STRUCTURAL MODELLING OF CAUSE AND EFFECT FACTORS OF … · 2016. 8. 3. · 5.2 Process Diagram of...

STRUCTURAL MODELLING OF CAUSE AND EFFECT FACTORS OF

CONSTRUCTION WASTE GENERATION IN MALAYSIAN

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

SASITHARAN NAGAPAN

A thesis submitted in

fulfilment of the requirements for award of the

Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

DECEMBER 2014

v

ABSTRACT

Construction industry contributes significantly in improving socio-economic

development of a country. However, this industry faces serious problems of

construction waste generated worldwide including Malaysia. Construction waste is

results from various factors which are necessary to identify for reducing the waste

generated in construction project. Hence, this study focused on developing a

structural model of construction waste generation and determining the most

important group that contributes to construction waste generation. The questionnaire

consisted of 77 causative factors which then clustered into 7 groups and 13 effects

factors of construction waste which are clustered into 3 groups. These factors and

assigned groups were validated by 30 construction personnel (contractors,

consultants and clients) during the pilot study. The actual survey was conducted with

a total of 302 questionnaires were received by respond rate of 60%. The data analysis

is carried out using SmartPLS software. A structural model of construction waste

generation was developed based on 7 groups of causative factors and 3 groups of

effect factors using Partial Least Squared-Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM)

technique. It was found that the model is fit due to the R² value of 0.451 (R2

≥ 0.26 =

substantial). The model identifies that all 10 groups are significant with t-value ≥

2.58 from bootstrapping process of 5000 random samples. The model indicates that

Handling of Materials and Equipment group has the highest impact on construction

waste generation. Finally, this finding was validated by 22 construction practitioners

who agreed that Handling of Material and Equipment group of factors contributes the

highest amount of construction waste generation at site. This group of factors should

be avoided during construction works to reduce the waste generation. The findings of

this study are contributed to understand clearly the cause and effect factors of

construction waste generation in Malaysia.

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ABSTRAK

Industri pembinaan adalah penyumbang yang ketara di dalam peningkatan

pembangunan sosio-ekonomi sebuah negara. Walau bagaimanapun, industri ini

menghadapi masalah yang serius bagi isu penjanaan sisa pembinaan di seluruh dunia

termasuk Malaysia. Sisa pembinaan dihasilkan daripada pelbagai faktor yang perlu

dikenalpasti untuk mengurangkan penjanaan sisa di projek pembinaan. Oleh itu,

kajian ini telah fokus kepada membangunkan satu model struktur penjanaan sisa

pembinaan dan menentukan kumpulan yang paling signifikan kepada penjanaan sisa

pembinaan. Soal selidik terdiri daripada 77 faktor penyebab yang diklasterkan

kepada 7 kumpulan dan 13 faktor kesan sisa pembinaan yang diklusterkan kepada 3

kumpulan. Semua faktor dan kumpulan yang ditentukan ini telah disahkan oleh 30

pekerja pembinaan (kontraktor, perunding dan pelanggan) semasa kajian rintis.

Kajian sebenar telah dijalankan dengan 302 borang soal selidik yang telah diterima

dengan kadar respon sebanyak 60%. Analisis data dilakukan dengan menggunakan

perisian SmartPLS. Satu model struktur penjanaan sisa pembinaan telah dibangunkan

berdasarkan 7 kumpulan faktor penyebab dan 3 kumpulan kesan dengan

mengunakan teknik Partial Least Squared-Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-

SEM). Ia mendapati bahawa model tersebut adalah baik kerana nilai R² adalah 0.451

(R² ≥ 0.26 = substantial). Model tersebut telah kenalpasti bahawa semua 10

kumpulan adalah signifikan dengan nilai-t ≥ 2.58 daripada proses bootstrapping

bagi 5000 sampel rawak. Model tersebut telah menunjukkan bahawa kumpulan

Pengendalian Bahan dan Peralatan mempunyai impak tinggi kepada penjanaan sisa

pembinaan. Akhirnya, penemuan ini telah disahkan oleh 22 pengamal pembinaan

yang bersetuju bahawa kumpulan Pengendalian Bahan dan Peralatan merupakan

faktor penyumbang tertinggi bagi penjanaan sisa pembinaan di tapak. Faktor-faktor

bagi kumpulan ini harus dielakkan semasa kerja pembinaan supaya penjanaan sisa

pembinaan dapat dikurangkan. Penemuan kajian ini menyumbang kepada memahami

dengan jelas faktor penyebab dan kesan penjanaan sisa pembinaan di Malaysia.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

LIST OF APPENDICES

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3 Research Questions

1.4 Aim and Objectives

1.5 Scope of the Research

1.6 Thesis Structure

CHAPTER 2 CAUSE AND EFFECT FACTORS OF

CONSTRUCTION WASTE

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Construction Industry

2.3 Type of Construction Waste

2.3.1 Physical Waste

2.3.2 Non-Physical Waste

2.4 Issues on Construction Waste

2.5 Causative Factors of Construction Waste

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2.5.1 Design Group of Factors (DESG)

2.5.2 Handling Materials and Equipment Group

of Factors (HAND)

2.5.3 Workers Group of Factors (WORK)

2.5.4 Management Group of Factors (MANA)

2.5.5 Site Condition Group of Factors (SITE)

2.5.6 Procurement Design Group of Factors

(PROC)

2.5.7 External Group of Factors (EXTE)

2.6 Effect factors of Construction Waste

2.6.1 Environment

2.6.2 Economy

2.6.3 Social

2.7 Theoretical Model

2.8 Summary

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Research Plan

3.3 Literature Review

3.4 Quantitative Approach

3.4.1 Questionnaire Design

3.4.2 Pilot Study

3.4.2.1 Reliability Test of Pilot Study

3.4.2.2 Analysis of Pilot Study

3.4.2.3 Summary of Pilot Study

3.4.3 Questionnaire Survey

3.5 Analysis Methods

3.6 Model Development

3.6.1 PLS-SEM

3.7 Validation

3.8 Summary

CHAPTER 4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

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4.2 Actual Survey

4.2.1 Sampling Statistics

4.2.2 Organization

4.2.3 Knowledge and Experience

4.3 Univariate Analysis on Collected Data

4.3.1 Waste Generated

4.3.2 Data Reliability Test

4.3.3 Ranking of Causative Factors

4.3.3.1 Comparison with Other Countries

4.3.4 Ranking of Effect Factors

4.4 Summary

CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURAL MODELLING OF CAUSE AND

EFFECT FACTORS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Development of Hypothetical Model

5.3 Sample Size

5.4 Model's Assessment Procedure

5.4.1 Input Data

5.4.2 Draw Hypothetical Model

5.4.3 Assign Manifest to Latent Variable

5.4.4 Execute Modelling Process

5.5 Assessment of Measurement Model

5.5.1 Individual Item Reliability

5.5.2 Convergent Validity

5.5.3 Discriminant Validity

5.6 Assessment of Structural Model

5.6.1 Hypothesis Testing

5.7 Validation

5.7.1 Statistical Validation

5.7.2 Expert's Opinion Validation

5.8 Summary

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Introduction

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6.2 Conclusion of the Findings

6.2.1 Objective 1: Identifying cause and effect

factors of construction waste

6.2.2 Objective 2: Determining hierarchically the

cause and effect factors of construction

waste

6.2.3 Objective 3: Developing structural model of

cause and effect factors of construction

waste

6.3 Limitation of the Study

6.4 Contribution to Academic Knowledge

6.5 Contribution to the Industry

6.6 Recommendations for Future Research

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PILOT STUDY

APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE FORM FOR DATA

COLLECTION

APPENDIX C: EXAMPLE OF CSV. FILE FORMAT USED IN

PLS-SEM ANALYSIS

APPENDIX D: PLS ASSESSMENT RESULTS

APPENDIX E: QUESTIONNAIRE FORM FOR VALIDATION

APPENDIX F: SIGNIFICANCE LETTER FROM INDUSTRY

PUBLICATIONS AND ACHIEVEMENTS

VITA

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LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Construction Projects Registered under CIDB

2.2 Physical Waste Generation

2.3 Time and Cost Overrun Problems in Several

Countries

2.4 Various Groups of Factors

2.5 Design Group of Factors

2.6 Handling of Materials and Equipment group of

Factors

2.7 Worker Group of Factors

2.8 Management Group of Factors

2.9 Site Condition Group of Factors

2.10 Procurement Group of Factors

2.11 External Group of Factors

2.12 Environment Group

2.13 Economy Group

2.14 Social Group

3.1 Respondent’s Demographics in Pilot Study

3.2 Cronbach's alpha for Pilot Study

3.3 Cut-off Scale

3.4 Analysis of Causative Factor from Pilot Study

3.5 Analysis of Effect Factor from Pilot Study

3.6 The Use of SEM Approach in Construction Research

4.1 Survey Statistics

4.2 Respondent’s Organization

4.3 Type of Organization

4.4 Types of Construction Waste Generated

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4.5 Reliability Test Results

4.6 Frequency and Ranking of Causative Factors

4.7 Comparison with Factors of Construction Waste with

other Countries

4.8 Ranking of Overall Data for Effect Factors

5.1 Sample Size Used by Researchers

5.2 Convergent Validity

5.3 Analysis of Cross-loading of Factors

5.4 Latent Variable Correlations

5.5 Results of Hypothesis Tests

5.6 Q2 value for Predictive Relevancy

5.7 Demographic of Respondents Who Involved in

Validation Process

5.8 Frequency Results for Expert's Opinion Validation

6.1 Path Results of the Model

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LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Construction Sector Growth Trend from 2004 to

2012

2.1 Wastage of Cement at Construction Site

2.2 Packaging Waste at Construction Site

2.3 Metal Waste at Construction Site

2.4 Bricks Waste at Construction Site

2.5 The Need for Rework

2.6 Equipment Failure Leads to Stoppage of Work

2.7 Construction Waste Illegally Dumped at Mangrove

Swamp, Malacca in 2011

2.8 Construction Waste at 17/1A Road, Petaling Jaya in

2012

2.9 Construction Waste Illegally Dumped at Taman

Ruwiyah, Selayang in 2013

2.10 Construction Waste Illegally Dumped at Kampung

Melayu Subang in 2014

2.11 Theoretical Model of Construction Waste

3.1 The Flow Chart of this Research

3.2 Experience of Respondents Involved in Pilot Study

3.3 Example of E-tendering Model

3.4 Example of Intentions to Share Knowledge Model

3.5 Example of Cost Performance Model

3.6 Example of Model Struktur Petunjuk Prestasi Utama

4.1 Type of Projects Respondents handled

4.2 Contract Amount of Projects Handled by

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Respondents

4.3 Academic Qualification of Respondents

4.4 Respondent’s Experience

4.5 Stages of Construction Waste Generation

5.1 Hypothetical Model of Construction Waste

5.2 Process Diagram of PLS-SEM Analysis

5.3 Draw Hypothetical Model in SmartPLS

5.4 Assign Manifest Screenshot of SmartPLS

5.5 Complete Model of PLS-SEM

5.6 Developed Structural Model

5.7 t-value from Bootstrapping

5.8 Generated Q2 Values of the Model

6.1 Causative Factors of Construction Waste

6.2 Effects factors of Construction Waste

6.3 Top Five Significant Causative Factors

6.4 Top Five Severity Effect Factors

6.5 PLS-SEM of Cause and Effect Factors of

Construction Waste

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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CW - Construction Waste

CIDB - Construction Industry Development Board

PLS-SEM - Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modelling

SEM - Structural Equation Modelling

KPKT - Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government

EPU - Economic Planning Unit

PPSPPA - Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management

Corporation (Perbadanan Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal

dan Pembersihan Awam)

CIOB - The Chartered Institute of Building

JKR - Public Works Department (Jabatan Kerja Raya)

Ir. - Professional Engineer

UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

PSA - Politeknik Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah

PMU - Politeknik Mukah Sarawak

csv. - Comma Separated Value

AVE - Average Variance Extracted

CR - Composite Reliability

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

RM - Ringgit Malaysia

BE - Bachelor of Engineering

Q² - Predictive Relevancy

CV Red - Cross Validated Redundancy

CV Com - Cross Validated Communality

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LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Questionnaire for Pilot Study 109

B Questionnaire Form for Data Collection 114

C Example of csv. File Format Used in

PLS-SEM Analysis 119

D PLS Assessment Results (Iteration 1 until 8) 120

E Questionnaire Form for Validation 143

F Significance Letter from Industry 147

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

In Malaysia, construction development is growing rapidly since last few decades.

Together with social development, construction sector has contributed significantly

to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country. The construction growth trend in

GDP since 2004 is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Construction Sector Growth Trend from 2004 to 2012

(Khan et al., 2014 & CIDB, 2013a)

Figure 1.1 shows that, in year 2012, Malaysian construction sector registered

an impressive GDP growth of 18.5% that is far surpassing the 4.6% in 2011. This

growth is due to the huge amount invested for construction development projects

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under 10th Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) with the allocation of RM230 billion (EPU,

2011).

Even though the rapid development of construction provides facilities which

are needed by people but it also contributes to negative impact to economy, social

and environment (Noor et al., 2013; Azis et al., 2012; Llatas, 2011). The waste

generated from construction activities has been increasing over the years and giving

negative effect to environment. The waste generation has resulted in the increasing of

illegal dumping activity (Katz & Baum, 2011) and shortage of landfill space (Ann et

al., 2013). Thus, it is important to take actions for avoiding construction waste

generation.

1.2 Problem Statement

Like other countries, Malaysia is also facing a serious problem of waste generation in

the construction industry (Noor et al., 2013; Hassan et al., 2012; Aadal et al., 2013).

This waste generation is due to the increasing demand for major infrastructure

projects, commercial buildings and housing development (Begum et al., 2010;

Mokhtar & Mahmood, 2008). It has resulted in creating a number of illegal dumping

site nationwide (Wei, 2012; Sharifah & Zainal, 2014). The waste generation is

caused by various factors which need to be identified for avoiding the waste.

Unfortunately, Malaysia does not have accurate data of construction waste

flows and factors causing the waste generation on-site or off-site (Begum et al.,

2007). The same problem was also highlighted by foreign researchers (Yuan & Shen,

2011; Lu & Yuan, 2011b; Azis et al., 2012). In order to overcome this issue,

Construction Industry Development Board of Malaysia (CIDB) and National Solid

Waste and Public Cleansing Corporation (PPSPPA) have encouraged researchers to

conduct research works in construction wastes area (Hamid, 2011; Taha, 2012).

Unfortunately only a few researchers have studied the issue of construction waste in

Malaysia. However, most of these studies focused on quantifying the amount of

construction waste generation and less attention is given on developing relationships

model for cause and effect factors of construction waste generation.

3

Hence, this study focuses on identifying factors of construction waste

generation and developing a structural model of cause and effect factors of

construction waste generation for Malaysian construction industry.

1.3 Research Questions

Based on the problem statement of the study, the research questions are formulated

to help researcher into achievable objectives. This research focuses on the following

research questions:

i. What are the cause and effect factors of construction waste?

ii. What is the main factor of the cause and effect factors of construction waste?

iii. How to develop a relationships model between the factors and construction

waste generation?

1.4 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to develop a relationship model of cause and effect factors of

construction waste generation for Malaysian construction industry. In order to

achieve this aim, the objectives of this study are:

i. Identifying cause and effect factors of construction waste.

ii. Determining hierarchically the cause and effect factors of construction waste.

iii. Developing structural model of cause and effect factors of construction waste.

1.5 Scope of the Research

This study focuses on identifying the cause and effect factors of construction waste

generation through factual perception of the construction practitioners. The target

respondents are focuses to contractors, consultants and clients. These three categories

of respondent are the major players in Malaysia construction industry (Yong &

4

Mustaffa, 2011). Contractors who involved in the study are registered with

Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) of Malaysia. There are seven

categories of contractors from smallest contractor G1 (less than RM 200,000) until

the largest contractor G7 (above than RM 10 million). Consultant who is working in

Malaysia construction project is identified during direct visitation to their office/site.

Client who has participated in the survey is from government body such as Public

Work Department (JKR) and Solid Waste Management and Public Cleansing

Corporation (PPSPPA). The gathering of data involves only quantitative method

using structured questionnaire distributed throughout Malaysia. Since the research

focuses for Malaysia construction industry, all the respondents involved are only

from Malaysia.

1.6 Thesis Structure

This study focuses on developing a structural model of cause and effect factors of

construction waste generation for Malaysian construction industry. The thesis of this

study is divided into 6 chapters as stated below:

Chapter 1: This chapter discusses the need of this study. It contains

background, problem statement to summarize the main research questions and

objectives of the study.

Chapter 2: This chapter contains the review of published research works for

the related study on construction waste factors and effects.

Chapter 3: This chapter explains research plan and the methodology adopted

for this research work. It presents details of analyzing approaches used for data

analysis together with the data collection technique.

Chapter 4: This chapter discusses the univariate analysis results including

identifying and determining hierarchically the cause and effect factors of

construction waste generation. It also highlights the most top factor of cause and

effect of construction waste generation in Malaysia construction industry.

Chapter 5: This chapter explains the multivariate approaches of structural

equation modelling (SEM) analysis. It also includes the development of structural

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model of cause and effect factors of construction waste generation using PLS-SEM

approaches and as well as explains the course of validating the model’s output.

Chapter 6: The final chapter discusses the conclusion of the results achieved

from this study with direction for future works to benefit the construction industry

for controlling the construction waste factors of a project.

CHAPTER 2

CAUSE AND EFFECT FACTORS OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the types, issues and factors of construction

waste generation. Based on literature review the cause and effect factors are linked

into a theoretical model. This model is addressing a gap in construction waste

domain for Malaysia construction industry. This study explores the relationships of

cause and effect of factors of construction waste generation.

2.2 Construction Industry

Construction industry plays a significant role in helping the development of a

country to achieve developed nation status by the year 2020 (Islam & Ismail, 2010;

Khan et al., 2014). Therefore to fulfil the development process, high number of

construction projects are being planned and constructed in the 10th

Malaysia Plan

(2011-2015) (CIDB, 2013b). Table 2.1 shows the total number and amount of

construction projects are being registered in Construction Industry Development

Board, Ministry of Works, Malaysia.

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Table: 2.1: Construction Projects Registered under CIDB

Year

Total

Numbers of

Projects

Total Project Value

(RM million) Source

2009 7,039 74,913.65 CIDB, 2011

2010 7,124 87,286.46 CIDB, 2011

2011 7,359 97,034.17 CIDB, 2012

2012 7,542 122,720.59 CIDB, 2013b

From Table 2.1, it can be perceived that the trend of construction project

numbers and its value are increasing from 2009 to 2012. Currently, numerous mega

construction projects are ongoing in Malaysia such as Kuala Lumpur International

Airport 2 (KLIA 2) project with RM 997,227,000.00 (Habibullah et al., 2012), and

Electrified Double Track Project (EDTP), Ipoh - Padang Besar project with RM

12.485 billion (Gamuda, 2014). Due to this rapid development in the construction

sector, the construction industry faces the problem with construction waste

generation. According to Nasaruddin & Ravana (2008) and Begum et al. (2010), the

construction waste generation is increasing every year in Malaysia. This problem is a

crucial challenge for the construction industry.

According to Ofori (2000), construction industry in developing country needs

to take challenges in reducing waste generation which was to land disposal and also

need to find an environmental-friendly way of minimizing the waste. This is because

the generated waste leads to negative impact on the environment (Papargyropoulou

et al., 2011; Winkler, 2010). Hence, the construction waste such as time and cost

overrun also reduces the overall projects performance in the construction industry

(Alwi et al., 2002b).

2.3 Type of Construction Waste

Waste is considered as unwanted material (Ferguson et al., 1995) which is a by-

product of human and industrial activity that has no residual value (Serpell &

Alarcon, 1998). It is also considered as losses which are resulted from activities that

consume direct or indirect costs but do not add value to the end product (Koskela,

1992). For construction waste, it is generated due to construction activities which

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include design works, planning, procurement, execution, renovation and also

demolition. Currently, construction industry is facing severe problem due to

construction waste generation that increase rapidly (Foo et al., 2013) worldwide such

as in United States and Europe (Serpell et al., 1995), Singapore (Hwang & Yeo,

2011), Sri Lanka (Senaratne & Wijesiri, 2008) and Malaysia (Azis et al., 2012).

Construction waste has resulted in consumption of resources in excess than

the necessary need to execute a service (Freitas, 1995 cited in Branco, 2007). It has a

significant impact on environment and social aspects of life and also causing

economic loss. Construction waste can be clustered into two types namely the

physical and non-physical waste.

2.3.1 Physical Waste

Physical construction waste is defined as waste which arises from construction,

renovation and demolition activities including land excavation or formation, civil and

building construction, site clearance, demolition activities, roadwork, building

renovation and repair of damaged buildings. Some researchers define physical waste

as solid waste which comprises sand, bricks, blocks, steel, concrete debris, tiles

bamboo, plastics, glass, wood, paper, vegetation and other organic materials (Katz &

Baum, 2011; Hao et al., 2008; Bossink & Brouwers, 1996). These wasted materials

are usually deposited at landfills. Figures 2.1-2.4 show the examples of physical

waste at construction site.

Figure 2.1: Wastage of Cement at Construction Site

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Figure 2.2: Packaging Waste at Construction Site

Figure 2.3: Metal Waste at Construction Site

Figure 2.4: Bricks Waste at Construction Site

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The generation of physical waste has been highlighted from various countries by

researcher in term of percentage/weight/volume of waste generated as shown in

Table 2.2.

Table: 2.2: Physical Waste Generation

References Material Waste Generation

Jaillon et al. (2009) Hong Kong generates 21.5 million tonnes of

construction waste in 2005.

Kofoworola &

Gheewala (2009)

It is estimated that between 2002 and 2005, an average of 1.1 million tonnes of construction waste was

generated per year in Thailand.

Fatta et al. (2003) Construction and demolition waste in Greece is

estimated to exceed 3.9 million tonnes from years 1999 to 2000.

Nagapan et al. (2013) 422.9m3 construction waste generated within 2 months

in three construction projects in Malaysia.

McGrath & Anderson

(2000) Construction waste is estimated around 70 million

tonnes every year in United Kingdom.

John et al. (2004) Generation of Construction and demolition waste in

Brazil is estimated 68.5 million tonnes annually.

2.3.2 Non-Physical Waste

Non-physical waste is normally occurred during the construction process such as

rework, waiting time, unnecessary transportation, delay in moving material and

others. Non-physical waste can also be termed as non-value adding activities that are

usually resulted to time and cost overrun for a construction project (Alwi et al.,

2002a; Nazech et al., 2008). Figures 2.5 and 2.6 show the examples of activities that

could result to non-physical waste at construction site.

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Figure 2.5: The Need for Rework Figure 2.6: Equipment Failure Leads to

Stoppage of Work

Table 2.3 shows the time and cost overrun scenario in different countries.

Table 2.3: Time and Cost Overrun Problems in Several Countries

References Country

Experiencing of the non

physical waste problem

Time Cost

Senaratne & Wijesiri (2008) Sri Lanka √ √

Hwang & Yeo (2011); Ekanayake & Ofori

(2000); Zhao & Chua (2003) Singapore √

Polat & Ballard (2004) Turkey √

Alwi, Hampson, & Mohamed (2002a);

Nazech et al., (2008) Indonesia √ √

Formoso et al., (2002) Brazil √ √

Serpell et al., (1995) Chile √

Faniran & Caban (1998); Alwi et al., (2002) Australia √

Koskela (1992) Finland √ √

Table 2.3 indicates that are many countries experiencing the time and cost

overrun. All these problems can be considered as non physical waste (Alwi et al.,

2002b).

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2.4 Issues on Construction Waste

Construction wastes have become a pressing issue in many developing countries and

have adverse effects on environment, economy and social aspects. The related issue

of construction waste problem is illegal dumping of the waste. This problem become

a frequent issue created from construction waste in many countries (Rahmat &

Ibrahim, 2007, Yuan, 2012, Yu et al., 2013). Malaysia is facing serious illegal

dumping problem throughout the country (Yahaya & Larsen, 2008). A study

conducted by Mahayuddin, (2011), have identified 13 illegal dumpsites in Ipoh,

Perak while Rahmat & Ibrahim, (2007) found 19 illegal dumping sites are located

near to the road side corridor in Johor Bahru, Johor. Since 2011 until 2014, local

newspapers highlighted illegal dumping issues in a few places in the country as

shown in Figure 2.7-2.10 below.

Figure 2.7: Construction Waste Illegally

Dumped at Mangrove Swamp, Malacca

in 2011 (Murali, 2011)

Figure 2.8: Construction Waste at 17/1A

Road, Petaling Jaya in 2012 (Wei, 2012)

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Dumped at Taman Ruwiyah, Selayang

in 2013 (Ghani, 2013)


Dumped at Kampung Melayu Subang in

2014 (Sharifah & Zainal, 2014)

This construction waste problem is caused by many contributory factors of

construction waste generation. Hence, to avoid/prevent the generation of construction

waste, the practitioners need to identify the main factors of construction waste

generation before engaging in construction works.

2.5 Causative Factor of Construction Waste

Construction waste is generated throughout the project from the inception stage until

the completion stage. There are many factors contribute to construction waste

generation. A total of 81 factors are identified from research articles worldwide

(Nagapan et al., 2012). Most of the articles grouped their factors differently.

However, majority of the articles introduced the groups of some similarities. Table

2.4 shows various groups introduced by the previous researchers. It ranges between 4

to 10 groups.

Table 2.4: Various Groups of Factors

Researchers Groups No of

groups

Senaratne & Wijesiri (2008) Management, Resources, Information, External 4

Guerrero et al. (2012) Design, Construction process, Material management,

Operation, Residues, Other 6

Ekanayake & Ofori (2000) Design, Operational, Material Handling, Procurement 4

Bossink and Brouwers

(1996)

Design, Procurement, Materials Handling, Operation,

Residual, Other 6

14

Table 2.4 (continued)

Table 2.4 shows the categorization of the group of factors by previous

researchers varies between four to ten groups. In this study the factors are

categorized into 7 groups. The groups are Design, Handling of Materials and

Equipment, Workers, Management, Site Condition, Procurement and External group

(Nagapan et al., 2013). Each group of factors is presented in the following sub-

sections.

2.5.1 Design Group of Factors (DESG)

Design is an important stage before the construction activity is going to be started on

site. Previous researchers identified many wasteful activities during the design stage.

The majority of these wasteful activities consume time and effort without adding

value for the construction project (Love, 1996). Besides that, in design group there

are 12 factors contributing to waste generation. All the design factors are shown in

Table 2.5.

Researchers Groups No of

groups

Polat & Ballard (2004)

Design, Procurement, Operation, Other

4

Graham & Smithers (1996) Design, Procurement, Materials Handling, Operation,

Residual, Other 6

Akhir et al. (2013)

Information and communication, Equipments, Project and

Contract Management, Material, Procurement, External,

Manpower

7

Ilhaq (2010)

Contractual, Design, Procurement, Transportation, Onsite

management and Planning, Material storage, Material

Handling, Site Operation, Others

8

Alwi et al. (2002a) People, Professional Management, Design and

Documentation; Materials, Execution and External. 6

Nazech et al. (2008)

Manpower, Professional management, Design and

Documentation, Materials, Work execution, External

factors

6

Urio & Brent (2006) Design, Procurement, Materials Handling, Operation,

Residual, Other 6

Osmani et al. (2008)

Contractual, Design, Procurement, Transportation, On-site

Management and Planning, Material storage, Material

handling, Site operation, Residual, Other.

10

Adnan (2012) Design, Procurement, Material, Operational, Others 5

15

Table 2.5: Design Group of Factors

No Factors References

1 Frequent design changes Adewuyi & Otali, (2013); Faniran & Caban (1998); Yunpeng

(2011); Alwi et al. (2002b); Zhao & Chua (2003)

2 Design errors Tam et al. (2007); Wan et al. (2009); Senaratne & Wijesiri

(2008); Noor, (2013)

3 Lack of design information Osmani et al. (2008); Urio & Brent (2006); Polat & Ballard

(2004)

4 Poor design quality Nazech et al. (2008); Formoso et al. (2002); Alwi et al.

(2002a)

5 Slow drawing distribution Nazech et al. (2008);

Alwi et al. (2002a); Alwi et al. (2002b)

6 Incomplete contract document Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Poon et al. (2004)

7 Complicated design Poon et al. (2004); Guerrero et al. (2012)

8 Inexperience designer Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Bossink & Browers (1996);

Osmani et al. (2008)

9 Error in contract

documentation Urio & Brent (2006); Osmani et al. (2008)

10 Interaction between various

specialists Garas et al. (2001); Polat & Ballard (2004)

11 Poor coordination of parties

during design stage Poon et al. (2004); Urio & Brent (2006)

12 Last minute client requirements Poon et al. (2004); Osmani et al. (2008)

These 12 factors as indicates in Table 2.5 is identified from the past research

works. The formation of ‘design group’ is in line with the research works carried out

by Guerrero et al. (2012) where the group is one of the contributors to construction

waste generation.

2.5.2 Handling Materials and Equipment Group of Factors (HAND)

Handling methods play a vital role to prevent damages in construction projects.

Commonly, handling methods related to material handling and equipment handling

by workers in any construction projects. Researchers from Malaysia concur with the

problem and found most of the material was damaged due to handling works Ilhaq

(2010). This waste generation group consisted of 9 factors are as shown in Table 2.6.

16

Table 2.6: Handling of Materials and Equipment Group of Factors


1 Wrong material storage Wahab & Lawal (2011); Lau et al. (2008); Mokhtar & Mahmood,

(2008); Guerrero et al. (2012)

2 Poor material handling Kofoworola & Gheewala (2009); Gavilan & Bernold (1994)

3 Damage during

transportation

Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Garas et al. (2001); Wahab & Lawal

(2011); Guerrero et al. (2012)

4 Poor quality of materials Lu et al. (2011); Nazech et al. (2008); Bossink & Browers (1996);

Alwi et al. (2002a); Serpell et al. (1995)

5 Equipment failure Tam et al. (2007); Gavilan & Bernold (1994); Zhao & Chua (2003)

6 Delay during delivery Polat & Ballard (2004); Alwi et al. (2002a); Zhao & Chua (2003)

7 Tools not suitable used Wang et al. (2008);Tam et al. (2007); Zhao & Chua (2003)

8 Inefficient methods of

unloading Osmani et al. (2008); Poon et al. (2004b); Lau et al. (2008)

9 Materials supplied in

loose form Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Osmani et al. (2008)

The group is supported from previous research work conducted by

Ekanayake and Ofori (2000) from the National University of Singapore.

2.5.3 Workers Group of Factors (WORK)

Construction projects cannot be carried out without workers or labours. They are the

major players during the construction activity. The workers will work together with

other parties as a team to construct the project until its completion. In this study,

'worker’s group' comprises of 14 factors of waste generation is as shown in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7: Worker Group of Factors


1 Workers' mistakes during

construction

Gavilan & Bernold (1994); Llatas (2011);


2 Incompetent worker Nazech et al. (2008); Lu et al. (2011); Formoso et al. (2002);

Alwi et al. (2002a)

3 Poor attitudes of workers Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Serpell et al. (1995)

4 Damage caused by workers Poon et al. (2004a); Urio & Brent (2006);


5 Insufficient training for

workers Garas et al. (2001); Wang et al. (2008); Formoso et al. (2002)

6 Lack of experience Lu et al. (2011); Nazech et al. (2008);

Alwi et al. (2002a)

7 Shortage of skilled workers Alwi et al. (2002a); Polat & Ballard (2004); Noor (2013)

17



8 Inappropriate use of materials Urio & Brent (2006); Alwi et al. (2002a)

9 Poor workmanship Faniran & Caban (1998); Tam et al. (2007)

10 Worker’s no enthusiasm Yunpeng (2011); Zhao & Chua (2003)

11 Inventory of materials not well

documented

Urio & Brent (2006); Mokhtar & Mahmood

(2008)

12 Abnormal wear of equipment Garas et al. (2001)

13 Lack of awareness among the workers Mokhtar & Mahmood (2008)

14 Too much overtime for workers Alwi et al. (2002a)

Without workers factors as indicates in Table 2.7, construction could not take

place and can cause project stoppage. This grouping of waste generation factors

adapted from ‘people group’ (Alwi et al., 2002) which is later changed to more

specific grouping as ‘workers group’.

2.5.4 Management Group of Factors (MANA)

From the beginning of construction projects, the management team is considered as a

driver for the projects. They will plan, supervise and control the construction

activities. In addition, Serpell (1995) point out that manager has to deal with many

factors that may negatively affect the construction process. Hence, literature of past

researchers leads to form a group namely 'management group' as illustrated in Table

2.8. The similar group name has been applied by Garas et al. (2001) for a study

conducted on Egyptian Construction Industry.

Table 2.8: Management Group of Factors


1 Poor planning Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Formoso et al. (2002); Senaratne &

Wijesiri (2008); Zhao & Chua (2003)

2 Poor controlling Garas et al. (2001); Kofoworola & Gheewala (2009);Senaratne &

Wijesiri (2008)

3 Poor site management Urio & Brent (2006); Lu et al. (2011); Formoso et al. (2002);

Zhao & Chua (2003)

4 Poor supervision Wang et al. (2008); Nazech et al. (2008); Alwi et al. (2002a);

Zhao & Chua (2003)

5 Inappropriate construction

methods Wahab & Lawal (2011); Tam et al. (2007); Polat & Ballard (2004)

18



6 Lack of coordination among

parties Yunpeng (2011); Garas et al. (2001); Alwi et al. (2002a)

7 Poor information quality Wang et al. (2008); Senaratne & Wijesiri (2008); Serpell et al.

(1995)

8 Late information flow among

parties

Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Osmani et al. (2008); Senaratne &

Wijesiri (2008); Alwi et al. (2002b)

9 Scarcity of equipment Formoso et al. (2002); Serpell et al. (1995); Polat & Ballard

(2004)

10 Lack of waste management

plans

Bossink & Browers (1996); Urio & Brent (2006); Polat &

Ballard (2004); Akhir (2013)

11 Resources problem Wahab & Lawal (2011); Senaratne & Wijesiri (2008)

12 Rework Wan et al. (2009); Garas et al. (2001); Polat & Ballard (2004);

Akhir (2013)

13 Waiting periods Zhao & Chua (2003); Alwi et al. (2002b)

14 Communication problems Gavilan & Bernold (1994); Yunpeng (2011)

15 Outdated equipment Nazech et al. (2008); Alwi et al. (2002a)

16 Non availability of

equipment Zhao & Chua (2003); Serpell et al. (1995)

17 Lack of knowledge about

construction Kofoworola & Gheewala (2009); Urio & Brent (2006)

18 Long project duration Poon et al. (2004b) ; Osmani et al. (2008)

19 Lack of influence of

contractors Urio & Brent (2006)

20 Lack of environmental

awareness Wang et al. (2008)

Table 2.8 demonstrates that the management group is the biggest number of

waste contributory factors involved with 20 factors contributing to the construction

waste generation.

2.5.5 Site Condition Group of Factors (SITE)

Unfavourable site conditions such as soft soil/peat soil or hilly area for construction

activities need more attention as compared to ordinary site. This is because the earth

is geographically hilly and swampy. So, these conditions lead to construction waste

generation. For this research, 'site condition group' contains 8 contributory factors as

shown in Table 2.9.

19

Table 2.9: Site Condition Group of Factors


1 Leftover materials on site Lau et al. (2008); Faniran & Caban (1998); Poon et al.

(2004a)

2 Waste resulting from packaging Llatas (2011); Bossink & Browers (1996); Wang et al.

(2008)

3 Poor site condition Formoso (2002); Zhao & Chua (2003); Alwi et al. (2002)

4 Waiting due to congestion at site Serpell et al. (1995); Zhao & Chua (2003)

5 Waiting due to lighting problem Zhao & Chua (2003)

6 Difficulties accessing construction

sites Osmani et al. (2008)

7 Unforeseen ground conditions Poon et al. (2004b)

8 Interference of others crews at site Zhao & Chua (2003)

In line with the group, there are few articles supported the grouping factors (Zhao &

Chua, 2003; Alwi et al., 2002a).

2.5.6 Procurement Group of Factors (PROC)

Procurement is essential to deliver a project on time, on budget and to a high quality

(CIOB, 2010). It is very close in dealing with supplier, contractor or client for

purchasing and ordering the construction materials. During the construction process,

many projects faced procurement problem (Lu & Yuan, 2011b; Tam et al., 2007). In

this study 'procurement group' consists of 10 factors for construction waste

generation as highlighted in Table 2.10.

Table 2.10: Procurement Group of Factors


1 Ordering errors Mokhtar & Mahmood, (2008); Poon et al. (2004) ; Lu et al.

(2011); Polat & Ballard (2004)

2 Items not in compliance with

specification

Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Formoso et al. (2002); Garas et

al. (2001)

3 Error in shipping Gavilan & Bernold (1994); Wang et al. (2008); Tam et al.

(2007)

4 Mistakes in quantity surveys Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Tam et al. (2007); Polat &

Ballard (2004)

5 Supplier errors Urio & Brent (2006)

6 Wrong material delivery

procedures Urio & Brent (2006)

7 Over allowances Osmani et al. (2008)

20



8 Frequent variation orders Ndihokubwayo & Haupt (2009)

9 Different methods used for

estimation Lau et al., (2008)

10 Waiting for replacement Polat & Ballard (2004)

2.5.7 External Group of factors (EXTE)

External factors are uncontrollable factor which can generate construction waste

(Alwi et al., 2002a). External factor group's is named in different way according to

previous researchers. Some of the researchers name it as 'unpredicted situations'

(Garas et al., 2001), 'others' (Urio & Brent, 2006) and 'external' (Alwi et al., 2002a) .

For this study, the group consists of 8 uncontrollable factors contributing to waste

generation as stated in Table 2.11.

Table 2.11: External Group


1 Effect of weather Wahab & Lawal (2011); Senaratne & Wijesiri (2008); Akhir et

al. (2013)

2 Accidents Ekanayake & Ofori (2000); Bossink & Browers (1996); Polat &

Ballard (2004)

3 Pilferage Garas et al. (2001); Faniran & Caban (1998); Muhwezi et al.,

(2012)

4 Lack of legislative

enforcement Esin & Cosgun (2007); Wang et al. (2008); Faridah et al. (2004)

5 Vandalism Wahab & Lawal (2011); Garas et al. (2001)

6 Damages caused by third

parties Nazech et al. (2008); Alwi et al. (2002a)

7 Festival celebration Serpell et al. (1995)

8 Unpredictable local

conditions Polat & Ballard (2004)

This type of group as in Table 2.11 is supported by Nazech et al. (2008) who

conducting study on construction waste generation for Indonesia construction

industry.

21

2.6 Effect factors of Construction Waste

Construction wastes give many negative effects to a country. In Malaysia,

construction waste is getting worse with the illegal dumping issues as described in

Chapter 2 Section 2.4. From the review of literature it has been identified that there

are three main groups of effect factors for construction waste generation that are

environment, economic and social (Begum et al., 2010; Begum et al., 2006; Mokhtar

& Mahmood, 2008; Seow and Mohamad, 2007). The effect factor of construction

waste is looking into these three elements.

2.6.1 Environment

Environment encompasses of all living and non living things on earth which interact

with all of living species (Johnson et al., 2007). Therefore, these construction wastes

(non living things) from the construction industry have high impact on the

environment (Yunpeng, 2011). Table 2.12 is consisted of 4 effect factors.

Table 2.12: Environment Group


1 Environmental

pollutions

Lu et al. (2011); Llatas (2011); Wang & Li (2011); Begum et al.

(2010);Che Hasan et al. (2013); Liu & Huang ( 2013)

2 Shortage of land Kofoworola & Gheewala (2009); Mokhtar & Mahmood (2008);

Ortiz et al. (2010)

3 Increasing of Illegal

dumping

Gavilan & Bernold (1994); Kofoworola & Gheewala (2009); Seow

and Mohamad (2007); Seror et al. (2014)

4 Ecological damage Yunpeng (2011); Lu & Yuan, 2010

The group as presented in Table 2.12 is formed to reflect the effect of

construction waste generation on the environment.

22

2.6.2 Economy

A country growth is based on economic development in the country. The economy

development system works when all professions, occupations, economic activities

contribute to the economy development of the country (Esin & Cosgun, 2007). For

this study, the effect factors related to cost overrun and time loss of a construction

project (Formoso et al., 2002; Alwi et al., 2002). The economy group comprises of 5

factors which give effect from construction waste is shown in Table 2.13.

Table 2.13: Economy Group


1 Increase in transportation charge of

construction waste have been raised

Faridah et al., (2004); Faniran & Caban (1998);

Ekanayake & Ofori (2000)

2 Increase cost of projects Khairulzan & Halim (2006); Urio & Brent

(2006); Ndihokubwayo & Haupt (2009)

3 Increase landfill fee Gavilan & Bernold (1994); Wang et al. (2008)

4 Increase in price of raw materials Faniran & Caban (1998); Khairulzan & Halim

(2006)

5 Delay of projects Khairulzan & Halim (2006); Ndihokubwayo &

Haupt (2009);

These 5 factors as shown in Table 2.13 are identified from literature review to

reveal the construction waste effect from economic perspective.

2.6.3 Social

Social attributes occur whenever people interact under specific conditions,

circumstances and actions (Merton, 1968). The social attribute is also related to

human or population growth in a country (Katz & Baum, 2011). With more

population in a country, more problems can arise from the construction waste

generation. Furthermore, the impact of construction waste will lead people to create

problems in term of health and negative relationships among them. The social factors

are presented in Table 2.14.

23

Table 2.14: Social Group


1 Mental health effects Llatas (2011); Wang & Li (2011); Seow and Mohamad (2007); Tam et

al. (2007)

2 Physical health effects Wang et al. (2008); Yunpeng (2011); Noor (2013); Wu et al. (2014)

3 Injury to public Khairulzan & Halim (2006); Mokhtar & Mahmood (2008); Ortiz et al.

(2010)

4 No aesthetic Khairulzan & Halim (2006); Seow & Mohamad (2007); Seror et al.

(2014)

Table 2.14 is reflected the effect of social group from construction waste generation.

2.7 Theoretical Model

Theoretical model or hypothetical model is developed from a review of past research

works (Aibinu & Lawati, 2010). The theoretical model is basis for testing the

relationships of independent and dependent variables (Fellows & Liu, 2008). Hence,

based on a review of the literature, a structural model of cause and effect factors is

developed as presented in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: Theoretical Model of Construction Waste

24

The theoretical model as in Figure 2.11 is concerned with relationships of cause and

effect factors of construction waste. Furthermore, the linkages between causes

(design, handling, workers, management, site condition, procurement and external

factor) and effects (environment, economy and social) have been integrated into one

relationship model. This addresses a gap in the literature by providing a complete

model within the context of relationship in construction waste domain. In order to

provide more complete understanding of the cause and effect factors of this model,

several hypotheses is constructed from the model.

The relationships between the cause and effect factors (independent variables)

and construction waste generation (dependent variable) form the basis to formulate

hypotheses as describe below:

H1: DESG (design) has significant effect on construction waste

H2: HAND (handling) has significant effect on construction waste

H3: WORK (workers) has significant effect on construction waste

H4: MANA (management) has significant effect on construction waste

H5: SITE (site condition) has significant effect on construction waste

H6: PROC (procurement) has significant effect on construction waste

H7: EXTE (external factors) has significant effect on construction waste

H8: Construction waste has significant effect on EN (environment)

H9: Construction waste has significant effect on SO (social)

H10: Construction waste has significant effect on EC (economy)

2.8 Summary

Construction industry is contributing significantly in economic and social

development of the country. However, it is facing chronic problem of construction

waste generation globally which needs serious attention and in depth study to resolve

it. For this, the first and foremost important step is to understand the problem of

construction waste, causes contributing to waste generation and the effects of waste.

This chapter presents a comprehensive literature review carried out to understand the

issue of construction waste and the cause and effect factors. This has resulted in

93

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