny day is a high contrastsituation.

Contrast can be mitigated with diffusers and fill-flash, depending on thecircumstances. Usually the best solution is to wait for better conditions. Anothertrick is to shoot with low contrast film. Kodak's B&W Portra 400 is a good film touse in high contrast situations.

3 Undere xposed Pictures prints : Underexposure often results from letting thecamera make all the exposure decisions. Remember, the camera's meter wantseverything to be medium or gray. If you do use the auto exposure functions, onecommon mistake comes from using auto exposure compensation and thenforgetting you've done so. Make sure that you get enough light into the scenebefore you press the shutter. With print film, it's better to overexpose thanunderexpose, so when you bracket, do it to the high side, i.e., plus one stop, plustwo stops.





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4 Overexposed Pictures slides : Like underexposure, overexposure can resultfrom letting your camera make all the decisions. With slide film, overexposuremeans blown out highlights and that means lost information. Basing your exposureon shaded or dark areas and letting the camera set the exposure is a formula foroverexposed slides. Look for something medium to meter from or, better yet, meterthe highlights. Just make sure your highlights won't be more than two and one half2 Â½ stops lighter than medium.

5 Red Eye : This is a common problem resulting fromon-camera flash. Move your flash off- axis. Use a flashbracket and connecting cord. You can also bounce theflash off a ceiling or wall. You can also use remote flashtriggers to fire a flash that is mounted on a stand oranywhere else, as long as it is not on camera.

Red Eye→

6 Lens Flare : Flare occurs when direct light hits thefront element of the lens and light starts bouncingaround inside the lens. This causes the light to reflect off all the elements. This canreduce contrast and make your pictures look "hazy". Most commonly, it results in aseries of round highlights across your image. Be sure to use a lens hood to helpprevent this. Sometimes you'll need more than a lens hood. Try using your hand ora hat to shade the lens. If someone is with you, ask him or her to stand so that theycast a shadow on the lens. Sometimes it's hard to detect lens flare when lookingthrough the viewfinder; using your depth of field preview button will make thiseasier.

7 Obstruction : Be on the lookout for intruders trying to make their way in to yourpictures. Branches, out of focus grass blades, telephone wires; all these and morecan act as distractions.

Most viewfinders show only about 92-95% of the image. Keep that in mind whilephotographing. You may want to try shifting your camera around to see what's atthe edges.

Some intruders are hard to see in the viewfinder simply because they're too closeand not in focus. When you get your pictures back you see things you didn't seebefore. Remember, you're looking through your lens at its widest aperture, thus theshallowest depth of field. Some things won't be in focus. Use your preview button





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and you'll see any intruders. If you don't have a preview button, try focusingthroughout the range of your lens to see what may show up.

8 Vignetti ng: This is what happens when items encroach on the outside edges ofyour camera lens' field of view. It's often caused by stacking filters, or by addinglens hoods to lenses that have filters attached. Other accessories, like filter holders,can also cause vignetting. If your viewfinder shows less than 100%, you may notbe able to see this happening. Run some tests. Put on all the different filter/hoodcombinations you can think of and photograph a blank wall.

9 Color Casts ; Color casts can result from using the wrong film, outdated orspoiled film or shooting in deep shade.

If you use daylight-balanced film like Velvia or Ektachrome Elite and shootindoors, you could get some very strange results. Under tungsten lighting, regularlamplight, you'll end up with a very warm colorcast. If you're shooting underfluorescent light, you'll see a greenish cast.

If the problem is the wrong film, the solution is to use a color-correcting filter. Fortungsten, use a filter in the 80 series. These filters are blue and will balance out theyellow of tungsten light. For fluorescent, use an FL filter. If you're using flashindoors as your only source of light, you shouldn't have a color-cast.

The other solution is to use the correct film. Tungsten balanced film is made foruse under tungsten lighting and will result in the correct colors being recorded.Shooting in the shade on a sunny day will result is a bluish cast. After all, thepredominant light source is the blue sky. Use a filter in the 81 series. Theseyellowish filters will balance out the blue.

10 Tilted Horizons : Off-center or tilted horizons are probably the most commonmistake that we all make and there are several ways to quickly solve this problem.Our favorite is to use a focusing screen with a grid etched into it. These areavailable for many cameras; check your manual. Two cameras, the Nikon N80 andthe Nikon D100, even have grid screens that you can turn on or off as a customfunction.

Another solution is to simply step back and see if your camera looks level to theworld. Then take another look through the viewfinder. Sometimes we need toapproach the viewfinder from an angle because of the camera position. Takinganother look through the viewfinder with your head level will help too.





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There are times, however, when your camera may be level but the horizon willappear tilted. This apparent tilting results from receding shorelines; the closer partsof the shoreline are lower in the frame. Just be aware of this phenomenon so youcan decide if it's something that will be a distraction or not.

Conclusion-Whether you are a seasoned photographer or a new shooter, these tenproblems can creep up on you. So review this list often and make a mentalchecklist to use every time you photograph. You will notice an immediate increasein the quality of your images

PHOTOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT

2.8. Choice of Camera

A good photographer can take good pictures with any camera. An 8" X 10" viewcamera combines the maximum in image control with the minimum in portability.A 35 mm camera has tremendous mobility at the expense of image size. The 120cameras stand in the middle. They offer improvement of the worst features of eachwithout equaling the best features of either. Since more photographers specialize incertain types of photography, the camera they use most is the one that is best suitedto the assignments they most often get. But obviously the more equipment youhave to choose from, the closer you can come to meeting the exact requirements ofeach assignment.

The photojournalist’s most valuable ally in his constant search for new or differentpictures is his own imagination, but there are times when a new piece of equipmentcan produce show-stopping pictures by presenting tired subject in an entirely newperspective or even by showing us something we have never seen before. Examplesinclude underwater camera housings, the wide angle Nikon Fisheye lens, and theremote control devices that permit cameras to be attached to the outside of airplanesin flight and other places where they have never been before. Yet this newequipment is worthless without the imagination of a creative photographer.

The amount of time and money that a publication is willing to allow itsphotographers to spend on their photographs will largely determine the quality ofthe pictures that appear in that publication. It will also help to determine the typeand amount of equipment the photographer will use in covering his assignments.

Before selecting a camera the photographer must decide which film size he/she is

going to use. Ten years ago all newspaper photographers used 4" X 5" sheet film.





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A speed graphic with a dozen 4" X 5" film holders weights over ten pounds,whereas a 120 or 35 mm camera with two rolls of film weights less than one-thirdas much and occupies one-third the space. The smaller cameras are also faster and

easier to operate. The old 4" X 5" press camera is probably the most complexcamera that one will ever encounter. To make an exposure the photographer mustinsert the film holder, pull the slide, cock the shutter, trip the shutter, and insert theslide. On smaller cameras you need only press the button and advance the film.

2.9. The Role Film and the Cut Film: with the proper lab equipment there is littletime difference between the proper rolls film and cut film. When it was pointed out

that a sheet of 4" X 5" cost around 11 as opposed to 50 for a 12 exposure roll of 120

film 4 exposures on the 120 roll with the change from the 4" X 5" film size, thequestion arose whether to go to 120 or 35 mm. Perhaps one must have seen the adsthat show the 22 staff photographers of the Daily News or the staffers with 35 mmNikons. Many large papers have chosen the 35 mm film size for the majority oftheir work. The ease and speed of operation, together with the tremendous varietyof equipment available in 35 mm are not found in any other film size. For thepurpose of the beginning in photojournalism, however, a camera that uses 120 filmis preferred.

Darkroom: some of the largest metropolitan papers have darkrooms equipped todevelop film to a standard gamma and proof the negatives in minutes, completelyautomatically. But the lab that one may encounter at any local newspaper could beanything from a converted broom closet to a modern up to-date darkroom. It may beset up for 35 mm, but it will probably be better equipped to handle 120 film.

The Camera for Stills: most small newspapers use cameras that produce a 2-1/4"X 2-1/4" negative on 120 film. This negative size has the advantage of beingobtainable for a variety of cameras, many of which are relatively low in cost and

produce high quality negatives. The most popular type of 2-1/4" X 2-1/4" camera isthe twin-lens reflex. This includes the Rolleiflex, Yachica and Minolta. All arewidely used in newspaper work. One more type of camera is making its appearance.

This is a smaller press-type camera using either roll film or cut film in a 2-1/4" X 2-

1/4" or 2-1/4" X 3-1/4" negative size.

All these cameras are normally expected to give good service and last for severalyears if they are given proper care. Too often reporters bring their cameras into the





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lab complaining about fuzzy pictures, scratches on their negatives, and sluggishshutters. Their cameras have been dropped in the first and bounced around in cartrunks. They are filthy inside and out. The lenses are covered with dust,fingerprints, and even eatable stuffs and their owners wonder why they don’t workproperly. Some sort of lighting equipment is absolutely essential for the newsphotographer. Most newsmen use small, single-unit electronic strobe lights, dozensof which are in the market.

Strobes and Flashbulbs: these small strobes are compact and easy to use, and theygive enough light for most photographic situations. They do not, however, havesufficient power to cover every situation. For the beginner a professional flashgunsuch as the three-cell Graflite unit with a five-inch reflector is better. It cells forwith a No. 5 flashbulb; this flashgun puts out four to six times as much light as mostsmall strobes.

Larger strobes with a separate power pack are available at moderate prices. Theseare heavier and more bulky than the single-unit strobes, but most of them give morelight.

The Flashgun: although the initial cost of a flashgun is much lower than that of astrobe unit, the cost of the flashbulbs gradually raises the over-all cost. But youwould still have to use nearly 600 No. 5 bulbs before the cost of a flashgun andbulbs would equal the cost of a small electronic strobe. By that time you shouldhave gained enough experience to decide on the type of lighting equipment that isbest suited to your needs.





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2.10.UNIT 3. Composition

Composition, the act ofcomposing the image in theviewfinder, is a visual processof organizing the elements andindividual details of a scene intoa balanced and pleasingarrangement. Because what one-person finds pleasing, someoneelse will not, composition islargely a matter of personaltaste.

There is no right or wrongcomposition in photography. Acomposition that conveys aphotographer's intendedmeaning is an effective one. Acomposition that doesn't or thatconfuses the viewer is not.Composition in photographyis all about arranging theelements in your photos formaximum impact.

In our modern world of automatic cameras, which focus for us and adjust theexposure in an ever more perfect way most of the time), the biggest differencebetween a good photograph and a mediocre one is the composition.

In every photograph we take, we can decide where the boundaries of that photowill be, called the cropping. We can also choose the viewpoint. If we are takingpictures of people or movable objects then, often, we also have the opportunity toarrange them into the shapes we want.

If you are shooting landscapes or other immovable objects then you must composethe picture by moving yourself and deciding where to place the points of interestin your picture.





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There are various compositional rules, which will help to compose pleasingpictures; however, you will often find that a really striking picture will show ablatant disregard for the rules. Once you are aware of the rules then break them asoften as you want but, at least, know you are breaking them and why.

Rule of Thirds

Landscape photographers are particularly fond of this one, but it works well formany types of subjects. The rule of thirds simply says that, instead of placing themain focus of interest in the center of the frame, which gets a little boring, that youlook to position it on an intersection of the thirds.

Using Diagonals

Setting your subject matter on a diagonal will almost always make for a moredynamic picture. Even if this is an invisible diagonal that draws your eye betweentwo points. Move around the subject and look for a diagonal. The most commonmistake people make when taking pictures is not filling the frame with the subject.If it's a photo of granny waving from the doorstep, let's just see granny and thedoor, not half the houses in the street with a small granny shaped blob in themiddle. The culprit for this phenomenon is the focusing aid in the center of theviewfinder.

Most cameras have some sort of circle or rectangle etched onto the glass and weare inclined to think, in our less thoughtful moments, that this is the whole picturearea. Take a moment to glance around the viewfinder to see what you have got atthe edges and especially in the corners. Watch out for clutter in the background,that lamppost growing out of granny's head. Make sure that everything in theviewfinder is there because you want it to be.

Landscape or Portrait

A lot of people never, ever turn their camera on its side and shoot an uprightpicture. It can be a little awkward to hold until you get used to it but, what adifference it can make to the picture. If you are taking a picture of one person thenit is essential to shoot upright, you waste so much of the picture area at the sides ifyou don't.





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Viewpoint

Selecting your viewpoint, the position from which you photograph the subject, is avery important part of composition and one that some people pay very littleattention to. When taking a photo of a group of friends, how often do you movearound the group looking for the best angle?

The first, most obvious difference between one viewpoint and another is thebackground. If you are photographing a subject that cannot easily be moved, theonly way to change what is in the background is to choose a different viewpoint.

The subject itself can look quite different viewed from different angles. Photos canbe made to take on a whole new dynamic by selecting an extreme angle of view.Shoot a lot of pictures, especially sports shots, laying down, getting the camera asclose to the ground as possible.

Also the perspective can change quite drastically, especially with wider angledlenses. If you photograph a person full length with a wide-angle lens from astanding position, their head will be too big in proportion to the rest of their body.If, on the other hand, you kneel down and shoot the same picture from waistheight, you will see that the whole picture is better proportioned.

When shooting outdoors, the viewpoint you choose also affects how the light fromthe sun falls on your subject.

There are 3 basic ways to arrange the elements within your composition.

Physically move objects relative to each other. Only really works with stilllife photography.

Tell people to move relative to each other or other objects. Only works withpeople who can hear you.

Move! Usually the most effective way to control your composition is to alteryour viewpoint.

"There are no rules for good photographs, there are only good photographs."

2.11. CAMERAS AND PHOTO





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2.11.1.Shutter Speed

Shutter Speed, measured in seconds, refers to the length of time that the camera’sshutter remains open to let light in through the lens to record a given image ontothe film.

The standard shutter speed that a photographer generally uses on a sunny day is1/125th of a second. A photographer will adjust the shutter speed according to afew of the following factors:

Aperture opening Available light in the scene Desired effect Film Speed

The shutter speed setting affects both the light exposure to the film and the waymovement is rendered in the resulting photo. Shorter shutter speeds meaning theshutter opens and closes at a faster rate) are typically used for fast moving objectsto quickly freeze them within the frame. Conversely, longer shutter speeds tend tobe used in scenes of low lighting, still objects or if the photographer wants tocreate an artistic blur.

A rule of thumb for knowing how to set shutter speeds is that the larger theaperture setting, the faster the shutter speed should be set to affect the same levelof light exposure.

2.11.2. Film Format

Film Format refers to the various dimensions of film used to take photographs. Thecharacteristic that film format primarily describes is the size of the film and thetype of camera that uses the given film. Film format can be standard size 35 mm,medium format between 35 mm and 4 ″ x 5″ or large format 4″ x 5″ or larger).

Expert photographers tend to use medium format film due to the fact that itprovides a higher resolution and, therefore, greater detail in the resulting printedphoto. Similarly, medium format film allows a photographer to manipulate thefinal print’s size, making it either bigger or smaller without affecting the quality ormaking it grainier.





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While the large film format offers thehighest resolution, it doesn’t allow forthe same manipulation that themedium format does. If aphotographer tries to change the printsize in the large format film, the photowill suffer from graininess.

However, medium format film is notonly more expensive and lessavailable; it also requires special filmdeveloping. Generally, onlyprofessional developers or specialtyphoto shops will have the capability todevelop medium format film. Anotherdrawback to medium format film isthe fact that it offers fewer shots perroll usually only 12 to 16 exposures,versus 24 to 27 on other film formats.

Cameras: Digital, 35mm and APS Cameras

The most striking difference among digital, 35mm and APS cameras is the waythat each camera stores images.

APS Advanced Photo System and 35mm cameras whether standard ordisposable use rolls of film that are usually limited to 24 or 36 shots.Consequently, pictures taken with these cameras have to be processed before thephotographer can see their images.

However, digital cameras store images in a different manner. Instead of using usefilm, digital cameras record images on a built in chip, disk or memory card. Thisgives you the ability to store hundreds of pictures at a time!

2.11.3. Basics of Film Speed

With film, you shoot at one film speed, or ISO a number established by theInternational Organization for Standardization. The higher the speed of the film,the more sensitive the film is to light, meaning the film needs less light exposure itneed to capture an image. For example, 100 speed film is good for outdoor shots ingood light, while 400 speed film is better for indoor and action shots.





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While digital cameras do not use film, many mid to high-end cameras do allow youto adjust the film speed by using a built in sensor. However, the process has to berepeated for each shot to match the changing light conditions.

One of the advantages of an APS camera is the option of removing a roll of filmbefore finishing it. This allows you to use the appropriate speed film for theconditions. An unfinished roll can be returned to the camera and advanced to thenext empty frame. The same isn’t true for 35mm cameras, in which the entire rollneeds to be used before it’s taken out of the camera. Taking it out before will ruinthe roll.

Camera Resolution

A digital image is made up tiny dots called pixels. The term “resolution,” whenused to describe a digital camera refers to the size of the digital image the cameraproduces. This number is usually expressed in terms of “mega pixels” or howmany million pixels it can record in a single image. A camera with more megapixels can produce a larger and higher resolution image of considerably betterquality than a camera with fewer mega pixels.

Traditional 35mm and APS film has a higher resolution than most of today’sdigital cameras. The photographs produced by these cameras can be enlarged,resulting in high quality photos at sizes as large as 20×24 inches. On the otherhand, digital cameras are limited to picture size based on the number of megapixels. For example, a 2-megapixel camera will produce images equivalent to35mm quality at both 4×6 inches and 5×7 inches.

2.11.4 Processing Your Photos

When using a digital camera, the technology allows you to shoot more pictures andimmediately delete pictures you don’t want. Similarly, they also allow you todownload and transfer photos through the Internet. When processing digitalphotos, the digital images from these cameras can be transferred to your computer,allowing you to print photos from the comfort of your home computer without evergoing to the photo lab.

However, while high-end digital cameras are often very expensive, they allow youto process your photos are home by printing them your digital printer. Althoughthey can record a number of pictures on their memory cards, the high-resolutionpictures take up a lot of space on your memory card. Similarly, the file size of





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these images means that high-resolution images can’t be easily sent through e-mail.

Developing 35mm film is very easy and simply involves removing the filmcanister and dropping it off at the photo lab where the professionals take care of thedeveloping. However, if you want to develop the film in your darkroom, the filmmust undergo a series of chemical baths and processing with an enlarger. A majordrawback to 35mm is the cost per roll in addition to the processing fees.

APS Format Bonus

Probably the most attractive feature of an APS camera is that it offers the option ofselecting the format of a picture when it’s taken: classic, horizontal or panoramic.Consequently, the photographer can more effectively manipulate his shots. Inaddition, if you want to change the format of the picture after your film has beendeveloped, all you have to do is ask your photo processor to make the change.

2.12 PHOTO EDITING

Photo editing is an art and craft for effective communication with the help ofjournalistic photographs by selection, cropping, enlarging blowing up, reducing,





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sizing, retouching, reproduction, insetting, grouping, clubbing, etc for appealpresentation.

Selection: selection of a photo is an extremely important job, as the valuable spaceavailable in the newspaper should in no way, be wasted. The selected photographshould be able to depict a scene and to follow the old slogan that ‘a picture speaksmore than a thousand words’. If the picture provided by the photographer, providesnothing to the understanding of the reader, it should be rejected.

In some pictures, the emotions are very well captured by the photographer and insome both the pictures and words will provide perfect combination. A creative andcapable picture editor, experienced in visual communication, provides necessaryguidance for successful use of pictures. Small and local newspapers usually turn tothe photographer for advice, but mostly it is the news editor or copy editor whomakes the decision.

Selection procedure may differ from newspaper to newspaper. Some allow thephotographer to make the decision of selecting the photos and the picturessubmitted by him/her are considered for publication. Some newspaper workclosely both with the photo editor and the photographer to make the bestselections.

Cropping: this process involves the cutting of the unwanted part of a photograph.Earlier the photographs provided by the photographers were either selected orcompletely rejected but these days a photographer has the tools to select therelevant content of a photo while the rest is cropped off.

Enlarging: also called as blowing up, involves the procedure of enlarging aphotograph. Some photos are very small in size, but of great relevance and value tothe news story. Such photos need to be enlarged or blown-up.

Reducing: it’s just the opposite of enlarging. Both the newspapers and themagazines run into space crisis and at these times some photographs needs to bereduced in size so as to be accommodated on the page. Reducing will mostlydepend on the relevance, importance and degree of news value.

Sizing: the sizing of a picture should be preferably determined by the value of thephotograph and not by the space available. Many a times, the newspaper editortries to reduce a photograph to fit a space and destroy the impact of the photo in the





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process. It is obvious that a photograph of about 10 people will be ineffective in atwo-column photo and thus this photo will need at least three columns.

The biggest danger while sizing a photo is to make it appear too small. A skillfuland rational photo editor will opt for a three-column photo if given a choicebetween two columns and three-column space.

Sizing of any picture is very significant job, but sizing of pictures on multi-photograph packages is especially significant. In such packages, one photographshould be dominant. These multiple pictures allow the photo editor a lot offlexibility that may not be available in single-photo situations. Dramatic sizecontrast is an effective device to use in multi-picture packages. A photo editortrained in visual communication understands the usefulness of reversing normalsizing patterns for added impact.

Retouching: it is a process of toning down or eliminating extraneous distractionswithin the frame. Retouching can improve some pictures. It can be accomplishedwith an airbrush, an instrument that applies a liquid pigment to a surface by meansof compressed air. Retouching can also be done by brushing on a retouching liquidor paste or by using retouching pencils of varying colours.

Retouching should be done so minutely and meticulously that the meaning andcontent of the picture are not changed. Retouching a picture to change its meaningis unethical as changing a direct quotation to alter the meaning of a speech.

Reproduction: there are four main mechanical processes of reproduction. Theseprocesses are 1 metal engraining 2 plastic plates 3 screened positives 4windows and photo negatives.

Insetting: insetting is an innovative and creative way of photojournalism. Forexample, there was some fatal incident at a particular city. The people affected bythe incident are shown in the picture. At the same time, a map of the city is insertedin the picture indicating where that particular city is located in the country.

Grouping: when two or three or even more photographs are joined withoutoverlapping one another, the process is called grouping.

Clubbing: clubbing is a very creative, imaginative and innovative way with asense of graphics. The photojournalist moves through four steps in handling astory:





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Idea generation Planning Observation Writing captions

The photojournalist develops an idea or concept, decides on the appropriate lenses,speed and aperture and selects locations from where to shoot; decides when toshoot, and then does the darkroom work that will enhance to story.

For a feature, the photojournalist moves carefully and deliberately through thesestages on a breaking news event, the thinking and the decisions come quickly andinstinctively.

If the camera does not tell the truth, skepticism about the media arises in the mindsof readers. A picture may be striking and it may be narrative. But if it conveys afalse or distorted impression it would be better left unpublished. Picture editorsusually will select the picture showing the figures more favorably.

UNIT 3. TYPES OF PHOTOS

3.1. Portrait Photography

A portrait is defined as a likeness of aperson, especially of the person’sface. But, the word in general use hasdeeper connotations. A photographicportrait is understood to be a goodquality image that not only captures aperson’s physical likeness on film, butalso something of the person’scharacter, generally in a manner that isattractive and pleasing to the subject.

A good portrait will contain at least oneelement that reveals the subject’spersonality, attitude, uniquemannerisms or any of the other featuresor traits that form the individual natureof the person. It will tell us something





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about the subject. You may have heard someone remark that a particularphotographer “really captured” their father or child, for example, in a picture. Theyare referring in part to the image being a true physical likeness, but what they arereally saying is that the image also reveals a significant, identifiable part of thesubject’s character. The portrait photographer who has never previously met thesubject therefore has quite a challenge.

We all reveal our feelings and attitudes differently. Some of us may show ourindividual character with immediate transparency, while others may be moredifficult to “read” at first. The portrait photographer must become proficient atstudying people whom he or she doesn’t know in order to capture theiressence. This means watching for signals in a subject’s mannerism, reactions,expressions, body language and so on, and then judging how best to have thesubject’s character revealed for the camera.

This takes skill and an understanding of human nature. It almost always requiresengaging the subject in conversation, and quickly finding a suitable topic that willgrab her or his interest and evoke a reaction. Find common ground or a topic ofparticular interest to your subject, which can be a hobby, the latest news, a mutualacquaintance, or any number of topics. Building a rapport with the subject isimportant, whether a three-year-old child or a ninety-five-year old statesman,because it makes the subject more at ease in your presence, and therefore morerelaxed and natural-looking for the lens. You must take all possible steps to put asubject at ease in order for her or him to appear natural.

Sometimes your best picture is your first picture, and sometimes it’s the lastexposure you make. If the subject is in position, relatively comfortable and you areready to shoot, there is usually no reason not to begin right away.

Often just getting started is enough to cause a subject to settle down if they areuneasy or tense. You have to use your best judgment in every case. No portraitsession should be rushed, but there is no sense taking up your subject’s time in idlechatter while you could be making exposures.

There is also no reason for your conversation to cease just because you havestarted shooting. If the session seems to be going well, tell your subject; it mayprovide added confidence that will show in their expression. Drawing a subject outby having them talk while you are taking pictures will often result in interestingand revealing expressions. Subjects do not have to smile to make a good portrait. A





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serious or thoughtful expression can often be more revealing of character, and abetter portrait.

There are many components to a good portrait, but the main component is controlby the photographer. You must be in charge and must be looked upon by yoursubject as being competent and knowledgeable if your subject is to have anyconfidence in you. This means you must be prepared in advance, not fumbling withfilm when the subject is ready to be photographed. It means you must be confidentin yourself and exude that confidence throughout the session, and must be relaxedyourself if you expect your subject to become relaxed.

Keep in mind that it is the person who is emphasized in a portrait - not his or hersurroundings. Viewers of the portrait should see more than just a recognizablephotograph of someone. The picture must contain mood, show personality andcharacter, allowing the viewer to draw conclusions about the person in the portrait.

3.2. Still Photography

Critics and students of photography have often commented in the past severalyears upon the fact that, in this video age, it is getting harder and harder tosatisfactorily capture in a still image what is going on in a moving scene. In hisbook, My War Gone By, I Miss It So, Anthony Loyd, a former British militaryofficer who went to the Balkans and Chechnya as a journalist, writes this about thedifficulty of taking still photographs of combat:

"The photographs I had taken that day were useless. Take away the sound, motionand atmosphere from a scene of fighting, transpose images on to a two-dimensional surface and you have to have something really special to communicateeven a trace of the madness you have witnessed." Loyd then notes that havingactually witnessed what he had photographed; he knew what reality lay behind hisphotos. "Friends there knew it. They were all wise enough to know what might liebehind a fuzzy shot of a soldier running. But people who had never been to war?Their understanding of combat was the Hollywood version."

However, still photography can, when it is very good, leave all the other mediumsof reportage so far behind as to make them almost irrelevant: a single punch to theconsciousness that will not go away until you close your eyes or look at somethingelse.

Stills photography may also involve taking photos of the filmmaking process.These are often used for promoting the film and as a documentary record.





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3.3. Wildlife Photography

Whether you’re out hiking in the backcountry or sightseeing from your car, havinga chance encounter with wildlife is a magnificent and treasured moment. Watchinglittle calves’ speed running zigzag among the herd or glimpsing a bear munchingon glacier lilies are sights that captivate and inspire us all.

For many however, the experience is overpowering. They lose sight of the fact thatthe subject of their admiration is a wild creature. Sadly, some foolish humanbehavior results in tragic consequences to wildlife and humans. Therefore, it’simperative that you know how to view and photograph wildlife sensitively andresponsibly in a low impact manner.

You will be rewarded with the most amazing experiences and others will learnfrom your fine example!

Wildlife photographers must adhere to a certain code of ethics. These guidelinesare designed to ensure no harm is done to wildlife or their natural habitats. Theydepend on the rules and regulations of the area national park, wi lderness area,etc. you are visiting.

Be aware, that the ecosystem you visit may be fragile, so the photographer mustwalk gently. First and foremost, view wildlife from a safe distance for both youand them. Respect their spatial needs. If the animal interrupts its behavior resting,feeding, etc., then you are too close and must distance yourself.





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The wildlife photographer must never force an action and he should bepatient. The most beautiful photographs result from natural action.

Never come between a parent and its offspring. For example, one can see tiny bearcubs distressed, treed then separated from their mother by a throng of tourists eagerfor a closer look. This is unacceptable behavior.

Never crowd, pursue, prevent escape, and make deliberate noises to distract, startleor harass wildlife. This is stressful and wastes valuable energy in needless flight.The impact is cumulative. Never feed or leave food for wildlife. Habituation due tohandouts can result in disease or even death of that animal and injury to you.

Never encroach on nests or dens, as certain species will abandon their young.Never interfere with animals engaged in breeding, nesting, or caring for young.Learn to recognize wildlife alarm signals and never forget that these animals arenot tame no matter how docile or cuddly they appear. Do not damage or removeany plant, life form or natural object. Do pack out trash.

Acquaint yourself with and respect the behaviors and ecosystems of the wildlifeyou may encounter. By doing so, you will enrich your experience tremendously.Finally, and most significant, remember that the welfare of the subject and habitatare irrefutably more important than the photograph.





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3.4. Disaster Photography

It is indeed ironic that manipulating photographs of a natural disaster and theresulting personal tragedies into cartoon, photographs or illustrations serve apurpose of artistic technique.thus, the photographers have to take a more honest,more respectful, and, much more self-effacing photographic approaches to thedisconcerting idea of horrific beauty.

Suddenly it happens: a hurricane, a flood, an earthquake, an airplane crash or afire. And you must document disaster with pictures. Perhaps you work for anewspaper or news magazine. Possibly a photo agency or an insurance companyneeds images from the scene.

Disaster coverage is never pleasant. Most people in our well-ordered society givelittle thought to unexpected violence beyond the 6 o'clock news; yet these things dohappen. They happen across the nation and across the world on a daily basis, andsomeone must record them in a professional manner. Disaster strikes with alarmingfrequency without regard to life or geographical location.





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When catastrophe strikes, you've got to ask, "What’s my next move? What shouldI take with me; what can I leave behind? How can I safely cover a hazardoussituation and still deliver useable and timely photographs?" Every assignmentdiffers, but the following examples may prevent your news assignment fromturning into a personal disaster.

You should always keep film in your cameras and the exposure set to ambientlighting conditions. Every news photographer can recite a dozen examples provinghow these few seconds can make the difference between capturing a shot andreturning empty-handed.

Similarly, many news photographers keep a change of clothing, several majorcredit cards and a current passport in the trunk of their cars. An emergency rarelyallows time to pack, and no one wants to scrabble through drawers trying to find apassport when they need to catch a plane.

Not every assignment demonstrates the need for preparedness so vividly, butdisasters like earthquake when an earthquake needs fast footwork to beat thecompetitions.

A scene of destruction is, by its very nature, an unexpected event. Confusion reignssupreme. It can be difficult to create visual order from chaos when nobody knowsthe full story. Experienced news photographers know to gather local maps,emergency telephone numbers and information on the run. If the emergency is stillworking, an AM radio news station and a programmable scanner can help keepyou current. Late arrivals should buy the local newspaper and contact the police,Red Cross and city hall for updates about evacuations, emergency shelters andclean-up operations.

Be careful to conform to local ethical standards, however. Some countries allowthe media surprising access to emergency scenes. In others, you can suddenly findyourself looking down the wrong end of an automatic weapon while performingroutine documentary work!

But to be honest, luck also plays an important role in crisis photography. Onephotographer can come back with spectacular images from a scene while anotherreturns with nothing. The difference may be measured in feet or seconds. Youronly defense is to gather information on the run and be prepared for anyconceivable eventuality.





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Many photographers believe that they need special press credentials to enter anemergency zone. True, press credentials make reassuring, but they frequently servelittle useful purpose. Worse, they may target photographers for unwelcome policeattention; you may achieve better access by acting like a bystander!

Never, but never, argue with a police officer as tensions run high during a tragedy.When you remain sensitive to the subject, though, most police officers will ignoreor even assist a confident and fast moving photographer.

Fast moving doesn't mean careless, however. Even a simple warehouse fire can beextremely hazardous. Seemingly sturdy beams, walls and floors can collapsewithout warning. And fires frequently produce explosions, toxic smoke and causticchemical runoff. The best rule is to stay close behind emergency personal andwatch their actions. They may suddenly evacuate an area with no warning orexplanation: just as you expect them to know their jobs, they expect you to knowyours.

Any major fire produces both spectacular and terrifying results. At a refinery fire,columns of flame shoot hundreds of feet into the air and dozens of acres may beablaze. Unfortunately, company officials typically seal a plant when somethinggoes wrong, ostensibly for public protection, but mainly to minimize presscoverage. Trying to shoot through chain link fences, trees and buildings from half a





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mile away is maddening. Similar problems arise when documenting any remote,restricted or widespread disaster. The key, of course, is to charter a flight or hitch aride with emergency personnel into a disaster area. A helicopter makes a superior,if costly, shooting platform since it can move slowly and even land in unlikelylocations.

Generally, the public does not view disaster objectively because these experiencesare alien to them. This explains why "eye witness accounts" yield such notoriouslyinaccurate information. People who confront these scenes routinely learn to reactprofessionally, placing them into perspective from earlier experiences.

News photographers can no more afford the luxury of panic, confusion oremotional involvement at disasters than can police, firemen and doctors. Theymust react calmly to a crisis. Some even make it their responsibility to attend firstaid classes, since news people sometimes arrive at a scene before emergencypersonnel.

The public's right to know deserves this calm expertise. News photographers havethe difficult task of being the eyes and ears of the public. But they must also beresponsible for their actions in the field, presenting an image of restrained behaviorand sympathy, balancing this against the seconds they have to capture an imagebefore it disappears forever.

But always remember that you are a human being first, a photographersecond. Nothing you do should aggravate the situation or hamper emergencypersonnel. If necessary, be prepared to drop your gear and help in any way youcan. No photograph is worth a human life.

Disaster photography is never pleasant, yet it frequently serves an importantpurpose beyond the simple, but vital, documentation of an event. The workmay force you to work for days without rest, a decent meal, or sleep, but it alsoprovides certain rewards.

There is tremendous excitement on being on the cutting edge of an important newsstory, and sometimes the pictures you take will elicit sympathy and aid for thosetouched by tragedy. We live in an information age, and distant events often havegreat impact on diverse elements of our global society. Whatever else happens, youhave the satisfaction of knowing that your role fits into this information network,recording history and allowing readers insights into events that they will hopefullynever experience.





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3.5. Sports Photography

We all have been captivated by sports photography at one time or the other and areintimidated by a good sports action photos.

Quality sports shots are somewhat difficult to come by. Most people have limitedaccess to events to photograph them. The further away you are from the event, theharder it becomes to capture the event in a pleasing manner. Sports are an eventwhere crowd control is important, not only for the crowd's safety, but for the playersalso. There is nothing more frightening than to be on the sidelines of a footballgame, focused on a play in the field, when out of the blue a 250 pound line backerdrives a player into your legs or a foul ball comes crashing at your $8,000 lens!

The closer you are to someone, the better you can see him or her. Sports are nodifferent. You have to get as close to what you are shooting as you can. Typically,for a photographer with a press pass, you can get to the sidelines or other similarlocations. You generally will not be permitted on the playing field. Depending onthe sport, you most likely will be limited to designate locations. For instance, atmost Football games, the media cannot shoot between the two 35 yard markers.





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You probably don't have press access and are stuck in the stands for your shots.Get as close a possible. Even if you make it to the sidelines, you will be jostling forspace with many other photographers, both still and video.

You also have to be familiar with the sport to be able to capture the moment.This means knowing where to position yourself for the best action. This is criticalbecause of angular momentum to capture the freezing action. Not only does itmatter with the subject, but the background. Look at what is going to be behindyour subject. While we will try to minimize the impact that a background has, itwill still be unavoidable. So you need to position your self where the background isthe most pleasing.

Sports and Action photography is all about timing. It’s about reacting. It’sabout being in the right place at the right time and it’s about executed. Theseare all qualities of the athlete and those of the photographer as well. Each sport haspredictable and unpredictable moments. For instance, in basketball, you will haveopportunities to photograph, jump shots, free throws, etc. Understanding the timingof these predictable actions allows you to capture the peak moment, when theaction is the highest.

There is a delay between the image hitting your optical nerve and the shutterclosing. You have to, through experience, learn what that time is adjusted for it.Far goal, a 200-300mm lens is needed to fill the frame well, yet for shooting asoccer game, a 300-400mm lens is needed for just about anything useful. Lensspeed is also a critical factor. The faster the lens, the faster the shutter speed youcan use. You need fast shutter speeds to freeze action with long lenses.

Today, most new cameras are auto focus. Auto focus makes this easier on us, but theAF Auto Focus systems are not fool proof. Luckily, many sports lend those selveswell to manual focus, so sometimes you can get a bargain on a manual version of alens to use on a manual camera and still get good photos. However AF comes inhandy for a few sports. Hockey and Soccer involve many subject to camera distancechanges. Motion is less predictable and these sports are somewhat harder to manualfocus. Football, Basketball, and Baseball are quite easy to manual focus. You mayalso need a flash with a high output. Some sporting events like gymnastics andothers are no-flash events. It is best to talk to an event official referee, coach, etc.before using your flash.





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3.6. Political Photography

Politics and photography have always had a close, if uneasy, relationship. Scratchthe surface of many of the great photojournalists and documentaries of thetwentieth century and you will find radical colours not far below. Lewis Hine, apioneer of documentary photography, said 'I wanted to show things that had to becorrected. I wanted to show things that had to be appreciated.' For him and thegeneration that followed, the mere fact of showing photographs of a place or event,which was largely unseen, was a political act. In its very neutrality, the camerabore witness to a crucial axiom of the left: that ordinary people, not monarchs andpoliticians made history.

What happened to topple photography from this position of righteousness?Television happened; apparently outshining photography's power to show things asthey are. Media barons happened; anxious to turn the press away from challengingauthority and into a tool for making money. Apathy happened; people-power wasdiluted by a cynical political system. And now the Internet has happened; we canfind an image of anything we like in seconds, and are less willing to have someoneelse's propaganda pushed at us.

Some have argued thatphotography is inherently adifficult medium in which toexpress progressive ideas. Thecamera preserves a moment thatwould otherwise have beenforgotten. It's an instantnostalgia machine. It works verywell for those seeking toconserve some aspect of thestatus quo. Those seeking toprovoke change might find theycan only use a camera tofictionalize, or portray anegative.

None of this has been enough towipe out political photographyalthough the ground and thework have shifted; nor does it





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really change the central question which a political photographer needs to beasking him or herself: 'Is this working?' Will this photography change anything atall, no matter how slightly? And if so, will it change things for the better?

It is possible to identify at least three different ways of saying yes to this question.The humanistic tradition of photojournalism is still strong. People have suggestedthat the work of good political photographer have helped stop conflicts, and workfrom some photographers awakens viewers to war's brutality.

It may well be that this work raises the consciousness of the public and keepsissues in the news. But critics argue that this sort of photography at best sweetensthe pill of the dominant political system we allow this sort of work so we can't beall bad, and at worst is ope n to misuse and manipulation.

A separate strand of campaigning photographer emerged with the flowering of theunderground press in the 1960s. For these photographers it became more importantto control that was publishing the work and how it was being used. The work itselfwas noticeably different too; the gloomier side of photojournalism was replaced bymore upbeats and perhaps less demeaning pictures. Photographers were pleased tobe actively supporting progressive organizations like trades unions, pressuregroups and political parties with high quality work.

Photography is also an accessible and powerful tool for local and communitycampaigns. But the work sometimes seemed to have no bite, looking more likepropaganda than reportage; and it rarely aspires to reach a mass audience, withreaders numbering in hundreds or thousands, not millions.

A third strand uses the political art photography for the strengths of photographywith a strong conceptual underpinning to try and shock or move people intochanging their minds. Photographers want to communicate, and then set out tomake pictures, which will best express these ideas.

The work of committed photographers and agencies is still seen even in theestablishment broadsheets and supplements, and also in some less expected places:lifestyle magazines, television, public spaces, and educational material. The veryrecent renaissance of photography in the mainstream galleries is encouraging, andwork with a political edge is often well attended and received. It's perhaps moredifficult than it ever has been to reach someone and change something withphotography, but the battle is by no means lost.





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3.7. Weather & Environment Photography

Floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, torrential downpours and high winds producehorrible photographic conditions. Roads may be impassable, light nonexistent,telephone lines down, clothes and cameras soaked, yet clients expect strong imagesdocumenting the scene.

Sometimes it pays to reconsider your actions. Try to rent a four-wheel drivevehicle with high ground clearance if you plan to venture into flood areas. Keepthe gas tank filled, since gas station pumps do not work when the power goes out,plus the extra weight helps retain traction. If there is a possibility that you may betrapped in the field, take along bottled water in plastic containers and non-perishable ready-to-eat food.

Major storms produce hazardous conditions for everyone without regard to theimportance of your job. Drive carefully through flood regions since debris, lowwater areas and emergency workers can appear without warning. A hurricane'sstorm surge can combine high tides and winds to pile water 30 feet higher thannormal. Tornadoes occur occasionally during "normal" storms, but hurricanessometimes spin-off dozens.





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High water creates problems even for those on foot and camera may receive athorough soaking. You should make some waterproofing preparations beforeventuring out to cover a foul weather assignment. It helps to Scotch Guard acamera bag as a matter of routine, and a couple of garbage bags and towels will aidin keeping gear dry. Towels also come in handy for drying a car's electrical systemafter going through deep water.

More than one photographer has experienced the fury of having invaluable filmconfiscate by overly zealous bureaucrat. The film itself is another cause forconcern. Freelancers frequently make the error of shooting Kodachrome, whichrequires special processing facilities. The time limitations of a spot newsassignment make it imperative that you shoot normal black-and-white film,depending on your client's needs.

Just as "being there" helps capture the decisive moment, getting the film "out ofthere" to make a deadline can be of equal importance. Many commercial shipperspromise to deliver within 24 to 48 hours, but pitfalls include weekends, holidaysand the extent of the environmental conditions.

Operating from the local newspaper, Associated Press, or United PressInternational bureau affords a final option. The camaraderie of this business alwaysallows out of town news photographers access to the darkroom since they mayneed the favor returned one day! Most newspapers have an AP or UPI transmitterin their office, but this should be a last resort. Transmitting a single black-and-white print takes eight minutes, color takes 24 minutes, and it loses considerableimage quality.

One problem facing contemporary photojournalists stems from the unique natureof news photography. News photographers act in an apparently voyeuristic fashionthe public finds difficult to accept; their actions can sometimes be viewed in anegative fashion.

3.8. War Photography





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Photographers who participate in this genre may find themselves placed in harm'sway, and are sometimes killed trying to get their pictures out of the war arena.Journalists and photographers are protected by international conventions of armedwarfare, but history shows that they are often considered targets by warring groups— sometimes to show hatred of their opponents and other times to prevent thefacts shown in the photographs from being known. War photography has becomemore dangerous with the terrorist style of armed conflict as some terrorists targetjournalists and photographers. In the Second Persian Gulf War, severalphotographers were captured and executed by terrorists or shot by armedinsurgents. 3.10.

3.9.AdvertisingPhotography

The major purpose ofAdvertising is to arouse theconsumers desire to own anygiven product. Advertisingphotography is used tostimulate these desires to anact and purchase. Theadvertising photographermust illustrate, explain,excite, and help create thisdesire for any givenadvertised product. The





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consumer and/or reader will be exposed to these images in a varied media formats:magazines, newspapers, television, billboards and now even the Internet.

Today’s advertising photographer must go beyond being just a camera techno butspend long hours and hard work in perfecting his or her technique. Theprofessional photographer in this field handles the camera to produce quality in thefinished product, the photograph. To command the respect of his clients, and tohave his or her work consistently in demand, the advertising photographer musthave, in addition to this technical ability, creative vision, imagination, and anability to capture unique descriptive images on film.

An advertising photographer rarely works alone, for their talents must synchronizewith those of the other part of the team, the art director. Together they mustcommunicate ideas and work together on the final ‘look’ or ‘feeling’ of theillustration. The art director, however, works on other aspects of the advertisementsuch as the copy, the over-all layout, typography, and the space and media inwhich the final ad will be placed and seen. The photographer, therefore, must workin harmony with the total plans of the art director, who is responsible for thecomplete visual appearance of the advertisement.

Every serious photographer who is thinking of entering the advertising field shouldunderstand what is involved. The advertising agency, in handling an account, hasinvested time and money before any project is assigned to the photographer. Therehave been copy meetings, media conferences, idea discussions, which result in theaccepted layout given to the photographer.

As a cartoonist makes rough sketches, the art director makes rough visuals orlayouts. The art director gets their creative cues from the copy department, accountexecutive or even the advertising client. These cues tell the art director what the adheadline or slogan will be and what the final ‘look’ or ‘feeling’ should be. It is theart director’s job to present the idea visually, usually through rough sketches, to theother members of advertising team. These rough drawings, the layouts, are sentalong, sometimes with alternate ideas, to the assigned photographer. The sketchesare meant to guide the photographer in the photographic interpretation of the basicidea.

Crude and rough as these visuals often are, the experienced and discerningphotographer respects them, works from them, and transforms them into pictureswith eye-catching impact. Not all art directors use visual layouts some will directthe photographer without the help of any sketches. Each has his or her own favorite





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method of working, but every art director works toward one common end: thecreation of an ad that will have sales appeal.

3.10 Landscape Photography

Landscape photography can be a challenge, but with the right composition andgood natural light it can be made a bit easier.

All the world’s cameras, films and other photographic equipment are no more thantools for making landscape pictures. Cameras don’t think for themselves. Whetherwe use digital or film camera, the same photographic principles apply.

We don’t have to stick to many rules to produce great landscape images, butknowing what they are will make your pictures more successful. There are twosalient points in landscape photography: how to compose your image, and how touse available natural light in any given situation.

Start off with the lights; there are three basic qualities of light: intensity, directionand colour. Intensity: refers to the strength of light. If the sun is high in the sky,light can be harsh and too strong. Cloudy days bring soft and defused light.Direction: this refers to light placement. There are three categories of lightplacement: front, back and side-lighting. Side lighting produces more texture





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between light and shade. Colour: the colour of sunlight varies depending uponconditions and time of day. If the sun shines at the beginning or the end of the day,the colour of the light will be much warmer, and will lead to a much more dramaticscene.

Understanding natural light will develop your ability to see. You will start to seethe beauty of light in a different and exciting way. In landscape photography it isvery important to take care with composition. A normal scene can be transformedby paying close attention to detail. Composition is all about how you arrange theelements in front of you.

Few ideas, which you may find useful;

Lead with lines: To lead with lines into the main part of the scene will draw yourviewer into your image. These lines don’t have to be straight. Lines, such as tracks,riverbanks or fences, may work successfully.

Foreground interest: Simple foreground objects can give your landscape a greatersense of depth. Use a small aperture f/22 to keep the entire scene in focus.

Natural frames: Frame your scene with the elements all around you. This willfocus attention on the main part of the picture. Trees make great natural frames.

These are just a few essential guidelines, and combined with a good eye, you haveall you need to get the best out of photography - especially landscape photography.These are just a few rules to get you started, but like all rules, they are there to bebroken.

3.11Social Photography

Social Photographers provide photographic services for their local communities.The work can be a blend of social, advertising, commercial and industrialphotography. These photographers often work from a shop or studio in the localhigh street, or sets up temporary studios in department stores or supermarkets.Some may work for local businesses and advertising agencies, producing imagesfor brochures, posters and other promotional material. They may also freelance forlocal newspapers. Successful social photographers must be adaptable andversatile. Their biggest competitor is the serious amateur photographer – so theymust therefore be adept at marketing themselves and their abilities.





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These Photographers must be well organized, practical, and creative. Good businessskills, strong motivation, and the self-confidence to promote themselves, areessential to find work in an overcrowded profession.They must be able to master different techniques, and to understand digitalprocesses. They need creative visual skills to recognize the potential of a scene orsubject, and the technical ability to convert that visualization into a permanent form.Above all, social photographers must have excellent people skills: weddings areoften exercises in crowd control, and persuading an unwilling child to smilerequires patience and fortitude.

3.12. News Photography

Newspaper photographers shoot news pictures, but news is a broad term as it isdefined by newspapers, it probable includes a little but of everything from portraitsand baby photos to inductrial and political photography. This is because thenewspapers are interested in everything, there is nothing that may be called a limiton the subject matter that a newspaper man is expected to cover.

The photographers on a large paper may specialize in society, sports, or news butwhen a small paper has only one or two cameraman, they must be able to handle





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every picture assingment that the editor can dream up. The journalistic approach tophotography, with its emphasis on story-telling pictures can help improver all of ourpersonal picture-making.

UNIT 4. NEWS VALUES FOR PICTURES

4.1. PHOTO ESSAY

Photo essay is a set or series of photographs that are intended to tell a story orevoke a series of emotions in the viewer. Photo essays range from purelyphotographic works to photographs with captions or small notes to full text essayswith a few or many accompanying photographs. Photo essays can be sequential innature, intended to be viewed in a particular order, or they may consist of non-ordered photographs which may be viewed all at once or in an order chosen by theviewer. All photo essays are collections of photographs, but not all collections ofphotographs are photo essays. Photo essays often address a certain issue or attemptto capture the character of places and events.

A photo essay can take a number of forms, including: An article in a publication, sometimes a full page or a two-page spread.

Newspapers and news magazines often have multi-page photo essays aboutsignificant events, both good and bad, such as a sports championship or anational disaster.

A book or other complete publication. A web page or portion of a web site. A single montage or collage of photographic images, with text or other

additions, intended to be viewed both as a whole and as individualphotographs. Such a work may also fall in the category of mixed media.





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An art show which is staged at a particular time and location. Some suchshows also fall in the category of installation art.

A slide show or similar presentation, possibly with spoken text, which couldbe delivered on slides, on DVD, or on a web site.

A Picture is worth a Thousand Words and cameras have allowed us to witnessfor ourselves important, emotional, tragic, and timeless moments in history. Themost effective photographs help us experience these moments as if we were rightthere.

Photojournalists understand the powerful effects that images can have on people.Throughout history, they have documented everything from the triumph andtragedy of war to the problem of homelessness to life in other countries. Whileprint journalists rely on words to tell the facts of a story, photojournalists tellstories in what are known as photo essays—stories primarily told through pictures,with captions and text to supplement the visuals.

"We See a Great Deal of the World" Margaret Bourke-White, a photographerfamous for taking pictures of ordinary people during the Great Depression, said thefollowing about the role of photojournalists: "We see a great deal of the world. Ourobligation is to pass it on to others." You can learn a great deal about the worldthrough these "passed on" stories, but it's important to view them with a criticaleye. Although cameras can be objective, the photographers using them bring theirown biases, viewpoints, and opinions to their work.

Sometimes photojournalists choose images that are intended to sway youremotions, or may cause you to feel a certain way about an issue or event.Essentially, when you are looking at a photo, you are seeing what the photographerwants you to see: the world through his or her eyes.

Staging Reality

Alexander Gardner was a photojournalist who documented the Civil War. Gardnertook some very dramatic photos showing dead Confederate soldiers. Since then, aresearcher has concluded that Gardner staged some of his photos to make themmore dramatic and to appeal to his audience.

A photo essay isn’t simply for photojournalists however. Every human being isdrawn to stories. Whether you are an amateur or a professional, the photo essay is a





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brilliant way to bring your images to life and touch your family, friends, andcoworkers.

1. Find a topic: Photo essays are most dynamic when you as the photographer careabout the subject. Whether you choose to document the first month of a newborn inthe family, the process of a school drama production, or even a birthday party,make your topic something in which you find interest.

2. Do your research: If you document a newborn’s first month, spend time withthe family. Discover who the parents are, what culture they are from, whether theyare upper or lower class. If you cover the process of a school’s drama production,talk with the teachers, actors and stage hands; investigate the general interest of thestudent body; find out how they are financing the production and keeping costsdown. If you photograph a birthday party, check out the theme, the decorationsthey plan on using, what the birthday kid hopes to get for his or her gifts. All ofthese factors will help you in planning out the type of shots you set up for yourstory.

3. Find the “real story”: After your research, you can determine the angle youwant to take your story. Is the newborn the first son of a wealthy family on whomthe family legacy will continue? Or does the baby have a rare heart condition? Isthe drama production an effort to bring the student body together? Or is it featuringa child star? Is the birthday party for an adolescent turning 13, or the last birthdayof a dying cancer patient? Though each story idea is the same, the main factors ofeach story create an incredibly unique story.

4. Every dynamic story is built on a set of core values and emotions that touchthe heart of its audience. Anger, Joy, Fear, Hurt, Excitement. The best way youcan connect your photo essay with its audience is to draw out the emotions withinthe story and utilize them in your shots. This does not mean that you manipulateyour audience’s emotions. You merely use emotion as a connecting point.

5. Plan your shots: Whether you decide to sit down and extensively visualize eachshot of the story, or simply walk through the venue in your mind, you will want tothink about the type of shots that will work best to tell your story. I recommendbeginners first start out by creating a “shot list” for the story. Each shot will worklike a sentence in a one-paragraph story. Typically, you can start with 10 shots.Each shot must emphasize a different concept or emotion that can be woventogether with the other images for the final draft of the story.




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Remember that story telling takes practice. You don’t have to be an incrediblewriter to pull off a powerful photo essay. All you need is a bit of photographictechnique, some creativity, and a lot of heart. And once you begin taking picturesin stories, your images will never be the same.

4.2. PHOTO FEATURE

A photo feature is another name for a photo archive or database that can besearched to pull up photo's to support news stories. For example, suppose acelebrity passes away tomorrow, reporters will access their huge photo database topull up photos from as far back as the person's childhood to show with thememorials.

Not only does the silent screen stars, celebrities, come to life, but in a photo featurewe will find the celebrities of today in the latest roles, with their families, receivingawards or out on the town.

Photo feature pages give you a good chance to use more refined cameratechniques. The shooting techniques should be unobtrusive while getting a wholeseries of pictures. Flash film and available light will enable you to get pictures witha look of reality that can seldom be posed.

The photos that accompany an interview furnish another example of photo feature.Here, the photos running along the columns of the interview should be sharp and ifthe interview is to run on a feature page, a dozen candid photos showing thesubject as he speaks may accompany it. You would want to capture his gesturesand facial expressions as he makes his main points. A series of flashbulbs going offin his face would inhibit his unconscious mannerisms and might even make himforget what he wants to say. Available light photography is the answer. If possible,you should seat your subject where the background and the light are the best.

With feature assignments a photographer needs the sharp reflexes honed by spotnews events. The trouble with features, however, is that a photographer usuallycannot anticipate where the assignment will take place. It is no wonder that manyundergraduate photography students often complain that they cannot findmeaningful feature pictures to photograph.

Feature assignments are usually self-generated ones. Photo editors, with no otherassignments, will tell the photographer to shoot "wild art" or "a colorful enterprisepicture for Page 1."





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An ordinary photographer might drive to a public park and capture the usualscenes: a child rides a swing, a young woman reads a book, and two men talk on abench. These pictures are made to show readers nothing more than that the weatherwas nice and people enjoyed the day.

A more mature photographer anticipates the need for a feature picture by the photoeditor and has already scouted an area of town or a particular subject that is bothvisually interesting and filled with meaningful content.

Human Interest features show persons being natural and unique. The imagescannot be anticipated. They are one of kind moments that capture a person orgroup being themselves: odd, humorous, and natural. Cute kids, animals, and nunsare traditional subject clichés.

Features offer an opportunity for a page to be highlighted with a pleasant, happypicture that may offset the tragic events of the day. A photographer looking forhuman-interest features thinks like a hunter. Keenly aware and observant,knowledgeable on matters of basic human nature, quiet and unassuming, andtechnically competent to capture quick and fleeting moments, the photographerstalks the city looking for pictures that go beyond the cliché.

Photographers have several techniques they use to take pictures of people. Somewill use a 35mm. wide-angle lens and get close to their subjects. Others usetelephoto lenses to keep a far and undetected distance from their subjects. Theywill either identify themselves immediately or wait until the subject asks for anexplanation.

There are two things that happen when you ask a person if you can take theirpicture and both of them are bad. Either they say no and you don't get the pictureor they say yes and stare and smile at you like they were posing for a snapshot.When you see some unusual action, get an initial picture. Afterward, you canidentify yourself, get their names, and take addition photographs after they becomeaccustomed to your presence.

The other type of feature picture is the much-maligned pictorial. Traditionally, thepictorial is a silhouette of two standing, arm-in-arm lovers at sunset. Pictorials relyon the graphic elements of composition and lighting more than subject matter.Many times pictorial feature pictures, when combined with bold page layoutdesign, can educate unsophisticated readers to the artistic forms and lightingcharacteristics within their world. Shapes and shadows should never distract a





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photojournalist. Personal artistic expression in the form of pictorial feature pictureshas a limited place in the photographer's portfolio. It is far better to take picturesthat combine the striking visual qualities of the pictorial with human-interestmoments.

4.3. PICTURE MAGAZINES

The business of journalism is communication. Photojournalism iscommunication through photographs. A newspaper photo must tell the storyand tell it clearly; otherwise it is wasting valuable space in the paper.Newspapers give the facts as soon after the event as possible, whereas magazinescan wait until more information is in and try to give the story more depth.

In the "golden age" of photojournalism 1930s–1950s, some magazines PicturePost London, Paris Match Paris, Life USA, and Sports Illustrated USAbuilt their huge readerships and reputations largely on their use of photography,and photographers such as Robert Capa, Alfred Eisenstaedt and W. Eugene Smithbecame well-known names.

Sharbat Gula, a young Afghan refugee photographed by SteveMcCurry, became a symbol of the 1980s; the photo appeared on theJune 1985 cover of National Geographic magazine.

Until the 1980s, most large magazines were printed withturn-of-the-century “letterpress” technology using easilysmudged oil-based ink, off-white, low-quality “newsprint”paper, and coarse engraving screens. While letterpressesproduced legible text, the photoengraving dots that formedpictures often bled or smeared and became fuzzy andindistinct. In this way, even when magazines usedphotographs well -a good crop, a respectable size- murky

reproduction often left readers re-reading the caption to see what the photo was allabout. Not until the 1980s had a majority of magazines switched to “offset” pressesthat reproduce photos with fidelity on better, whiter paper.

By contrast Life, one of America’s most popular weekly magazines from 1936through the early 1970s, was filled with photographs reproduced beautifully onoversize 11×14-inch pages, using fine engraving screens, high-quality inks, andglossy paper. Life often published a United Press International UPI) or AssociatedPress AP) photo that had been first reproduced in newspa pers, but the qualitymagazine version appeared to be a different photo altogether.





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In large part because their pictures were clear enough to be appreciated, andbecause their name always appeared with their work, magazine photographersachieved near-celebrity status. Life became a standard by which the public judgedphotography, and many of today’s photo books celebrate “photojournalism” as if ithad been the exclusive province of near-celebrity magazine photographers.

The Best of Life 1973, for example, opens with a two-page 1960 group shot of39 justly famous Life photographers. But 300 pages later, photo credits reveal thatscores of the photos among Life’s “best” were taken by anonymous UPI and APphotographers.

4.4. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

Color photography is photography that uses media capable of preserving colorsand is produced chemically during the photographic processing phase. It is oftencontrasted with black-and-white photography, which uses media capable only ofshowing shades of gray and does not include hand colored photographs. Someexamples of color photography include: Prints, color negatives, transparencies i.e.35mm color slides, roll films, and sheet films.

The first modern 'integrated tri -pack' color film, Kodachrome, was introduced in1935 based on three colored emulsions. Most modern color films, exceptKodachrome, are based on technology developed for Agfacolor. In this newertechnology, chromogenic dye couplers are already within the emulsion layers,rather than having to be carefully diffused in during development. Instant colorfilm was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

There are basically two color systems:

Additive: The colors are added as colored lights. In this system, the mostcommon set of primary colors is red, green and blue. Maxwell's experimentwas of this type, as are screen-plate methods, such as Autochrome. Moderndigital photographs seen on a VDG are also viewed by addition of light froman RGB phosphor array.

Subtractive: Colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. Inthis system the most common set of primary colors is cyan, magenta andyellow. Ducos du Hauron made several pictures by this method in the late1800s.





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Several commercial print methods were devised using the subtractive techniqueduring the 1930s, for printing from 'separation negatives'. Kodachrome was thefirst commercially-available 'integrated tri-pack' film of this type.

There are two main types of color film in current use:

Color negative film forms a negative image when exposed, which is fixedduring developing. This is then exposed onto photographic paper to form apositive image.

Color reversal film, also known as slide film, forms a negative image whenexposed, which is reversed to a positive image during developing. The filmcan then be projected onto a screen.

However, it is important to understand that color photographic materials are notpermanent and by nature is instable. Chromogenic color photographs, for example,are composed of yellow, magenta, and cyan organic dyes which fade at differentrates. Even when in dark storage and enclosed in the proper archival materials,deterioration is unavoidable, but fading, color shifting, and discoloration can beprolonged when given the proper preservation care. Color photography may formimages as a positive transparency, intended for use in a slide projector or as colornegatives, intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on speciallycoated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film non -digital colorphotography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment.

4.5. IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY

Photojournalists are not only social historians with a camera, they are competenttechnicians who must keep abreast of the changing technology and the acceptableethical considerations associated with that technology. In the 1940s, it wasethically acceptable to pose many subjects because the commonly acceptedtechnology of the day, the awkward 4 X 5 press camera with a portable flash, wasa poor recorder of the candid moment. Also, without a 36-exposure film cassette,photographers were forced to make every picture count.

Photographers commonly use cropping, exposure, contrast, dodging, and burningtechniques in the darkroom to make the meaning of a picture clearer. Cropping canbe accomplished during shooting by the choice of lens, distance from the subject orangle chosen, in the darkroom by changing the height of the enlarged image or





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moving the blades of an adjustable easel, or by marking the white borders of aprint to show the area of the final, printed image. With manipulations in apertureand shutter speed combinations or the use of filters when shooting, times andtemperatures when processing the film, aperture and time settings with an enlarger,and filter or paper grade selections in the darkroom, photographers can alter theoriginal tones of the scene dramatically. By preventing light from exposing on acertain area of a print with a tool or by hand, the area can be "dodged" to appear tobe lighter. Conversely, by adding more light to a specific area, the print appears tobe darker or "burned." Dodging and burning can also be accomplished withconcentrated developer or chemical bleaches.

Some photographers have resorted to a simple technique to manipulate an imageflopping. A negative is turned upside-down in the enlarger carrier to produce apicture that is reversed, or flopped. Sometimes the angle of a subject's face or handfits a layout design more pleasingly if the angle is reversed as if viewed in a mirror.The practice is dangerous because right-handed people can be made to appear left-handed, a wedding ring is seen on a right hand, and words in the picture arereversed. Photographers should notice the best angles while shooting withoutresorting to flopping a negative.

With computer technology, the picture manipulations cited here are possiblewithout ever entering a darkroom. Newspapers and national news bureaus areexperimenting with technologies that in a few years will be commonly thought ofas the industry standard. Whether a subject is photographed with negative film orby electronic still video cameras where photographers are able to record theirimages on a 2-inch floppy disk, the pictures can be converted to computerized,digital images. The photographer can then make exposure, color balance, andcropping adjustments on a television or computer screen, type caption information,and send their words and photographs via a telephone line to the photo editor'scomputer terminal. Once in the newsroom's computer, the pictures can be readiedfor the printing process.

The photo editor can make exposure, color, and cropping corrections. Computer-controlled color separations are then automatically performed with the picturesready for the printing press. At the present time, the new technology saves time,yet is expensive with the quality not as high as present, traditional methods. Butthe day will come when the technology becomes affordable for even universityphotojournalism programs.





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There are certain principles that should remain constant despite technologicaladvances. The guiding principle for such manipulations should always be thecontent of the photograph. Is the content or intent of the image drastically alteredby the manipulation? Will an exposure adjustment, angle or perspective change,tight crop, color correction, filter selection, flopped negative, or a dodged orburned area mislead a reader? If the answer is yes, the manipulation should notoccur. Whether by traditional or new technological methods, the underlyingprinciple of not fooling the public should never be compromised. Credibility formsthe distinction between a respected chronicle of a community's best and worstmoments and a supermarket tabloid.

A modem photojournalist is a mixture of reporter, artist, and craftsperson. Aphotographer is expected to determine in 1/500th of a second, whether a subject isnewsworthy, aesthetically pleasing, and technically possible to record on film.Assignments during any one shift can run from coverage of a five-alarm fire to ameeting with the governor. Consequently, photojournalists should be well-educated, curious, and cool under stressful situations. Photographers must also behumane, caring individuals aware of the many ethical concerns that are a part ofany news assignment.

4.6 PHOTOGRAPHY LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

One of the hardest things to get right in a photograph is the lighting. Too muchlight, too little light, or a combination of the two can ruin an otherwise perfectphoto. But, luckily this problem can be solved if you understand the types oflighting, how they affect your camera and what you can do to use these effects toyour full advantage.

1. Backlighting

Backlighting is just as it sounds: light that comes from behind your subject. Thiscan make a beautiful photo, or turn a beautiful photo into a disaster. Backlightingis what turns a palm tree into a silhouette against the sunset. In this case, that is agood thing that adds to the photograph. But, the same thing can happen if you wantto take a photograph of a person who has a strong backlight behind them, such asthe sun, sky, or bright lights. The camera reads the brightness behind the mainsubject and sets its internal meter to expose properly for the extra light. Thisunderexposes your subject and will usually turn them into a silhouette. You canavoid this by using a fill-flash. A fill-flash will “fill” in the needed light, chasingaway the shadows from your subject caused from the bright light behind.





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2. Side Lighting

Side lighting can have a very drastic effect on your photos, also. But, unlikebacklighting, its brightness comes from the right or left of your subject. This tendsto cast one side in total darkness, while putting the other in the spot light. This is awonderful way to get a mysterious, dramatic portrait photo. Pose your subject infront of a window, with one of their shoulders close to the window. Your camerawill expose properly for the bright side and will usually cast the other side of theface in complete darkness. If, on the other hand, you want a natural portrait youcan use something to reflect light onto the darkened side of the face. A whiteposter board or other light reflecting surface can bounce enough light back ontoyour subject to soften the effect of side lighting. Side lighting is wonderful forshowing texture and adding depth to a photo.

3. Diffused Lighting

Sometimes lighting from any direction is just too harsh. This is when you want tosoften the incoming light, to take away some of the contrast for a more pleasingphotograph. Bright sunlight at midday is the worst kind of light for photography.The light colors are washed out and the contrasting shadows are too dark. To avoidthis, wait for the sun to go behind a cloud or if your subject is moveable, put themin the shade of a tree or building and take the photo there. The light will be muchmore natural here and will result in a better photo. If it is not possible to move yoursubject, and there is not a cloud in sight, you can sometimes make your own shadewith an umbrella or some similar object. Or, come back in the morning or eveningwhen the sun is lower the sky.

4. Artificial Lighting

Artificial lighting comes in all shapes and sizes. From a built in flash on yourcamera to expensive lights in the studio, they all have their strengths andweaknesses.

On camera flashes are simple and easy to use, but sometimes cause the awful redeye so common in snapshots. The farther the flash is away from the lens, the lesslikely this is to happen. Another problem with on camera flash is the harsh lightthey cast onto the subject. If you have an off camera flash, you can bounce thelight for a softer effect.

One last thing to remember about artificial light, unless you are using black andwhite film, regular indoor lights will give your photos a yellow cast. These lights




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are not the equivalent of flash bulb lights, and therefore will not give you the sameresults.

4.7. FILM DEVELOPMENT

Duration of Development

From the box the film came in, obtain the film processing time for the developerthat you will be using Example: the time in minutes, for Kodak's D -76 at aconcentration of 1 part stock developer to 1 part water - 1:1

Load Film

Line up all of the equipment on your counter or table for easy access....film reeland film tank with all of its parts; scissors; hook-type bottle opener. Remember,you will be doing the film loading in complete darkness-no safelights!

Don't touch the exposed surface of the film with your fingers. No matter how cleanyou think your fingers may be, there is oil on your skin which will mark your film.If your must touch the film, grasp gently across the wide part of the film with yourthumb and index finger.

Turn off the darkroom lights, and then pry off the flat end of the 35mm filmmagazine with a hook-type can opener. Push the film carefully out of themagazine, by pushing on the spindle end of the magazine. With the lights still off,





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locate your scissors and carefully cut off the tapered leader, then cut the end of thefilm to a smooth arc and insert the end into your film development spool until thefilm's sprockets are firmly engaged by the ball bearings of the spool.

Development tank and spools are plastic and are made by "Paterson"...loading thefilm is easy, - Still in complete darkness, crank the 2 sides of the reel back andforth in opposing directions, until the film is completely drawn into the spool. Yourtype of spool may be different - read the directions that came with the product.

A variation of this process is as follows.... while rewinding, you can feel whenthe film disengages from the camera's take up reel - stop rewinding at this point,your film leader is still protruding from the film magazine. Having the leaderaccessible rather than wound back into the magazine allows you the advantage ofstarting the film into the development spool while the room light is still on. Asmentioned above, cut off the tapered leader with scissors, and then cut the end ofthe film to a smooth arc. With the darkroom light still on, engage the film sprocketholes into the reels.

Turn off all lights including safelights

You are now in total darkness. Now that you have the lead end of the film engagedin the development spool crank the 2 sides of the development reel back and forthin opposing directions, stopping occasionally to pull a few more feet of film fromthe magazine don't let the film touch anything, floor etc. as you will end up withdust on the film surface) and then resume cranking the spool until the film iscompletely drawn in. When you come to the end of the roll, while still in the dark,find your scissors, and feeling for the junction of the end of the film and themagazine, cut across the film to release it from the magazine. Crank the spool alittle to ensure that the end of the film is into the spool.

When you have accomplished the loading of the film onto the development spool,place the film spool properly into your development tank, ensuring that all of theparts are in the proper place gasket etc.. Once the tank is light tight you can turnon the room light and you are ready to proceed with development.

Measure Chemicals

Usually 10 ounces of chemical, per roll





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Measure out the required chemicals....Your tank instructions should give you thecorrect volume of chemistry that is required. Usually the film is developed inKodak's D-76 film developer diluted to a concentration of 1:1 1 part stock solutionto 1 part water - this gives a finer grained image). Dilute the stop bath at approx.1:31 pale yellow if you are using "indicator" stop bath and a 1:4 dilution for yourfixer. We usually measure out 10 ounces of each solution that will be used in theprocess and pour them into 3 jars so that they are ready for use developer, stopbath, fixer).

Correct Temperature

Make sure that all chemicals are at 20 degrees Centigrade 68 degrees Fahrenheit.The most critical here is the developer - the other chemicals may be a few degreesabove or below. If your developer is above or below 20 degree centigrade mark,you may adjust your development time by 30 seconds for each degree centigradedifference.

Example: If your temperature is 21 degrees, then subtract 30 seconds from yourtotal development time - If your temperature is 19 degrees, and then add 30seconds to your total development time. This compensation will work effectivelyin the range of 17 degrees to 23 degrees Centigrade.

Start Development

Start your timer and rapidly pour the developer into the tank, tighten the lid andgive the bottom of the tank 2 firm raps on a hard surface...this will dislodge any airbubbles that are attached to the films surface.

Agitation

If you have a tank that can be inverted without the solution spilling out....agitate,continuously for the first minute of the development process by inverting the tankback and forth, Inversion interval of approx. 1 second then agitate for 5 secondsat 30 second intervals until the last minute of development where you will revertback to continuous agitation for the remainder of the development time. Betweenagitations intervals, rotate the tank one-half turn, - this will help to insure evendevelopment.





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If your tank cannot be inverted, agitate by sliding the tank back and forth over adistance of about 10 inches at a rate of two cycles per second during the agitationintervals. Rotate the tank through about one-half turn between agitation intervals.

Everyone has their own particular quirks in the way in which they develop theirfilm. People agitate their film during development more or less vigorously or moreor less frequently than you might. Hence, their negatives will not be the same asyours. The best way to obtain consistency is to use the same type and speed of filmfor a few months and always develop the film exactly the same! You should thenend up with negatives that are fairly close to each other in density.

Too much agitation=overdevelopment darker negatives and also streaks in thenegatives.

Too little agitation=under development lighter negatives

End Development

Five seconds before the development time is finished, take the cap off of the tankthe tank still has a top and is still light proof, and dump all of the solution downthe drain or into a silver recovery device if you have one.

Stop Bath

Immediately pour in the stop bath and agitate continuously for 30 seconds. ...pourout and discard.

Fixer - also called Hypo

Add fixer.....agitate continuously for the first 30 seconds, and then at 30 secondintervals for 3 to 5 minutes with a fixer made from liquid concentrate, diluted at1:4. When fixing is finished, pour the fixer into a plastic jug that you have labeledas "working fixer". This fixer can be used to fixer papers and can be used over andover before it will become exhausted. Fixer will last about 6 months in a half-fullstoppered bottle.

Water Rinse - If using the optional, Hypo Clearing Agent)

Rinse the film in the tank with running water at 65 to 75 F for 30 seconds.





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Perma Wash or Hypo Clearing Agent

Add Hypo Clearing Agent solution diluted 1:4 and agitate for the first 30 secondsand then at 30 second intervals for 1 to 2 minutes. See wash duration times in nextstep.

Water Wash

Remove the top of the tank and fill tank with running water at 65 to 75 F and letthe water overflow.

wash Duration if not using Perma Wash or Hypo clearing agent- 20 to 30 Minutesin running water that is fast enough to provide a complete change of water veryminutes. Wash duration after using hypo clearing agent perma wash - 5 minutes -each time the running water overflows the tank, dump it out and then let it refillagain.

Wetting Agent

When washing is finished, add 2 drops of "Kodak Photo-Flo" to the tank full ofwater....agitate for 5 seconds and leave in solution for 30 seconds. Remove fromreel and hang in a dust free area to dry overnight. Photo -Flo is important, if youdon't use it, you may end up with water spots on your dried film.

Dry the Film

Hang film in a dust free area of your darkroom overnight using plastic clamps.

4.8. PHOTO PAPER

Photographic paper is paper coated with light-sensitive chemicals, used formaking photographic prints. Photographic paper is exposed to light in a controlledmanner, either by placing a negative in contact with the paper directly to producea contact print, by using an enlarger in order to create a latent image, by exposingin some types of camera to produce a photographic negative, by scanning amodulated light source over the paper, or by placing objects upon it toproduce photograms. Photographic papers are subsequently developed usingthe gelatin-silver process to create a visible image.





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Chances are every negative on a roll of film is not always going to be perfect. As amatter of fact, probably only 3 or 4 images on a roll of 24 will be worthy of beingprinted onto a piece of expensive light sensitive paper.

Professional photographers and students will often take an alternative approach,than just printing every single frame on a roll of film. They will make a contactsheet a selectively choose the image they like best.

All papers are light that are light sensitive, are much like film. They have severallayers, and the most important being the emulsion or light sensitive layer. Paper,however, usually is white; this is provided by the base. The base gives the othertwo layers support and unlike film makes a solid background instead of atransparent background. The paper is protected by a gelatin super coating coverthat protects the emulsion from scratching and chemicals.

There are two major types of paper. First there is a fiber based. Fiber based papercame around before the other type called Resing coated. Because processingchemicals are absorbed into the paper, rinsing and drying takes 4 to 5 times longerthan RC papers. Fiber based papers often are non-glossy. This means that there islittle or no gloss to the final print.

On the other hand resin coated papers are less delicate and can be processedmuch faster and tend to have a longer life span. Both type of papers are packagedand supported by many vendors including Kodak, Ilford, Agfa, and Oriental. Thepaper that you will use will have to be decided by the desired print contrast andquality.

Paper is rated using three variables. These variables are determined by the surface,weight, and contrast.

The Surface varies from smooth glossy to highly textured. A smooth surface isglossy or shiny, while a textured surface has a matte appearance. Samples of photopaper finishes are available at nearly every retail photography store.

The weight corresponds to the thickness of the paper. Fiber-based paper usuallycomes in single weight and double weight. Most prints made on a fiber based paperare single weight. RC papers, however, are medium weight. Double weight paperresembles the stiffness of cardboard and is more expensive than single weight.

Most papers are available in several contrast grades to compensate for less-than-perfect negatives. By adjusting the print time and by using contrast filters, it is





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often possible to make a perfect print with a not-so-perfect negative. As the gradevalue increases the range between black and white decreases. Commonly papersare available in 5 different grades.

Some special papers called variable-contrast papers are available. These types areoften used by beginners because they are the most forgiving. They allow forcontrast manipulation through the use of color filters. These papers are coated withtwo layers of emulsion. The first layer is equivalent to a grade 1 paper and thesecond is equivalent to a grade 4 paper. The grade one is sensitive to a yellowlight. The 4 is sensitive to a purplish light. The filters have a certain hue that passesmore or less light to a certain layer, making more or less contrast.

When you store your paper, always make sure it is nowhere near any type of light.If you keep it in the manufacturer envelope, make sure it is always sealed outsideof the darkroom. Also the temperature is very critical in preserving the quality ofthe paper.

4.9. Chemicals and Equipment

Whether you intend to make a positive sheet or enlarged prints from yournegatives, you need chemicals to develop and fix your image stored on thephotographic paper. You also need certain basic pieces of equipment and anenlarger.

The chemicals that you will need are a very similar to film chemicals. A developer,stop-bath, and fixer are required to make the latent image appear on your exposedpaper. If you forget from the previous film section, a developer turns the exposedsilver halide crystals dark. A stop-bath neutralizes that process, and a fixer takesthose crystals and freezes them and makes the image permanent. If you leave thedeveloping image in the fixer for too long, it will begin bleaching the image out.

The basic equipment are tongs, trays, thermometer, print squeegee, contact printingglass, dusting equipment, negative carrier, timer, contrast filters, safelight, and theenlarger.

Quick Tips for developing Print Photographs

Photography has many different ways of expressing one view on the world. Someare exposed with light, some are color pictures and others can be done in black andwhite. But this writer's favorite is black and white pictures. There is something





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classical and elegant about a black and white photo. Taking and developing a blackand white picture is also very creative because of the gray scale you have to followand the blending of the shadows. It allows you as the artist to choose how you wantyour picture to turn out.

There are many steps you must follow to be sure your picture doesn't get exposedto light. If it does, all the pictures you took are gone and you end up with just blacksquares.

1. Place your film in either a black bag or case and open it in the pitch black.2. Place it into the tank turning the top to make sure it is tightly secure.3. Pour and mix the developer into the tank with the film.4. Remove the developer after the time is up.5. Pour stop bath into the tank. Leave stop bath in for about 30 seconds no

matter what kind of film it is.6. After pouring out the stop bath place the pour in fixer.7. When you remove the fixer you can remove the lid from the tank; the film

can be in light now without turning black.8. Place the film into running water to rinse off the chemicals.9. Place your film into Photo-flow to remove splotches or fingerprints you have

placed while viewing the film.10.Hang out to dry. Even when your film is developed you still have to enlarge

it onto a photographic paper. There are machines, which help you focus thepicture just in case the photo you took was out of focus. Also if you want toadd or take away lights there are strips of filters you can use. They darken orlighten your picture, which adds a good effect. Also if you want to addanother effect you can just take a picture with photo paper. Find things youthink would look nice as a background. Lay them on the paper and switch onthe lights then quickly turn it off. Develop the paper and you will have whiteimprints of whatever you laid on the paper.

In the dark room you are not just developing a photo but also creating a self-expression of you or the person you took in a photo.

SUMMARY

Photography is the process of making pictures by means of capturing light on alight-sensitive medium, such as a sensor or film. Light patterns reflected or emittedfrom objects are recorded onto a sensitive medium or storage chip through a timed





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exposure. The most common process is done through mechanical, chemical ordigital devices known as cameras.

The camera is the image-forming device, and photographic film is the recordingmedium. A camera works somewhat like the human eye, capturing reflected lightfrom objects and through a camera lens and focusing those light rays into animage. Traditionally cameras recorded the image onto film. More recently throughthe development of computer chips, many cameras capture their images on acomputer chip.

Photography is practiced on a professional level for portraiture and for variouscommercial and industrial applications, including the preparation of photographsfor advertising, illustration, display, and record-keeping. Press photography is fornewspaper and magazine illustrations of topical events and objects. Photography isused at several levels in the graphic arts to convert original photographs or otherillustrations into printing plates for high-quality reproduction in quantity. Industrialphotography includes the generation and reproduction of engineering drawings,high-speed photography, and many other forms of technical photography, whichcan aid in the development, design, and manufacture of various products. Aerialphotography is used for military investigation and mapping, civilian mapping,urban and highway planning, and surveys of material resources. Biomedicalphotography is used to reveal or record biological structures, often of significancein medical research, diagnosis, or treatment. Photography is widely applied topreparing projection slides and other displays for teaching through visualeducation.

Color photography was explored beginning in the mid 1800s. Early experimentsin color could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The firstpermanent color photo was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell.Maxwell made contributions to the area of optics and color vision, being creditedwith the discovery that color photographs could be formed using red, green, andblue filters. He had the photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbonthree times, each time with a different color filter over the lens. The three imageswere developed and then projected onto a screen with three different projectors,each equipped with the same color filter used to take its image. When brought intofocus, the three images formed a full color image. The three photographic platesnow reside in a small museum at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, the house whereMaxwell was born.





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Digital imaging is rapidly replacing film photography in consumer andprofessional markets. Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespreadconsumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such asvideo and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would nolonger produce reloadable 35 mm cameras after the end of that year. This wasinterpreted as a sign of the end of film photography. However, Kodak was at thattime a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, Nikonfollowed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but twomodels of their film cameras: the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end NikonF6. On May 25, 2006, Canon announced they will stop developing new film SLRcamera.

Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism the collecting, editing, andpresenting of news material for publication or broadcast that crea tes images inorder to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images,and in some cases to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism can fallunder all subjects’ of photography but the image needs to be news wordy to end upbeing published.

Composition, the act of composing the image in the viewfinder, is a visual processof organizing the elements and individual details of a scene into a balanced andpleasing arrangement. Because what one-person finds pleasing, someone else willnot, composition is largely a matter of personal taste. There is no right or wrongcomposition in photography. A composition that conveys a photographer'sintended meaning is an effective one. A composition that doesn't or that confusesthe viewer is not. Composition in photography is all about arranging the elementsin your photos for maximum impact.

Photo editing is an art and craft for effective communication with the help ofjournalistic photographs by selection, cropping, enlarging blowing up, reducing,sizing, retouching, reproduction, insetting, grouping, clubbing, etc for appealpresentation.

Photo essay is a set or series of photographs that are intended to tell a story orevoke a series of emotions in the viewer. Photo essays range from purelyphotographic works to photographs with captions or small notes to full text essayswith a few or many accompanying photographs. Photo essays can be sequential innature, intended to be viewed in a particular order, or they may consist of non-ordered photographs which may be viewed all at once or in an order chosen by theviewer. All photo essays are collections of photographs, but not all collections of





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photographs are photo essays. Photo essays often address a certain issue or attemptto capture the character of places and events.

The business of journalism is communication. Photojournalism iscommunication through photographs. A newspaper photo must tell the storyand tell it clearly; otherwise it is wasting valuable space in the paper.Newspapers give the facts as soon after the event as possible, whereas magazinescan wait until more information is in and try to give the story more depth.

A modem photojournalist is a mixture of reporter, artist, and craftsperson. Aphotographer is expected to determine in 1/500th of a second, whether a subject isnewsworthy, aesthetically pleasing, and technically possible to record on film.Assignments during any one shift can run from coverage of a five-alarm fire to ameeting with the governor. Consequently, photojournalists should be well-educated, curious, and cool under stressful situations. Photographers must also behumane, caring individuals aware of the many ethical concerns that are a part ofany news assignment.

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. What is Photojournalism? Enlist the uses of Photography.2. What are the tools of photography?3. What is the role of the subject in photography?4. The job of a photojournalist is very challenging. Discuss.5. What are the various kinds of Photography?6. Write a note on History & Development of Photography?7. What is the role of ‘visualization’ in photography?8. What qualities are essential for becoming a Photojournalist?9. Write notes on:a. Photo essayb. Photo Featurec. Impact of Technology on Photographyd. Photography Lighting Techniquese. Film Development, Photo Paperf. Chemicals and Equipment of Photographyg. Darkroom





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SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Photography by Barbara London, John Upton & Jim Stone Prentice Hall2. Photojournalism by Reuel Golden Carltna)3. Master of Photography by Reuel Golden Carltna)4. Digital Photojournalism by Balakrishna Aiyer Authors Press5. Photojournalism and Today’s News: Creating Visual Reality by Loup

Lanton Willy -Blackwell




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