Study Guide Unit 5

American History:

Civil War & Reconstruction Human Biology:

Nervous System, Brain, Ear, Eye, and Tongue

Who are these famous leaders?

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Study Guide Unit 5

Table of Contents

American History

Events Leading to the Civil War .................................................... 2

Important Leaders ............................................................................ 7

Famous Abolitionists ....................................................................... 11

Women in the War ......................................................................... 12

Life in the Confederate Army ......................................................... 13

Major Battles of the Civil War ........................................................ 14

Reconstruction ............................................................................... 17

Human Biology

Nervous System .............................................................................. 18

The Brain .......................................................................................... 21

The Eye ............................................................................................ 23

The Ear ............................................................................................ 26

The Tongue ..................................................................................... 28

Questions for Further Thought ......................................................... 30

Resources and Further Reading ......................................................... 31

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American History: The Civil War

Events Leading to the Civil War

As the nation was expanding, the states of the mid-Atlantic and New England regions continued their development of a manufacturing, commerce, and finance-based economy. Textiles, lumber, machinery, and leather were the major goods produced in the North. The South depended on agriculture (crop growing) for their economy (money). Tobacco, rice, sugar cane, and cotton were the primary crops of the South. Slaves cultivated all of these crops. By 1850, 80 percent of the world’s cotton was being supplied by the American South.

While the Northern part of the United States was continuously developing its railway system, which helped advance its economy, the Southern states did not have a continuous rail line through the Appalachians until the late 1850s. Later, these factors had an impact on the outcome of the Civil War.

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In 1808, Congress abolished the importation of African slaves from other countries. Quakers continued to weakly protest the practice of slavery. However, the westward expansion in the south and the development of the cotton gin (invented by Eli Whitney) created a greater demand for slaves. The Missouri Territory’s application for statehood in 1819 started a heated debate in Congress over whether the new territories of the Louisiana Purchase should allow slavery. Concerned with keeping peace in the country, Senator Henry Clay, known as the Great Compromiser, came up with a bill that tried to please both the North and South. This compromise, referred to as the Missouri Compromise (1820), called for admitting Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state. This kept the slave-to-free state ratio the same. Also, the Louisiana Territory north of 36° 30’ latitude would be free (except for Missouri), and everything south of that line would allow slavery. The bill passed, and peace was kept for two more decades.

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Many people believed that slavery was wrong for various reasons. This led to the abolition movement (doing away with slavery). Some abolitionists (people who worked to end slavery) were involved by helping slaves escape to safety in Northern states or Canada. By the 1830s, an “Underground Railroad” of secret routes and safe houses was actively used. From 1830 to 1860, as many as 40,000 runaway slaves were brought to freedom in Ohio alone. One of the most famous Underground Railroad “conductors” was a runaway slave from Maryland by the name of Harriet Tubman. She led over 300 slaves to freedom and had a $40,000 reward offered for her capture.

Many people were actively involved with protesting slavery or helping slaves escape. By 1838, there were about 250,000 people who were members of various local antislavery organizations. However, Northern abolitionists and Northerners opposing the expansion of slavery were the minority. Most Northerners were not interested in challenging the demand for slavery in the South.

Many people felt that slavery would not spread past the areas where it was already in place. They believed that the practice of slavery would fade away if it were not allowed to spread. By 1845, when Texas entered the Union as a slave state, it became clear that slavery might continue to expand into new territories. After the Mexican-American War ended in 1848, the United States gained even more territory. Whether these territories should be opened to slavery was strongly disputed between Northerners and Southerners.

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Many Northerners refused to cooperate with the capture and return of

slaves required by the Fugitive Slave Act. Some deliberately interfered with the enforcement of the Act, and the Underground Railroad became very involved with the movement of slaves from the South to the North.

In response to the Fugitive Slave Law, a novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe was published in 1852. The book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, vividly described the conditions of slavery and increased the opposition to slavery. The rapid settlement of the territories of Kansas and Nebraska added fuel to the slavery dispute. These areas were closed to slavery because of the Missouri Compromise. Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas supported a plan to allow the settlers to determine whether the states would join the Union as free or slave states. This plan, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, was passed by Congress in 1854, but was

very divisive (troublesome) to the nation. The Kansas Territory became known as “bleeding Kansas” because of the violent conflicts between slave-holding and antislavery settlers.

The situation got worse with the Dred Scott Decision in 1857. Scott was a slave who had moved from Missouri (where slavery was legal) to Illinois and the Wisconsin Territory (where slavery was banned). He stayed there with his master for 20 years. After they returned to Missouri, where Scott was

The Compromise of 1850 was an attempt by Henry Clay to resolve this dispute with the following rules:

1. California joined the Union as a free state. 2. Whether a territory or state should be free would be up to the people

who lived there – popular sovereignty. 3. The Fugitive Slave Act was passed to capture and return runaway

slaves to their masters. 4. Slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, but slavery was

still allowed there. 5. It also established the boundary between Texas and New Mexico.

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to be sold to another master, Scott sued for freedom. The Supreme Court decided that Scott was not a citizen; therefore he had no standing in court. The court also decided that Illinois laws did not affect Scott because he was a resident of Missouri, and decided that his owner could take him anywhere because Scott was “property”.

An Illinois lawyer running for the Senate, by the name of Abraham Lincoln, felt that states should not be able to determine whether to allow slavery, because it was something that concerned the entire nation. He viewed it as divisive to the nation. Although Lincoln narrowly lost the 1858 election for senator of Illinois, he gained national recognition and was nominated by the Republicans for the presidential election of 1860, which he won. The nation continued to be divided with events leading up to the Civil War.

The map to the right shows the divisions of our country in 1861.

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Important Leaders of the Civil War

Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809. He wrote about his early life like this:

“I was born Feb. 12, 1809, in Hardin County, Kentucky. My parents were both born in Virginia, of undistinguished families--second families, perhaps I should say. My mother, who died in my tenth year, was of a family of the name of Hanks.... My father ... removed from Kentucky to ... Indiana, in my eighth year.... It was a wild region, with many bears and other wild animals still in the woods. There I grew up.... Of course when I came of age I did not know much. Still somehow, I could read, write, and cipher [math]... but that was all.”

He married Mary Todd. Of their four boys, only one lived past childhood.

In 1858, Lincoln ran for senator. He lost the election, but he gained a national reputation while campaigning. In 1860, he won the Republican nomination for president. After being elected, seven southern states seceded (left) from the United States of America (often called the Union). Lincoln believed secession was illegal, so he prepared to fight a war. During that war, on January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation. On that day, slaves in the Confederate States were free.

Lincoln fought the Civil War to preserve our form of representative government. He wrote about our government at a memorial service in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. “[We] here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain--that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom--and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth….”

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Lincoln won re-election in 1864, and the war ended in April of 1865. He encouraged Southerners to lay down their weapons and peacefully rejoin the Union. In his Second Inaugural Address, he emphasized: "With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds.... "

On Good Friday, April 14, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated (murdered) at Ford's Theatre in Washington. John Wilkes Booth, an actor, shot him. Some historians believe that Booth was trying to help the South by killing Lincoln. Unfortunately, the anger after Lincoln’s assassination did not help heal the United States. Wars are not easy to heal, even after they end.

Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky in 1808. At first he was

appointed the provisional president of the Confederate States of America (CSA). In November of 1861, he was elected president of the CSA. He was the only president throughout its existence (1861–65). It was very difficult to be president of the CSA, because each state had complete control over itself. The national government relied on the cooperation of each state to accomplish anything. The first capital of the CSA was in Montgomery, Alabama, but it moved to Richmond, Virginia, during the first year of the war. After the war, Jefferson Davis was imprisoned for two years and indicted for treason against the United States of America. The trial was never held. He died of natural causes on December 6, 1889, while living in New Orleans.

Robert Edward Lee was born in Virginia in 1807 and graduated from

West Point in 1829. He served in the United States Army from 1829 until 1861. After resigning his commission in the United States Army, he returned to his

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family in Richmond, Virginia. It appears that he did not want to fight in the Civil War. In a letter to his sister, he wrote:

“We are now in a state of war which will yield to nothing. The whole south is in a state of revolution, into which Virginia, after a long struggle, has been drawn… I have therefore resigned my commission in the army, and, save in defense of my native state--with the sincere hope that my poor services may never be needed--I hope I may never be called upon to draw my sword.”

He was asked to lead the Virginia State forces, and he became commanding general of the Confederate forces in May of 1861. After four years of war, he surrendered to the United States Army on April 9, 1865. After the war, Robert E. Lee became the president of Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) and used his leadership in Virginia to help restore peace.

Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson was a military leader of the

Confederate Army. He earned the nickname “Stonewall” at the First Battle of Bull Run. During battles, he often stood “like a stone wall” near the battle line. He wanted to inspire the soldiers during the battle. His desire to lead from the battlefront led to his death. He died from “friendly fire” (when you are shot accidentally by your own soldiers) in 1863.

Ulysses S. Grant was an important military leader for the Union. He was born in Ohio in 1822, and he was the son of a leather tanner. When Grant reached college age, he attended West Point Military Academy. After his time at school, he fought in the Mexican War and was later stationed in California. After a few years, he was forced to resign from the military, due to behavioral problems. Grant moved back to his wife and family and took them to St. Louis. Grant tried working at several jobs, including, farmer, homesteader, and store owner. At the beginning of the Civil War, Grant reentered military life in a low ranking position. He began to organize troops and eventually worked his way up and became the leader of the Union Army. He led his men to key battle victories in cities such as Vicksburg and Chattanooga. Grant eventually

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established his troop headquarters in Virginia. On April 9, 1865, the Confederate Army surrendered to Grant and his troops. The surrender occurred in the village of Appomattox Court House in Appomattox County, Virginia. Lee and about a third of the Confederate Army were surrounded and surrendered to Grant and the Union. The official surrender occurred at the McLean House. Ulysses S. Grant’s presidency was a difficult one. He was elected leader at a very tumultuous time for the United States. Grant had no political background; he was elected President because of his popularity as a war hero. In reality, Grant was a shy and humble man who put too much trust in the people with whom he worked. He served two terms as President. One of the difficulties faced during the Grant administrations involved Reconstruction in the South. After the Civil War, the nation also faced an economic depression with which Grant had to deal. During his terms, relations with Native Americans were strained and controversial. Even though Grant had been a great military leader during the Civil War, he was not very successful as President, and the many scandals associated with his time in office tarnished his reputation. One very positive impact made by President Grant was his sincere belief in equality between blacks and whites. He helped the nation make significant strides toward achieving political equality between people of different races.

William Tecumseh Sherman was another key military leader of the Union Army. He worked closely with General Grant, and the two developed a battle strategy with which eventually ended the Civil War. They began a campaign (series of battles) on the western edge of the southern states. In that campaign, Sherman’s soldiers marched through Georgia and then to South Carolina. After capturing Atlanta, Georgia, Sherman is infamous for ordering the burning of Atlanta’s businesses. Sherman’s army then marched to Savannah, Georgia, in what historians call Sherman’s “march to sea”. After capturing Savannah, Sherman was able to obtain supplies for his soldiers from Union ships in the Atlantic Ocean.

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Famous Abolitionists Harriet Beecher Stowe was a teacher and a writer. In response to the Fugitive Slave Act, she wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852. The book became a best seller and convinced many people that slavery should end.

Harriet Tubman was a runaway slave from Maryland. She became one

of the most famous conductors of the Underground Railroad, guiding more than 300 slaves to freedom. Slaveholders offered a reward of $40,000 for her capture.

John Brown was a white abolitionist. He organized an attack on the

Federal Arsenal (where the government kept their guns) at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. He planned to distribute the guns stored there to local slaves and start a revolt across the South! Unfortunately, he was caught and hanged.

Sojourner Truth was born a slave in the state

of New York. After all of the slaves in New York were emancipated (freed) in 1827, she traveled the country speaking against slavery and for women’s right.

William Lloyd Garrison was another white abolitionist. He published

The Liberator, a famous abolitionist newspaper and formed the National Antislavery Society in 1833. He traveled throughout the country speaking out against slavery.

Frederick Douglass, also known as the Black

Lion, was born a slave in Maryland in 1817 and escaped to New York in 1838. He learned to read as a child and kept practicing. An admirer of William Lloyd Garrison, he founded The North Star (one of the first African-American abolitionist newspapers), and spoke all over the country.

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Civil War photographs can be seen at the following link: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/cwphtml/cwphome.html.

Women in the War Women played a very active role in the Civil War. The war also forever changed the roles of women in society. Approximately 700 women disguised themselves and pretended to be men, to fight in the Civil War. Other women in both the north and south contributed to war efforts by organizing fund raisers, participating in aid

society functions, and writing letters to soldiers. Many women also cared for sick soldiers, sewed, did laundry, and made sandbags to be used in battle. Aside from battle oriented duties, many women were left alone to single-handedly care for their families while their husbands and sons were fighting in the war.

Dorothea Dix was a powerful woman in Civil War efforts. She was the Superintendent of Army nurses. She worked hard to recruit and organize nurses to help injured and sick soldiers.

Louisa May Alcott was another famous woman who was

heavily involved in the Civil War. Alcott is best-known for her book, Little Women, but during the war, she was an active nurse for the Union army.

Other women participated in the war effort by being spies. Some important female spies of the Civil War include Belle Boyd, Rose O’Neal Greenhow, Nancy Hart, and Laura Ratcliffe. These women often interacted with or eavesdropped on members of the opposing armies and secretly deliver messages to their own military leaders.

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Life in the Confederate Army

One of the difficulties faced by the Confederacy was the lack of weapons, ammunition, and other war materials, as well as lack of soldiers. Most of the South’s supplies came primarily from items captured from the North. Although southern ports were blockaded, Confederate and merchant ships from sympathetic countries managed to get through with needed supplies. Limited quantities of war items were made in the South, because there were few factories for this purpose. Southerners fighting in the north died during the harsh winters because they lacked proper clothing.

Current United States flag First official flag of the United States Southern Cross of the Confederacy

Like the United States flag, the official flag of the Confederate states evolved over time. The original flag (the Stars and Bars) shown above included seven stars, one for each of the original states of the Confederacy. It was used for just over two years. The more widely-known flag of the Confederacy is the Southern Cross. Originally this was the battle flag of the Confederacy. It included 13 stars that represented the states that seceded, plus Kentucky and Missouri. The version seen today (shown below) was actually the Confederate Navy Jack used at sea in 1863 and later.

Life as a soldier during the Civil War was not easy. Soldiers were required to be away from home for months. Conditions were harsh, and soldiers often did not have adequate food, shelter or supplies. Soldiers had to march in all kinds of weather conditions to get from place to place, carrying their equipment and shelter with them.

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Life in camp could be boring. Duties included gathering wood, polishing fittings, grooming horses, clearing areas for drill, collecting water for cooking, and guard duty. Periods of battle were terrifying.

Soldiers were issued peas or beans, bacon, salt beef, and compressed vegetables and hardtack. Hardtack was made of flour, salt, and water. These square biscuits were so hard that the soldiers usually had to break them into pieces with the butt of a rifle or a rock. The soldiers would then place pieces in their mouths to be softened with saliva or soak them in water or coffee. Another method for using hardtack was to fry it in grease or break it up into soup. Nicknames for hardtack were “sheet iron crackers”, “teeth dullers”, and “worm castles”, referring to the critters found in boxes of hardtack.

Major Battles of the Civil War The first battle of the war was at Fort Sumter, South Carolina. Fort Sumter was a Union garrison (fort) in a Confederate state. On April 12, 1861 Confederate forces marched to Fort Sumter and demanded that the Union surrender the fort to the Confederacy. The Union refused, and Confederate forces opened fire. The Union was unable to respond effectively, so they surrendered. Only one person was killed during the battle. When Lincoln requested for the remaining southern states to send troops to fight the secessionists in South Carolina and elsewhere, 5 more states seceded from the Union.

The First Battle of Bull Run, also called the Battle of Manassas, was a

major battle of the Civil War. It occurred on July 21, 1861 in Manassas, Virginia. The Confederate troops won this battle, and as a result, Union troops retreated north to Washington D.C. During this battle, Thomas Jackson earned the name “Stonewall” Jackson because he fought and directed his troops so well. It was at this point that the Union realized this could be a long and costly war.

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Monitor vs. Merrimack was a sea battle that forever changed Navy warfare. This was the first battle between two iron clad ships. It occurred on March 9, 1862, off the coast of Hampton Roads, Virginia. The Merrimack had been the name of a Northern ship which had been discarded. The Confederacy resurrected this ship from the junk yard and refurbished it using iron

reinforcements. The Confederacy renamed this ship The Virginia. The Virginia had been attacking Union ships, and the Monitor, a Union iron clad ship, intervened. The battle was indecisive; there was no clear winner, but the fight between these two iron ships was important because it ended the era of the wooden ship Navy. The Battle of Gettysburg was a three day battle that was fought from July 1-3, 1863. The town of Gettysburg was a town in central Pennsylvania, near the Maryland border. The town was not chosen for any reason in particular; it just happened to be a spot where several roads met. However, the Confederacy did want for the battle to occur in the state of Pennsylvania because it was a Union state. Up until the Battle of Gettysburg, all of the fighting and destruction had occurred in southern states. The Confederacy hoped that if Union lands began to incur damage, then Union morale would suffer, and the Union would be more willing to hear the demands of the Confederacy. The Battle of Gettysburg resulted in an important victory for the North. This was the turning point of the Civil War. After the Battle of Gettysburg, Union General William T. Sherman began his March to the Sea. In this plan, the general basically burned the state of Georgia from Atlanta to Savannah, destroying much of the industrial areas along the way. This led to the Union surrender during the Battle of

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Appomattox on April 9, 1865. The Battle of Appomattox was the final battle of the war. Union forces closed around General Lee and his Confederate troops in the village of Appomattox Court House, Virginia. Lee surrendered to Grant on that same day in the private home of the McLean family. Usually when wars between two countries end, a treaty is signed between the two countries. Although they did exchange letters outlining the terms of the surrender, there was no treaty signed between the Union and the Confederacy. The surrender was a military surrender only. Even if the Confederate government had tried to surrender, the North would probably not have accepted it. To accept the surrender of the Confederate States of America, or to sign a treaty with them, would mean that the United States legally acknowledged them as an actual separate country. The Union never acknowledged the legal existence of the Confederate States of America. Although some tried to do so, the Union has never been broken.

Life after the Civil War was an adjustment for the soldiers. Several former soldiers formed veterans’ organizations in both the North and the South. Reunions were held annually along with parades. The Civil War claimed the lives of 617,000 Americans.

Secession map 1863. The Union vs. the Confederacy. Union states Union territories not permitting slavery Border Union states, permitting slavery Confederate states Union territories permitting slavery (claimed by Confederacy)

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American History: Reconstruction Reconstruction defines the period (1865-1877) following the Civil War

in which the southern states that had seceded, were reorganized by the federal government and gradually brought back into the Union. During this time, Union troops were removed from the south. Reconstruction included programs to help former slaves make the transition from slavery to freedom. Southerners were given amnesty (forgiveness) and their property (except slaves) was returned to them when they declared loyalty to the Union. States were also required to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment, which ended slavery. In reality, with the election of former Confederates to public office, conditions did not improve significantly for the freed slaves.

During Reconstruction, Andrew Johnson became president after Lincoln’s assassination. In 1866, the Fourteenth Amendment, defining citizenship and providing federal protection of Americans’ rights, was sent to the states. Congress required southern states to ratify the amendment before being allowed back into the Union.

In May of 1867, Congress attempted to impeach President Johnson, but his impeachment failed by one vote. In the next presidential election Ulysses S. Grant, a popular war hero, was elected. The first political meetings, which included significant numbers of black men, occurred during the winter of 1868. In February of 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment protecting voters’ rights in regard to race, color, and “previous condition of servitude” was ratified. Throughout the South there was violence against blacks and many instances of political corruption.

In July of 1870, the last of the former Confederate states was readmitted to the Union. Grant was re-elected president in 1872. The Civil Rights Bill of 1875 was passed, but only lasted until 1883 when it was struck down by the Supreme Court. The bill prohibited segregation (separate places for blacks and whites) in public facilities. The presidential election of 1876 was bitterly contested, with both candidates declaring victory. Following a secret deal in which the Republicans agreed to eliminate Reconstruction policies, the Republicans were given the presidency. In 1877, the policies of Reconstruction were officially terminated, and the South again enforced segregation.

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Human Biology: The Nervous System

The human body is controlled by the nervous

system. All of the body’s other systems are coordinated and directed by the nervous system. The nervous system has four jobs:

1. It gathers information from inside and outside of the body.

2. It analyzes the information. 3. It creates and sends responses to the

body based on the information. 4. It also acts a storage center.

The nervous system gathers information from

outside the body using the sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin). It gathers information from inside the body using chemical information from different organs. All this information travels to the brain, or sometimes the spinal cord, and is sorted or analyzed there. Then the brain or spinal cord makes a response to the information, and sends the response to the appropriate organs. Impulses of the nervous system can travel at speeds of 250 miles per hour, while other systems can require several hours to react. The nervous system also acts as a storage center.

Within the nervous system are nerve cells, called neurons, which

carry information throughout the body. The brain, which is the boss of the nervous system, is made up of huge numbers of nerve cells, about 100 billion according to one source. First we will discuss parts of the nervous system, then we’ll look at the structure of nerve cells themselves as well as the brain in more detail. The nervous system has two main parts – the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

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CNS - The parts of the CNS are the brain and spinal cord. The brain is hidden in and protected by the skull. The spinal cord runs through and is protected by the backbone. It is made up of bundles of nerve cells. The spinal cord is an information path between the brain and other parts of the body.

PNS – The PNS is made of all of the other nerves in your body. It connects the rest of the body to the CNS and has two types of pathways. Pathways that carry information to the CNS from the rest of the body are called sensory pathways. Pathways that carry responses from the CNS to the body are called motor pathways. The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. The somatic and autonomic systems both use sensory and motor pathways.

The somatic nervous system includes all nerves that control the muscular system and external sensory receptors (the five senses). The somatic nervous system uses sensory pathways to send information from a sense organ to the CNS. Then it uses motor pathways to send a response to the appropriate organ. This system controls voluntary movements, our five senses, and reflexes like the knee-jerk (when the doctor hits your knee with a hammer and makes your leg jump).

The autonomic system controls organs that function automatically, like the heart, intestines, liver, and glands. Information from these organs travels to the CNS on sensory pathways, and responses to the organs travel on motor pathways. The autonomic nervous system is divided into two parts – the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. The reason for the division is that our bodies need to behave very differently when we are scared and when we are relaxed. When we are scared, the sympathetic nervous system causes our heart rate and blood pressure to increase and digestion to slow down. We have a “fight or flight” reaction. The parasympathetic nervous system works the opposite way. It controls relaxation, and allows us to rest and digest.

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Neurons, the building blocks of the nervous system, come in a variety of shapes and sizes. All neurons have four common parts–

1. Dendrites receive information from other cells and send it to the cell body.

2. Cell body is made up of a nucleus, mitochondria, etc. like eukaryotic cells.

3. Axon relays messages away from the cell body. 4. Synapses are the spaces between neurons where

neurotransmitter chemicals pass from one to the other to send messages.

Below is a structure of a typical neuron.

width of cell body of a typical nerve

cell: 0.0008 inch length of the longest axons: 3 feet

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The Brain

The brain is composed of three main parts – the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain. The outer wrinkly surface is called the cerebral cortex. It is divided into four different lobes. Each lobe is in charge of certain functions.

Frontal Lobe: in charge of problem solving, organization, judgment, impulse control, motor control, and personality characteristics; also deals with some memory and smell recognition

Parietal Lobe: plays an important role in integrating sensory information from various parts of the body; controls touch and pain and is involved with spatial awareness

Occipital Lobe: in charge of vision and vision processing

Temporal Lobe: in charge of recognizing and processing sound, understanding and producing speech; deals with some aspects of memory and rhythm.

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The cerebellum is located underneath the occipital lobe of the cerebrum. Its major functions are motion related. Although it cannot begin movements, it controls balance, coordination, and posture. It also contributes to accurate timing.

The brain stem is located underneath the temporal lobe and in front of the cerebellum. It is in charge of our most vital functions like breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure, digestion, and swallowing. It also controls primal instincts, like survival, and sets the body’s alertness level.

The cerebrum is divided into the right hemisphere and left hemisphere. The right side of the brain is associated more with abstract things like music, color, and shape. It controls the left side of the body. The left side of the brain is associated more with analytical things like math, logic, and speech. It controls the right side of the body. The two hemispheres are connected by a thick bundle of nerves called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other.

When we cut a brain down the center of the brain, from front to back, more parts of the brain can be seen just above the brain stem. The hypothalamus regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, and more. The thalamus is a relay for incoming messages from the nerves. The pituitary gland is sometimes called our “master gland” because it is in charge of so many important things like growth and metabolism. The pituitary releases various hormones to control all of these things. The hippocampus is in charge of our long-term memory, memory formation, and classifying information.

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The nervous system can be affected by various diseases, illnesses, and drugs. One of these is Parkinson ’s disease, which causes tremors, stiffness, and unstable posture. The bacteria Clostridium botulinum in poorly canned food can produce toxins which cause the progressive relaxation of muscles and, sometimes, death. This illness is called botulism. Certain chemicals, like caffeine, drugs, and insecticides all can affect the nervous system. The Eye The eye is the sense organ related to sight and needs light in order to function. Basically the eye functions like this:

Light comes from a source (like the sun or a light bulb), hits an object (like a tree), and is reflected off the object. The light is partially focused by the retina, passes through the pupil, and is focused again by the lens onto the retina. The retina changes the image into nerve impulses and gives the information to the optic nerve, which sends it to the brain to be processed. The eye is swiveled in four directions by four different muscles.

brain stem cerebellum

cerebral hemisphere corpus callosum

pituitary gland

hypothalamus

thalamus

spinal cord

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There are many parts to eye, and each has a specific job. Cornea – A bulging, clear covering over the eye that helps to focus light by bending, or refracting, it onto the lens. Sclera – the whites of the eye; a protective layer that covers most of the eye and connects the cornea to the rest of the eye. Iris – the colored part of the eye; it controls the size of the pupil. Pupil – the opening in the center of the iris; this is what allows light to enter the eye; when it is dark, the pupil is large to let in more light; when it is very bright, the pupil is small.

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Lens – a clear, flexible capsule behind the pupil that focuses light onto the retina; it can change shape to help focus objects properly. Vitreous humor – the clear jelly-like filling between the lens and retina Retina – the light sensitive tissue at the back of the eye; light is focused here and the image is translated into electrical nerve impulses; contains rods and cones Rods – photoreceptor cells responsible for seeing in black and white; located in the retina Cones – photoreceptor cells responsible for seeing in color; located in the retina Optic Nerve – the nerve that carries information from the eye to the brain to be processed; it runs from the retina to the visual center of the brain Blind Spot – the area of the retina that connects to the optic nerve; there are no rods or cones here Visual Center – the area of the brain that is responsible for sight and processing visual information; it is located in the occipital lobe Tear Duct – a gland at the inner corner of the eye that secretes a liquid which keeps the eye smooth, moist, and clean Eyelid – a flap of skin that opens and closes over the eye; it allows light in or blocks it out; it helps to keep dust and particles out of the eye; it also spreads tears around the eye, helping to keep it clean and smooth Eye lashes – soft hairs that line the top and bottom eyelids; they help to catch dust and other foreign objects before they enter the eye

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In a normal eye light is focused right on the retina. When the eye is too long, the light focuses in front of the retina causing near sightedness. When the eye is too short, light is focused behind the retina causing far sightedness. Both of these conditions can be corrected with eyeglasses. The Ear The ear is the sense organ responsible for hearing. It is broken into three sections: the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear. The outer ear gathers sound waves traveling through the air (or water if you’re underwater) and funnels them toward the middle ear. The outer ear also keeps dust and debris out of the middle ear. The middle ear is where vibrations of sound waves are increased in force. The sound waves vibrate the eardrum and tiny bones in the middle ear. This begins the process of changing sound waves into something the brain can understand. The area surrounding these bones should be filled with air. When there is fluid in the middle ear, we experience an ear ache. The inner ear is filled with liquid. The vibrations of the middle ear cause this liquid to vibrate. The vibrations of the liquid then bend hair cells bend in a special way to create electrical impulses that are carried along the auditory nerve to the auditory center in the temporal lobe of the brain.

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Ear Canal: The tube that carries sound from the outer ear to the middle ear. Tympanic Membrane (Ear Drum): A delicate flap of skin that stretches across the opening between the outer and middle ear. It vibrates when sound waves reach it and then it vibrates the ossicles. Ossicles: Three tiny bones (the malleus, incus, and stapes) in the middle ear that are attached to the eardrum. The ossicles make the vibrations of the eardrum stronger. Malleus (Hammer): The ossicle right next to the eardrum. It is vibrated by the eardrum. Incus (Anvil): Second bone of the ossicles, between the eardrum and stapes. Stapes (Stirrup): The third bone of the ossicles, between the incus and the round window Round Window: Another layer of skin that stretches across the middle ear; it separates the middle ear from the inner ear. As the stapes vibrates, it vibrates the round window. The round window then vibrates the fluid in the inner ear.

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Eustacian Tube: a long canal connecting the middle ear to the passages of the nose and mouth; it allows air to move freely in and out of the middle ear; the air in the outer and middle ear allows the eardrum to vibrate freely. Vestibule: a liquid-filled chamber in the inner ear; as the round window vibrates the liquid in the vestibule experiences pressure waves. Sense organs responsible for balance are located here. Cochlea: a coiled, fluid-filled canal where vibrations from the ossicles become nerve impulse. The cochlea is lined with little hair cells which bend in a special way to transmit information to the auditory nerve. Auditory Nerve: the nerve that carries sound information from the surface of the cochlea to the auditory center in the temporal lobe of the brain.

The Tongue The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth. It helps us to talk, sing, swallow, chew, and taste. It is the main taste organ in the body. The tongue is made of different groups of muscles covered all over in a moist pink mucous membrane. Mucous membranes have glands that secrete a thick fluid called saliva. Saliva provides moisture for the mouth, softens food as it is chewed so it can be swallowed easily, and dissolves food molecules. The

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mucous membrane on top of the tongue is also covered in rough bumps called papillae. There are different types of papillae on the tongue. Papillae are covered with taste buds which pick up the chemicals of food dissolved in saliva. Receptor cells are located in each taste bud. They receive the message from the dissolved food. Nerves take the messages from the receptor cells to the glossopharyngeal and tympani nerves, which take the signals to the parietal lobe of the brain. Smell also helps us to “taste”. While we eat, tiny odor molecules from our food travel straight up to the nose and seem to intensify the flavor of the food. Try eating with a pinched nose to see how much blander food tastes when you can’t smell it. Types of Papillae (Stick your tongue out in front of a mirror to see all the different types!)

Filliform: thin, thread-like, whitish papillae located at the front of the tongue Fungiform: mushroom-shaped deep red papillae mostly located at the side and front of the tongue Vallate (Circumvallate): eight to twelve large donut-shaped papillae located in a V-shape toward the back of the tongue

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Foliate: leaf-shaped papillae located at the back sides of the tongue

Questions for Further Thought

1. Why did the states begin a civil war? State at least three viewpoints of the Union and at least three viewpoints of the Confederacy.

2. Discuss at least six events that led to the Civil War. Give the name, the cause, and the effect of each event.

3. Discuss at least six major battles of the Civil War (you may discuss battles covered in the work that were not covered in the study guide). You must include the first battle, the first major battle, the first iron-sides battle, the turning point battle, the second to last battle, and the final battle.

4. Why is the time period after the Civil War called Reconstruction? What

was it supposed to do?

5. What are the major jobs of the nervous system? What are the major divisions (give at least 6) of the nervous system? How do they work together to send messages around the body?

6. Discuss one of the sensory organs covered in this Unit. Name its major

parts and the job performed by each part.

There is a theory that different areas of the tongue are sensitive to different tastes. Use the following chart to try a

blindfolded experiment at home and see what you think!

taste sweet salty sour bitter area tip sides sides back

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Resources Florida, The Sunshine State by Patricia Chui – lots of trivia A Historical Album of Florida by Charles A. Wills – historical pictures Pensacola Naval Air Station Lighthouse exhibit http://civilwar.si.edu/timeline.html http://dhr.dos.state.fl.us/facts/history/summary/#human http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/reconstruction/ http://www.usflag.org/history/confederatestarsandbars.html flags Further Reading & More Information Abraham Lincoln by George Sullivan (In Their Own Words series) Florida by Ann Heinrichs Hardtack & Coffee or the Unwritten Story of Army Life by John D. Billings Harriet Tubman by George Sullivan (In Their Own Words series) Sojourner Truth by Peter Roop (In Their Own Words series) http://bensguide.gpo.gov/ “Ben’s Guide to United States Government for

Kids” http://fcit.usf.edu/Florida/lessons/cvl_war/cvl_war1.htm Civil War in Florida http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/cwphtml/cwtake.html “Taking Photographs

at the Time of the Civil War” http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ndlpedu/collections/cwp/history.html

search for historical photographs http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/pkyonge/3421.html comparative timeline of

Florida history and United States history http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/reconstruction/states/sf_timeline.html

Reconstruction timeline