STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR IN ANCIENT MESOAMERICA 1

JOE D STEWART

The Mesoamerican calendar as we know it from ethnohistoric sources the codices and archaeological manifestations is an intricate system of intermeshing time cyeles Despite much scholarship on the subject the origin of this extremely sophisticated system remains an intringuing and controversial problem While most scholars view it as completely indigenous sorne most notably Kelley (1960 1974) have argued for sigJlificant Old World influences Kelley (1980) also has argued on the basis of astronomical implications of the system that the calendar was purposefully invented thus agreeing in general terms with the inventionist view of Spiden (1924 157-159) and departing froro the deve10pmental or evolutionary view (eg Satterthwaite 1965 605) But regardless of viewpoint on the origins of the calendar system probably everyone writing about its origins has believed that sorne simpler form of calendar must once have existed in Mesoamerica They sometimes nevertheless express a degree of pessimism as to our ever being able to produce evidence of it This doubt seems particushylarly associated with the belief that the Mesoamerican calendar system envolved in tandem with evolution of writing For example Hanns Frem emphasizing archaeological evidence in the form of objects bearing calendrical glyphs states

In the archaeologically investigated past a calendar becomes tangible only be being fixed in writing But since the deshyvelopment of a calendar in the form of the solar year or even the Tonalpohualli did not require a fixing in writing (as demonstrated by ethnographic findings) early phases of the calendar may remain forever unknown to uso In spite of this it may be assumed that the mere existen ce of a

~ 1 wish to thank David H Kelly John A Graham William Fowler Persis Qarkson and Janice Boddy for reawng and discussing with me the preliminary versions oiacute this papero

1

172 JOE D STEWART

calendar facilitated the formation of a writing system and through the latter the calendar received new stimulation to further develop in complexity (Prem 1971 115)

However suggestions of a less strictly archaeological-epigraphical nature have been made from time to time For example among the recent spate of archaeoastronomical studies is one in which Malmstrom (1978) attempts to explain the development of the Mesoamerican calendar system in terms of hypothetical astronomical observations in Preclassic Mesoamerica Both Thompson (1950 98-99) and Caso ( 1967 33 79-85) have reviewed a number of earlier suggestions mostly based on the codices and on structural features of the calendar system as we know it Prominent in these discussions were possible evidences of some kind of lunar eacutealendar However Caso had to conclude his review of these ideas on a skeptical note

Tales datos podriacutean hacer pensar en la existencia de un cashylendario lunar de 13 meses de 28 diacuteas pero con los datos que conocemos considerarrtos muy hipoteacutetica su existencia (Caso 196785)

Of cOUlSe the eclipse table of the Dresden Codex and the Lunar Series of the monumental inscriptions leaves no doubt that the Maya recognized the synodic period ofthe moon and that they counted the days of this perlod (Sattethwaite 1965 619-623 Spinden 1924 68-73) Spinden (1924 158-159 and Fig 8d) pointed out that 29-30 months were recorded by the moon glyph (which also means 20) with the numeral 9 or 10 beside it The Aztees also recognized lunar perlods of 29 and30 days (Caso 1971 348) However the present paper has to do not with these advanced calendrical features but with a structural pattem in the calendar which 1 believe attests implishycity to the former use of a re1atively primitive calendar of 12-13 lunar months 1 have already called attention fo this very briefly in my comment on a paper by Graulich (1981 54) but it requires e1aboshyration

Fim we may recall that a basic cycle of the Mesoamerican calenshydar system in its known form is the so-called month of 20 named days which are combined with the numbers 1 to 13 to give a 260-day cyc1e (20 X 13 = 260) called tonalpohualli by the Aztees Running concurrently with this cycle ]s the socalled vague year of 365 days comprised of 18 named rounds of the 20 days plus 5 unlucky days (20 X 18 + 5 = 365) The further mechanies of this system are

STRUCJ

not of concem fu 1980) What is of the 18 montb

There is consi~ months beWnstb (5 unlucky dayal analysis except ~ fusion in the ~ sources There iexcl glyphic symbols j

paper 1 tabulatel under investigatJ huitlehua (and the most exhawi Cuadros X-Xl)l J the Nahuatl and) sons tabulation meanings the di descriptions of ~ festivaIs of the mt particularly fOil (1887) disc~ of the mexican I mexican sourceS venient for its ~ (but not all) td names and ~e p pritnarily en fIl~ 197627 55 8 other sOurces cite to flild equival~ reference to conl aspects of sym~ ruanuscripts by have proved veq

To retum ti) 1 a misnomer for 1 oacutef this perlod wI theless the fact~ Several of the q reason for suspec

173 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

not of concem here (For a recent and lucid explanation see Kelley 1980 ) What is of interest here are the names and pictorial symbols of the 18 months

There is considerable variation among the lists as to which of the months begins the sequence but neither this nor where the nemontemi (5 unlucky days) occur in the sequen ce is germane to the present aacutenalysis except to the extent tbat these factors may have led to conshyfusiacuteon in the sequential ordering of the months in some ethnohistoric sources There is also variation in the naming of and pictorial or glyphic symbols associated with inruvidual months In the present paper 1 tabulate onIy those data particularIy relevant to the matter under investigation Also 1 number alI the sequences from 1) Guashyhuitlehua (and equivalen18) as this facilitates cross-reference with the most exhaustive tabulation of the lists available (Caso 1968 Cuadros X-XI) as well as with the extremely handy tabulation of the Nahuatl and OtOml lis18 by Nicholson (1971 Table 4)~ Nichol sons tabulation shows at glance the variacuteant month names and their mearungs the major deities propitiated during each month verbal descriptions of the pictorial symbols in vanous coruces and the major festivals of the months Orozco y Berra (1880 2 34-38) is still useful particularly for his discussion of the pictorial symbols and Seler (1887) discusses the identities of the patron deities pictured in three of the mexican sources The brilliant comparative study of several mexican sources by Kubler and Gibson (1951) iS especially conshyvenient for i18 reproductions of the pictorial symbols fromseveral (but not all) coruces For discussions of the Mayan lists of month names andthe glyphs of the months and their patron deities 1 depend pritnarily en Thompson (1950 104-118 and Figures 16-19) and Kelley (197627 55 84-88 Figures 5 and 15 and Plate 4) and certain oth~ sburces cited latero More recendy Acuntildea (1976) has attempted to find equivalences between the Mexican and Mayan months With reference to connotations of the names associated ritual and other aspec18 of symbolism Besides these published studies two unpublished manuscrip18 byKelley (1952 1957) seen by courtesy of the author have proved very useful

To retum to the problem at hand the term month may seem a misnomer for the 20-day cyc1e as there is no apparent connection bf this period with a lunar month eithet synoruc or sidereal Nevershyilieless the factthat the terms for the 20-day period mean moon in Severa of the native languages of Mesoamerica is the most direct reason for suspecting the former use of lunar months (Caso 1967 34

---~~ ---__---__- ~~------

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE O 174 JOE D STEWART

TAl79) 2 In view of this iacutet is not surprising that a prototypical series of moons appears to be implicit in the series of the 18 meztli to use the N ahuatl termo This becomes evident when one examines PATTERN OF PAlREO NAMES ANO SYI

particularly the Aztec and other Nahuan lists in which 10 of the 18 THE EIGHTEEN MEZTLI (MOONS)

names seem to occur in 5 pairs thus reducing the list to one of only ( 1967 1971) K UBLER ANO GIBSON (

13 different terms if each pair is counted as one iacutetem (Table 1) AND SYMBOLS ARE GIVEl

In the Nahuan tradition this pairing pattem is cIear and unequivocal for the first four pairs in Table 1 (34~ 78 910 and 1213) where the suffix tontli signifies little and the prefix huey -

Name

signifies big We are fortunate in having severa Nahuan lists for (1 ) 1 Cuahuitlehuain sorne of them there are altemate names which do not show the

(2) 2 Tlacaxipehualiztlipairing eg 9) Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given) 10) X ocotlhuetzi (birth of Xocotl) and 12) Teotleco (amval of the gods) 13) iexcl-3 Tozoztontli little T epeilhuitl (festival of the mountains) The several sets of pictorial (3) I symbols for the months also are variable and sometimes bear no I~ Hueytozoztli big

obvious relationship to the names although a connection between name and symbol sometimes can be seen when one studies the desshy (4) 5 Toxcatl criptions of the festivals and patron deities of particular months ( 5 ) 6 Etzalcualiztli The point here however is that the pictorial symbols associated with 17 Tecuilhuitontli littlt the name pairs 34 78 910 and 1213 are also paired in those lord(6) I sources where the names are paired~ whether or not there is any I~ Hueytecuilhuitl big apparent connection between the names and the symbols s lord

Qnly the fifth pair of months in Table 1 17) Tititl18 lzcalli Miccailhuitontli littll therequires extended attention because the pairing is not as evident as (7raquo)9

110 H ueymiccailhuitl bigfor the first four pairs Qne possible indication of the pairing of these the

2 The most convenient widely available illustration of a sample of the pictorial (8) 11 Ochpaniztli symbols of the months is probably tbat of Caso (1967 Figura 14 p 36) [t

Pachontli Pachtli littlshould be noted however that Casos illustration (a composite sample from 112 (orvarious sources) for some omits examples for Pachtli or Pachontil Also the (9)

arrangemenl of the names Ilis a vis the three symbols in the upper leftmiddothand 13 H ueypachtli big comer of Casos Figura 14 is misleading Reading lefttomiddotright in the first ro (or the first two symbols are variants for lzcalli and the third is a symbol for the following month Atlcahualo whereas the arrangement makes it appear thal (10) 14 Quecholli second and third symbols aTe variants for Atlcahualo These errors incidentally (11) 15 Panquetzaliztli have been repeated in both editions of Weavers fine textbook on Mesoamenca ( 12) 16 Atemoztli (WIlaver 1972 1981) Far more helpful are tbe illustrations of individual sets of the figures from various codices in Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figures 7 smI 17 Tititl 11-12 and 14-16 and Plates IV-XIV) (Tititl-Izcalli) tiOII3 Lothrop (1930653) reported possible ethnographic support for Bowdichs sugmiddot

(13) I led gestion 0910267) that the Maya recognized tbat the tzolkin (260day cycIe)

118 Izcalli goapproximates nine Iunations Lothrop found the Quicheacute of Momostenango tIOGuatemala to be still holding a tzolkin festival called uajzaqip vats (8 Monkey) (cfevery 260 years However when asked how often this ceremony was held a

shaman told Lotbrop Every nine months

175 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE 1

PATTERN OF PAIREO NAMES ANO SYMBOLS IN THE NAHUAN SEQUENCE OF

THE EIGHTEEN MEZTLI (MOONS) AFTER NICHOLSON (1971) CASO

(19671971) KUBLER ANO GIBSON (1951) ANO OTHER SOURCES MEANINGS

ANO SYMBOLS ARE GIVEN ONLY FOR PAIRED ITEMS

Narne Meaning Pictorial Symhol

(1) 1 Cuahuitlehua (2) 2 Tlacaxipehualiztli

iacute3 (3) 1

1 4 -shy

T ozoztontli

Hueytozoztli

little vigil

big vigil

maize deity bird piershyced by pointed bone maize plant bird piershyced by pointed bone

(4) (5)

5 Toxcatl 6 Etzalcualiztli

11 T ecuilhuitontli (6) I I~ H ueytecuilhuitl

little festival oiacute lords big festival of 1000s

noble figure various insignia (of rank) noble figure various symbols similar to N9 7

9(7) 1

110

Miccailhuitontli

Hueymiccailhuitl

little festival oiacute thedead big festival oiacute

mummy bundle deatb symbols mummy bundle death

thedead symbols similar to Nt1 9

(8) 11 Ochpaniztli

12 Pachontli Pachtli litde Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass) (9)

13 Hueypachtli big Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass)

(10) 14 Quecholli (11 ) 15 Panquetzaliztli (12) 16 Atemoztli

I 17 Tititl stretching contrac- aged goddess of weav-I (Tititl-Izcalli) tion shrunk wrink- ing Ilamatecuhtli vamiddot

(13) 1 118 Izcalli

led etc growth resurrecshy

rious fire god Xiuhtecuhtli

tion vivacity etc house and plant other (ciacute calli house) figures

176 JOE D STEWAlT

months comes from two lists of the chronicler Cristobal del Castillo where the relevant part of the sequence is given as follows

Atemoztli Atemoztli Izcalli-Tititl (Nemontemi) X ochilhuitl bullbull bull 1 zcalli (Nemontemi omitted) Xochilhuitl

However Kubler and Gibson (1951 47-48) argue persuasively tbat this part of Castillos lists merely reflects Castillos confusion over the beginning of the year and the corrupt and derivative character oiacute bis calendars They note tbat Castillos errors were carried over into the OtomIacute Codex iacuterom Huichapan

Still there are other suggestions that Titiacutetl and Izcalli iacuteorm a conshyceptual pair though not in terms of big and littIe O[ iacuteirst and second Instead they seem to form a contrastive seto With regard to Titiacutetl Kubler and Gibson (1951 34) discuss how it has the apshyparently contradictory semantic senses oiacute stretching and of contraeshytion or tightening The notion oI stretching may be a sort oiacute cosmic one associated with severe winds and weather as in the inshyterpretation oI Juan de Tovar (Kubler and Gibson 1951) but it has more concrete associations with rope-stretching ceremonies and also with weaving (the patron goddess oI Tititl being Ilamatecuhtli the goddess of weavers) Kubler and Gibson noting that contraction is a response to cold conclude that both the stretching and the conshytraction senses may be valido This also makes sense in terms oI ropeshystretching and weaving wherein the act oI stretching the fibers has the eflect of tightening the weave Caso ( 1971 340) prefers the meaning shrunk or wrinlded por Tititl which is an allusion to ddershyliness of the deity Ilamatecuhtli (d Corona N uacutentildeez 1964 m 162) Perhaps these senses oI Tititl also have a seasonal allusion considering that the Iollowing month name Izcalli is generalIy interpreted as growth revival resurrection vivacity etc referring to the first sprouting (jf plant growth Iollowing the dead season Literally the Nahuatl calli means house and Izcalli is sometimes pictorialIy symbolized as a house or temple associated with a growing planto The altemate symbol Ior Izcalli is a Iigure of its patron deity Xiushytecuhtli the fire godo The pictorial symbols Ior Tiacutetiacutetl are more variable but geherally either the goddess Ilamatecuhtli is portrayed or some scene suggesting stretching or contraction is pictured The onIy example oI which I am aware in which the pictorial symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE e

suggest a pairing of Titiacutetl with the Codex Riacuteos (ValIacutecanus A laid out in association with pictu oiacute Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 195 while Kubler and Gibson (195 (repeated by Caso 1967Figure represented by the heads of thei months being represented by othe The head oI Ilamatecuhtli has 2

tongue suggestive of her old agc The head oI Xiutecuhtli on tl expre8ion in accord with the var oI Izcalli Perhaps this is readin ticularIy as the much more elabc where in the Codex Rios (Laacutem these details in similar fashion I sorne additional evidence SUppol even if this be denied the rest o former shorter list of months irr

Further study oiacute the codices an oiacute the months their iacuteestivals patJ evidence oI the pairing oI Tititl oiacute the sources containing such Table 8 p 42) who lists these s 18-month festival calendars an the iacuteormer have been studied thro but that the latter have not recei

The Nahuan-style pairing patt degree in several non-Nahuan (Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan group (Table 2) the pattem is st four oiacute the Iive pairings The ~ serve three pairings though not Mije list sbows sorne variation fre is aetually a tripling correspondi the pair corresponding to Nahuan list but Tarascan 12) Little Sp Nahuan pair 1213 One oiacute th Caso (both Chiapanec versions bomoz in 1875) has the pair 7B

al del Castillo )llows

)

ersuasivdy that fusion over the ive character ~e carried over

Ui form a con-OC first and

With regard it has the apshyId of contracshybe a 80rt of

as in the inshyH) but it has mes and also natecuhtli the contraction is and the conshyterms of ropeshythe fibers has t) prefers the tusion to eldershy1964m 162) ID considering interpreted as Ilg to the first iacuteLiterally the ~f8 pictorially iexclrowing planto pn deity Xiushy~titl are more ~ is portrayed The

symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 177

suggest a pairing of Tititl with Izcalli occurs on Laacutemina cxxxm of the Codex Riacuteos (Vaticanus A 3738) where the month signs are laid out in association with pictures of events from Corteacutess conquest of Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 1954m 287) has a color reproduction while Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figure n) provide line drawings (repeated by Caso 1967Figure 14) Here Tititl and Izcalli are iepresented by the heads of their patron deities (most of the other months being represented by other symbols rather than their deities) The head of Ilamatecuhtli has a strained expression and protruding tongue suggestive of her old age and the wrinkled sense of Tititl The head of Xiutecuhtliacute on the other hand has a fierce livdy expression in accord with the various senses - resurrection etc shyof Izcalli Perhaps this is reading too much into these figures parshyticularly as the much more elaborate portrayals of these deities elseshywhere in the Codex Riacuteos (Laacuteminas LXXI-LXXD) do not emphasize these details in similar fashion PresentIy it will be seen that there is sorne additional evidence supporting the Tiacutetitlllzcalli pairing but even if this be denied the rest of the pattem is enough to suggest a former shorter list of months implicit in the 18-month series

Further study of the codices and manuscripts with pictorial symbols of the months their festivals patron deities etc might provide more evidence of the pairing of TititllIzcalli 1 have not had access to all of the sources containing such material Glass (197530-31 and Table 8 p 42) who lists these sources divides them into two types 18-month festival calendars and calendar wheds He notes that the former have been studied throughly by Kubler and Gibson (1951) but that the latter have not received thorough systematic attention

The N ahuan-style pairing pattern shows up in lesser and varying degree in several non-Nahuan lists reported in Casos Cuadro XI

(Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan Mije and Chiapanec lists) In this group (Table 2) the pattem is strongest in the Otomiacute list which has four of the five pairings The Matlatzinca and Mije lists each preshyserve three pairings though not exactly the same three Also the Mije list shows sorne variation from the Nahuan pattern in that there is actually a tripling corresponding to the Nahuan pair 34 OnIy the pair corresponding to Nahuan 718 is fully attested in the Tarascan list but Tarascan 12) LittIe Spanish Moss partially corresponds to Nahuan pair 1213 One of the two Chiapanec lists tabulated by Caso (both Chiapanec versions reported by the Fray Juan de Alshybornoz in 1875) has the pair 78 The other Chiapanec list has been

12

Z o 00 iexcl o ll1 9 z

- rol-~

O) o 0000lt iexcliexcl00 ~ Ii iexcliexclJ oJ 00

~ ZIl1 ~ lt o Q

Z Z lt lt-

CI 1)=shyO)

iexcli ~-iexcl riI - Il1 z ~ ~o 00 ~Xl

~6 00 Q i z z lt lt iexclz ~jJ Xl ll1 J lt ~ Z-z

~

Ol-ZCl

-

z 00 iexcliexcl z o

o ~

o z ~ ltIl

ltgt

sect

u

ii

(gt ltgt d

a 5 ~ ~

~

~

iexcl

c ~

~ ~ l3 iexcl riexcl~

Q

- (l

- ltIl

iexcl$el e~~ lbO el~ el tI) ti)

-= tlt

-5-5 -5

o o

cel oo loo o el 100 loo iexcl v iexcl ti)3131 v v o viexcliexcl Sti)o o

u u ra-gt ~~ S

ti) o o Se 11 (l11 11 1 s -5l s iexcl iquest-sect11 ltgt I ~~ -t o 11 o tiexcliexcl iexcl$ ltgt ltgtW rn

v el bO ~ eliexcl -El~ ~ cl ~ v -Elel o ciexcl cl oacute ~ v 00 o-5 oacutel v v oo~

l oE blJ blJ - blJO o = o ~E oS

o el ti)blJ il iloacute

il gt ~ ilg -5i~ v ~blJ ~ gt v sti) ltIlamp ~ Voacute -5 5oacute ~ oacute o ltl

100 v ti) v 00 oV v v o

~el 00ltIl ~g V - blJE -oblJ bOO o 20 bull iexcliexcl~ -~ o =0 0_ E1S 00 ~ oHH

~I~~Ill-_CO _110) __S _1I~_ ~ _II~

S El

_~

STRllCTURAL EVIDENCE OF Il

so drastically reordered or rather order of the members of this pair ( separated from each other by ninc non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulat and the fragmentary Huastec (lin~ appear to have no trace of the pairi in bis Cuadro XI for Totonac but reported the Totonac cannot be COI

Tuming to the various Mayans lis onIy where there is evidence of Meiexcl Quicheacute) Caso (196737-38) amo sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quic loanwords and that others though 1

semantic borrowings I t was this tl to partially renconstruct a Toltec sence in Central America predates t month names was carried over in 1

list except for the positional equiva (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist tl is about as vague as in the NahUlu borrowing of the Nahuan 18) IzcalJ as we see in Table 3 On the other 1 gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro x Bum Drying refers to drought clearance (Recinos and Goetz 1953 sequence there is a tripling over posi phonology nor the meanings of the Nahuan One would suspect borrow trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list the tripling might reflect a Mayan (text and Table 4)

Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasse sorne slight positional displacements equivalents of the Mexican pairs 71 cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabu here) is probably correct in its imI list has these displacements as a cons Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positic pectively In the Cakchiquel list a e the pair equivalent to Mexican 9H rather than of Ligin ka as in the Ql

~

liexcl~_~1

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 111

so drastically reordered or rather disordered that the sequential order of the members of this pair (78) is reversed and the two are separated from each other by nine positions Only three of the non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulated by Caso-Chinantec Mazatec and the fragmentary Huastec (linguistically related to Mayan)shyappear to have no trace of the pairing pattem Caso has a heading in his Cuadro XI for Totonac but with only the one month name reported the Totonac cannot be compared

Turning to the various Mayans lists the pairing pattem is obvious only where there is evidence of Mexican influence (Cakchiquel and Quicheacute) Caso (1967 37-38) arnong others has pointed out that sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacute month names are Nahuan loanwords and that others though not phonological loanwords are semantic borrowings It was this that enabled Caso (196774-77) to partia1ly renconstruct a Toltec calendar (as the Nahuan preshysence in Central America predates the Aztecs) The pairing of the month names was carried over in the borrowing into the Quicheacute list except for the positional equivalents of the Mexican pair 34 (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist the evidence of pairing at 1718 is about as vague as in the Nahuan lists Izcol kih is an obvious

iexcl borrowing of the Nahuan 18) Izcalli but with a shift of meaning as we see in Table 3 On the other hand 17) Katic is not a pholoshya ltti

E-o gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro XI gives the meaning Drying or Bum Drying refers to drought Bum to slash-and-bum field ~

CQ clearance (Recinos and Goetz 195331) In the case of the Quicheacute el a sequen ce there is a tripling over positions 161718 but neither the o phonology nor the meanings of the terms suggest borrowing from El o Nahuan One would suspect borrowing on the basis of Nahuan inshy

trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list but in this part of the sequence ~ the tripling might reflect a Mayan tradition as will be seen later iexcl

ltti (text and Table 4) iraquo ltti Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasseur de Bourbourg there are also ~

i3 sorne slight positional displacements of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacutes oshy equivalents of the Mexican pairs 78 910 and 1213 The Quishya ~ cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabulated by Caso but not repeated a here) is probably correct in its implication that Brintons Quicheacute ~ list has these displacements as a consequence of shifts of the months Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positions 6 to 15 and 11 to 12 resshy

pectively In the Cakchiquel list a displacement by one position of the pair equivalent to Mexican 910 reflects the doubling oiacute Tole rather than of Ligin ka as in the Quicheacute

w

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

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sac)

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1950

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183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

1

172 JOE D STEWART

calendar facilitated the formation of a writing system and through the latter the calendar received new stimulation to further develop in complexity (Prem 1971 115)

However suggestions of a less strictly archaeological-epigraphical nature have been made from time to time For example among the recent spate of archaeoastronomical studies is one in which Malmstrom (1978) attempts to explain the development of the Mesoamerican calendar system in terms of hypothetical astronomical observations in Preclassic Mesoamerica Both Thompson (1950 98-99) and Caso ( 1967 33 79-85) have reviewed a number of earlier suggestions mostly based on the codices and on structural features of the calendar system as we know it Prominent in these discussions were possible evidences of some kind of lunar eacutealendar However Caso had to conclude his review of these ideas on a skeptical note

Tales datos podriacutean hacer pensar en la existencia de un cashylendario lunar de 13 meses de 28 diacuteas pero con los datos que conocemos considerarrtos muy hipoteacutetica su existencia (Caso 196785)

Of cOUlSe the eclipse table of the Dresden Codex and the Lunar Series of the monumental inscriptions leaves no doubt that the Maya recognized the synodic period ofthe moon and that they counted the days of this perlod (Sattethwaite 1965 619-623 Spinden 1924 68-73) Spinden (1924 158-159 and Fig 8d) pointed out that 29-30 months were recorded by the moon glyph (which also means 20) with the numeral 9 or 10 beside it The Aztees also recognized lunar perlods of 29 and30 days (Caso 1971 348) However the present paper has to do not with these advanced calendrical features but with a structural pattem in the calendar which 1 believe attests implishycity to the former use of a re1atively primitive calendar of 12-13 lunar months 1 have already called attention fo this very briefly in my comment on a paper by Graulich (1981 54) but it requires e1aboshyration

Fim we may recall that a basic cycle of the Mesoamerican calenshydar system in its known form is the so-called month of 20 named days which are combined with the numbers 1 to 13 to give a 260-day cyc1e (20 X 13 = 260) called tonalpohualli by the Aztees Running concurrently with this cycle ]s the socalled vague year of 365 days comprised of 18 named rounds of the 20 days plus 5 unlucky days (20 X 18 + 5 = 365) The further mechanies of this system are

STRUCJ

not of concem fu 1980) What is of the 18 montb

There is consi~ months beWnstb (5 unlucky dayal analysis except ~ fusion in the ~ sources There iexcl glyphic symbols j

paper 1 tabulatel under investigatJ huitlehua (and the most exhawi Cuadros X-Xl)l J the Nahuatl and) sons tabulation meanings the di descriptions of ~ festivaIs of the mt particularly fOil (1887) disc~ of the mexican I mexican sourceS venient for its ~ (but not all) td names and ~e p pritnarily en fIl~ 197627 55 8 other sOurces cite to flild equival~ reference to conl aspects of sym~ ruanuscripts by have proved veq

To retum ti) 1 a misnomer for 1 oacutef this perlod wI theless the fact~ Several of the q reason for suspec

173 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

not of concem here (For a recent and lucid explanation see Kelley 1980 ) What is of interest here are the names and pictorial symbols of the 18 months

There is considerable variation among the lists as to which of the months begins the sequence but neither this nor where the nemontemi (5 unlucky days) occur in the sequen ce is germane to the present aacutenalysis except to the extent tbat these factors may have led to conshyfusiacuteon in the sequential ordering of the months in some ethnohistoric sources There is also variation in the naming of and pictorial or glyphic symbols associated with inruvidual months In the present paper 1 tabulate onIy those data particularIy relevant to the matter under investigation Also 1 number alI the sequences from 1) Guashyhuitlehua (and equivalen18) as this facilitates cross-reference with the most exhaustive tabulation of the lists available (Caso 1968 Cuadros X-XI) as well as with the extremely handy tabulation of the Nahuatl and OtOml lis18 by Nicholson (1971 Table 4)~ Nichol sons tabulation shows at glance the variacuteant month names and their mearungs the major deities propitiated during each month verbal descriptions of the pictorial symbols in vanous coruces and the major festivals of the months Orozco y Berra (1880 2 34-38) is still useful particularly for his discussion of the pictorial symbols and Seler (1887) discusses the identities of the patron deities pictured in three of the mexican sources The brilliant comparative study of several mexican sources by Kubler and Gibson (1951) iS especially conshyvenient for i18 reproductions of the pictorial symbols fromseveral (but not all) coruces For discussions of the Mayan lists of month names andthe glyphs of the months and their patron deities 1 depend pritnarily en Thompson (1950 104-118 and Figures 16-19) and Kelley (197627 55 84-88 Figures 5 and 15 and Plate 4) and certain oth~ sburces cited latero More recendy Acuntildea (1976) has attempted to find equivalences between the Mexican and Mayan months With reference to connotations of the names associated ritual and other aspec18 of symbolism Besides these published studies two unpublished manuscrip18 byKelley (1952 1957) seen by courtesy of the author have proved very useful

To retum to the problem at hand the term month may seem a misnomer for the 20-day cyc1e as there is no apparent connection bf this period with a lunar month eithet synoruc or sidereal Nevershyilieless the factthat the terms for the 20-day period mean moon in Severa of the native languages of Mesoamerica is the most direct reason for suspecting the former use of lunar months (Caso 1967 34

---~~ ---__---__- ~~------

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE O 174 JOE D STEWART

TAl79) 2 In view of this iacutet is not surprising that a prototypical series of moons appears to be implicit in the series of the 18 meztli to use the N ahuatl termo This becomes evident when one examines PATTERN OF PAlREO NAMES ANO SYI

particularly the Aztec and other Nahuan lists in which 10 of the 18 THE EIGHTEEN MEZTLI (MOONS)

names seem to occur in 5 pairs thus reducing the list to one of only ( 1967 1971) K UBLER ANO GIBSON (

13 different terms if each pair is counted as one iacutetem (Table 1) AND SYMBOLS ARE GIVEl

In the Nahuan tradition this pairing pattem is cIear and unequivocal for the first four pairs in Table 1 (34~ 78 910 and 1213) where the suffix tontli signifies little and the prefix huey -

Name

signifies big We are fortunate in having severa Nahuan lists for (1 ) 1 Cuahuitlehuain sorne of them there are altemate names which do not show the

(2) 2 Tlacaxipehualiztlipairing eg 9) Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given) 10) X ocotlhuetzi (birth of Xocotl) and 12) Teotleco (amval of the gods) 13) iexcl-3 Tozoztontli little T epeilhuitl (festival of the mountains) The several sets of pictorial (3) I symbols for the months also are variable and sometimes bear no I~ Hueytozoztli big

obvious relationship to the names although a connection between name and symbol sometimes can be seen when one studies the desshy (4) 5 Toxcatl criptions of the festivals and patron deities of particular months ( 5 ) 6 Etzalcualiztli The point here however is that the pictorial symbols associated with 17 Tecuilhuitontli littlt the name pairs 34 78 910 and 1213 are also paired in those lord(6) I sources where the names are paired~ whether or not there is any I~ Hueytecuilhuitl big apparent connection between the names and the symbols s lord

Qnly the fifth pair of months in Table 1 17) Tititl18 lzcalli Miccailhuitontli littll therequires extended attention because the pairing is not as evident as (7raquo)9

110 H ueymiccailhuitl bigfor the first four pairs Qne possible indication of the pairing of these the

2 The most convenient widely available illustration of a sample of the pictorial (8) 11 Ochpaniztli symbols of the months is probably tbat of Caso (1967 Figura 14 p 36) [t

Pachontli Pachtli littlshould be noted however that Casos illustration (a composite sample from 112 (orvarious sources) for some omits examples for Pachtli or Pachontil Also the (9)

arrangemenl of the names Ilis a vis the three symbols in the upper leftmiddothand 13 H ueypachtli big comer of Casos Figura 14 is misleading Reading lefttomiddotright in the first ro (or the first two symbols are variants for lzcalli and the third is a symbol for the following month Atlcahualo whereas the arrangement makes it appear thal (10) 14 Quecholli second and third symbols aTe variants for Atlcahualo These errors incidentally (11) 15 Panquetzaliztli have been repeated in both editions of Weavers fine textbook on Mesoamenca ( 12) 16 Atemoztli (WIlaver 1972 1981) Far more helpful are tbe illustrations of individual sets of the figures from various codices in Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figures 7 smI 17 Tititl 11-12 and 14-16 and Plates IV-XIV) (Tititl-Izcalli) tiOII3 Lothrop (1930653) reported possible ethnographic support for Bowdichs sugmiddot

(13) I led gestion 0910267) that the Maya recognized tbat the tzolkin (260day cycIe)

118 Izcalli goapproximates nine Iunations Lothrop found the Quicheacute of Momostenango tIOGuatemala to be still holding a tzolkin festival called uajzaqip vats (8 Monkey) (cfevery 260 years However when asked how often this ceremony was held a

shaman told Lotbrop Every nine months

175 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE 1

PATTERN OF PAIREO NAMES ANO SYMBOLS IN THE NAHUAN SEQUENCE OF

THE EIGHTEEN MEZTLI (MOONS) AFTER NICHOLSON (1971) CASO

(19671971) KUBLER ANO GIBSON (1951) ANO OTHER SOURCES MEANINGS

ANO SYMBOLS ARE GIVEN ONLY FOR PAIRED ITEMS

Narne Meaning Pictorial Symhol

(1) 1 Cuahuitlehua (2) 2 Tlacaxipehualiztli

iacute3 (3) 1

1 4 -shy

T ozoztontli

Hueytozoztli

little vigil

big vigil

maize deity bird piershyced by pointed bone maize plant bird piershyced by pointed bone

(4) (5)

5 Toxcatl 6 Etzalcualiztli

11 T ecuilhuitontli (6) I I~ H ueytecuilhuitl

little festival oiacute lords big festival of 1000s

noble figure various insignia (of rank) noble figure various symbols similar to N9 7

9(7) 1

110

Miccailhuitontli

Hueymiccailhuitl

little festival oiacute thedead big festival oiacute

mummy bundle deatb symbols mummy bundle death

thedead symbols similar to Nt1 9

(8) 11 Ochpaniztli

12 Pachontli Pachtli litde Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass) (9)

13 Hueypachtli big Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass)

(10) 14 Quecholli (11 ) 15 Panquetzaliztli (12) 16 Atemoztli

I 17 Tititl stretching contrac- aged goddess of weav-I (Tititl-Izcalli) tion shrunk wrink- ing Ilamatecuhtli vamiddot

(13) 1 118 Izcalli

led etc growth resurrecshy

rious fire god Xiuhtecuhtli

tion vivacity etc house and plant other (ciacute calli house) figures

176 JOE D STEWAlT

months comes from two lists of the chronicler Cristobal del Castillo where the relevant part of the sequence is given as follows

Atemoztli Atemoztli Izcalli-Tititl (Nemontemi) X ochilhuitl bullbull bull 1 zcalli (Nemontemi omitted) Xochilhuitl

However Kubler and Gibson (1951 47-48) argue persuasively tbat this part of Castillos lists merely reflects Castillos confusion over the beginning of the year and the corrupt and derivative character oiacute bis calendars They note tbat Castillos errors were carried over into the OtomIacute Codex iacuterom Huichapan

Still there are other suggestions that Titiacutetl and Izcalli iacuteorm a conshyceptual pair though not in terms of big and littIe O[ iacuteirst and second Instead they seem to form a contrastive seto With regard to Titiacutetl Kubler and Gibson (1951 34) discuss how it has the apshyparently contradictory semantic senses oiacute stretching and of contraeshytion or tightening The notion oI stretching may be a sort oiacute cosmic one associated with severe winds and weather as in the inshyterpretation oI Juan de Tovar (Kubler and Gibson 1951) but it has more concrete associations with rope-stretching ceremonies and also with weaving (the patron goddess oI Tititl being Ilamatecuhtli the goddess of weavers) Kubler and Gibson noting that contraction is a response to cold conclude that both the stretching and the conshytraction senses may be valido This also makes sense in terms oI ropeshystretching and weaving wherein the act oI stretching the fibers has the eflect of tightening the weave Caso ( 1971 340) prefers the meaning shrunk or wrinlded por Tititl which is an allusion to ddershyliness of the deity Ilamatecuhtli (d Corona N uacutentildeez 1964 m 162) Perhaps these senses oI Tititl also have a seasonal allusion considering that the Iollowing month name Izcalli is generalIy interpreted as growth revival resurrection vivacity etc referring to the first sprouting (jf plant growth Iollowing the dead season Literally the Nahuatl calli means house and Izcalli is sometimes pictorialIy symbolized as a house or temple associated with a growing planto The altemate symbol Ior Izcalli is a Iigure of its patron deity Xiushytecuhtli the fire godo The pictorial symbols Ior Tiacutetiacutetl are more variable but geherally either the goddess Ilamatecuhtli is portrayed or some scene suggesting stretching or contraction is pictured The onIy example oI which I am aware in which the pictorial symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE e

suggest a pairing of Titiacutetl with the Codex Riacuteos (ValIacutecanus A laid out in association with pictu oiacute Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 195 while Kubler and Gibson (195 (repeated by Caso 1967Figure represented by the heads of thei months being represented by othe The head oI Ilamatecuhtli has 2

tongue suggestive of her old agc The head oI Xiutecuhtli on tl expre8ion in accord with the var oI Izcalli Perhaps this is readin ticularIy as the much more elabc where in the Codex Rios (Laacutem these details in similar fashion I sorne additional evidence SUppol even if this be denied the rest o former shorter list of months irr

Further study oiacute the codices an oiacute the months their iacuteestivals patJ evidence oI the pairing oI Tititl oiacute the sources containing such Table 8 p 42) who lists these s 18-month festival calendars an the iacuteormer have been studied thro but that the latter have not recei

The Nahuan-style pairing patt degree in several non-Nahuan (Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan group (Table 2) the pattem is st four oiacute the Iive pairings The ~ serve three pairings though not Mije list sbows sorne variation fre is aetually a tripling correspondi the pair corresponding to Nahuan list but Tarascan 12) Little Sp Nahuan pair 1213 One oiacute th Caso (both Chiapanec versions bomoz in 1875) has the pair 7B

al del Castillo )llows

)

ersuasivdy that fusion over the ive character ~e carried over

Ui form a con-OC first and

With regard it has the apshyId of contracshybe a 80rt of

as in the inshyH) but it has mes and also natecuhtli the contraction is and the conshyterms of ropeshythe fibers has t) prefers the tusion to eldershy1964m 162) ID considering interpreted as Ilg to the first iacuteLiterally the ~f8 pictorially iexclrowing planto pn deity Xiushy~titl are more ~ is portrayed The

symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 177

suggest a pairing of Tititl with Izcalli occurs on Laacutemina cxxxm of the Codex Riacuteos (Vaticanus A 3738) where the month signs are laid out in association with pictures of events from Corteacutess conquest of Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 1954m 287) has a color reproduction while Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figure n) provide line drawings (repeated by Caso 1967Figure 14) Here Tititl and Izcalli are iepresented by the heads of their patron deities (most of the other months being represented by other symbols rather than their deities) The head of Ilamatecuhtli has a strained expression and protruding tongue suggestive of her old age and the wrinkled sense of Tititl The head of Xiutecuhtliacute on the other hand has a fierce livdy expression in accord with the various senses - resurrection etc shyof Izcalli Perhaps this is reading too much into these figures parshyticularly as the much more elaborate portrayals of these deities elseshywhere in the Codex Riacuteos (Laacuteminas LXXI-LXXD) do not emphasize these details in similar fashion PresentIy it will be seen that there is sorne additional evidence supporting the Tiacutetitlllzcalli pairing but even if this be denied the rest of the pattem is enough to suggest a former shorter list of months implicit in the 18-month series

Further study of the codices and manuscripts with pictorial symbols of the months their festivals patron deities etc might provide more evidence of the pairing of TititllIzcalli 1 have not had access to all of the sources containing such material Glass (197530-31 and Table 8 p 42) who lists these sources divides them into two types 18-month festival calendars and calendar wheds He notes that the former have been studied throughly by Kubler and Gibson (1951) but that the latter have not received thorough systematic attention

The N ahuan-style pairing pattern shows up in lesser and varying degree in several non-Nahuan lists reported in Casos Cuadro XI

(Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan Mije and Chiapanec lists) In this group (Table 2) the pattem is strongest in the Otomiacute list which has four of the five pairings The Matlatzinca and Mije lists each preshyserve three pairings though not exactly the same three Also the Mije list shows sorne variation from the Nahuan pattern in that there is actually a tripling corresponding to the Nahuan pair 34 OnIy the pair corresponding to Nahuan 718 is fully attested in the Tarascan list but Tarascan 12) LittIe Spanish Moss partially corresponds to Nahuan pair 1213 One of the two Chiapanec lists tabulated by Caso (both Chiapanec versions reported by the Fray Juan de Alshybornoz in 1875) has the pair 78 The other Chiapanec list has been

12

Z o 00 iexcl o ll1 9 z

- rol-~

O) o 0000lt iexcliexcl00 ~ Ii iexcliexclJ oJ 00

~ ZIl1 ~ lt o Q

Z Z lt lt-

CI 1)=shyO)

iexcli ~-iexcl riI - Il1 z ~ ~o 00 ~Xl

~6 00 Q i z z lt lt iexclz ~jJ Xl ll1 J lt ~ Z-z

~

Ol-ZCl

-

z 00 iexcliexcl z o

o ~

o z ~ ltIl

ltgt

sect

u

ii

(gt ltgt d

a 5 ~ ~

~

~

iexcl

c ~

~ ~ l3 iexcl riexcl~

Q

- (l

- ltIl

iexcl$el e~~ lbO el~ el tI) ti)

-= tlt

-5-5 -5

o o

cel oo loo o el 100 loo iexcl v iexcl ti)3131 v v o viexcliexcl Sti)o o

u u ra-gt ~~ S

ti) o o Se 11 (l11 11 1 s -5l s iexcl iquest-sect11 ltgt I ~~ -t o 11 o tiexcliexcl iexcl$ ltgt ltgtW rn

v el bO ~ eliexcl -El~ ~ cl ~ v -Elel o ciexcl cl oacute ~ v 00 o-5 oacutel v v oo~

l oE blJ blJ - blJO o = o ~E oS

o el ti)blJ il iloacute

il gt ~ ilg -5i~ v ~blJ ~ gt v sti) ltIlamp ~ Voacute -5 5oacute ~ oacute o ltl

100 v ti) v 00 oV v v o

~el 00ltIl ~g V - blJE -oblJ bOO o 20 bull iexcliexcl~ -~ o =0 0_ E1S 00 ~ oHH

~I~~Ill-_CO _110) __S _1I~_ ~ _II~

S El

_~

STRllCTURAL EVIDENCE OF Il

so drastically reordered or rather order of the members of this pair ( separated from each other by ninc non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulat and the fragmentary Huastec (lin~ appear to have no trace of the pairi in bis Cuadro XI for Totonac but reported the Totonac cannot be COI

Tuming to the various Mayans lis onIy where there is evidence of Meiexcl Quicheacute) Caso (196737-38) amo sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quic loanwords and that others though 1

semantic borrowings I t was this tl to partially renconstruct a Toltec sence in Central America predates t month names was carried over in 1

list except for the positional equiva (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist tl is about as vague as in the NahUlu borrowing of the Nahuan 18) IzcalJ as we see in Table 3 On the other 1 gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro x Bum Drying refers to drought clearance (Recinos and Goetz 1953 sequence there is a tripling over posi phonology nor the meanings of the Nahuan One would suspect borrow trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list the tripling might reflect a Mayan (text and Table 4)

Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasse sorne slight positional displacements equivalents of the Mexican pairs 71 cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabu here) is probably correct in its imI list has these displacements as a cons Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positic pectively In the Cakchiquel list a e the pair equivalent to Mexican 9H rather than of Ligin ka as in the Ql

~

liexcl~_~1

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 111

so drastically reordered or rather disordered that the sequential order of the members of this pair (78) is reversed and the two are separated from each other by nine positions Only three of the non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulated by Caso-Chinantec Mazatec and the fragmentary Huastec (linguistically related to Mayan)shyappear to have no trace of the pairing pattem Caso has a heading in his Cuadro XI for Totonac but with only the one month name reported the Totonac cannot be compared

Turning to the various Mayans lists the pairing pattem is obvious only where there is evidence of Mexican influence (Cakchiquel and Quicheacute) Caso (1967 37-38) arnong others has pointed out that sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacute month names are Nahuan loanwords and that others though not phonological loanwords are semantic borrowings It was this that enabled Caso (196774-77) to partia1ly renconstruct a Toltec calendar (as the Nahuan preshysence in Central America predates the Aztecs) The pairing of the month names was carried over in the borrowing into the Quicheacute list except for the positional equivalents of the Mexican pair 34 (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist the evidence of pairing at 1718 is about as vague as in the Nahuan lists Izcol kih is an obvious

iexcl borrowing of the Nahuan 18) Izcalli but with a shift of meaning as we see in Table 3 On the other hand 17) Katic is not a pholoshya ltti

E-o gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro XI gives the meaning Drying or Bum Drying refers to drought Bum to slash-and-bum field ~

CQ clearance (Recinos and Goetz 195331) In the case of the Quicheacute el a sequen ce there is a tripling over positions 161718 but neither the o phonology nor the meanings of the terms suggest borrowing from El o Nahuan One would suspect borrowing on the basis of Nahuan inshy

trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list but in this part of the sequence ~ the tripling might reflect a Mayan tradition as will be seen later iexcl

ltti (text and Table 4) iraquo ltti Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasseur de Bourbourg there are also ~

i3 sorne slight positional displacements of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacutes oshy equivalents of the Mexican pairs 78 910 and 1213 The Quishya ~ cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabulated by Caso but not repeated a here) is probably correct in its implication that Brintons Quicheacute ~ list has these displacements as a consequence of shifts of the months Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positions 6 to 15 and 11 to 12 resshy

pectively In the Cakchiquel list a displacement by one position of the pair equivalent to Mexican 910 reflects the doubling oiacute Tole rather than of Ligin ka as in the Quicheacute

w

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

IQU

EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

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STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

173 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

not of concem here (For a recent and lucid explanation see Kelley 1980 ) What is of interest here are the names and pictorial symbols of the 18 months

There is considerable variation among the lists as to which of the months begins the sequence but neither this nor where the nemontemi (5 unlucky days) occur in the sequen ce is germane to the present aacutenalysis except to the extent tbat these factors may have led to conshyfusiacuteon in the sequential ordering of the months in some ethnohistoric sources There is also variation in the naming of and pictorial or glyphic symbols associated with inruvidual months In the present paper 1 tabulate onIy those data particularIy relevant to the matter under investigation Also 1 number alI the sequences from 1) Guashyhuitlehua (and equivalen18) as this facilitates cross-reference with the most exhaustive tabulation of the lists available (Caso 1968 Cuadros X-XI) as well as with the extremely handy tabulation of the Nahuatl and OtOml lis18 by Nicholson (1971 Table 4)~ Nichol sons tabulation shows at glance the variacuteant month names and their mearungs the major deities propitiated during each month verbal descriptions of the pictorial symbols in vanous coruces and the major festivals of the months Orozco y Berra (1880 2 34-38) is still useful particularly for his discussion of the pictorial symbols and Seler (1887) discusses the identities of the patron deities pictured in three of the mexican sources The brilliant comparative study of several mexican sources by Kubler and Gibson (1951) iS especially conshyvenient for i18 reproductions of the pictorial symbols fromseveral (but not all) coruces For discussions of the Mayan lists of month names andthe glyphs of the months and their patron deities 1 depend pritnarily en Thompson (1950 104-118 and Figures 16-19) and Kelley (197627 55 84-88 Figures 5 and 15 and Plate 4) and certain oth~ sburces cited latero More recendy Acuntildea (1976) has attempted to find equivalences between the Mexican and Mayan months With reference to connotations of the names associated ritual and other aspec18 of symbolism Besides these published studies two unpublished manuscrip18 byKelley (1952 1957) seen by courtesy of the author have proved very useful

To retum to the problem at hand the term month may seem a misnomer for the 20-day cyc1e as there is no apparent connection bf this period with a lunar month eithet synoruc or sidereal Nevershyilieless the factthat the terms for the 20-day period mean moon in Severa of the native languages of Mesoamerica is the most direct reason for suspecting the former use of lunar months (Caso 1967 34

---~~ ---__---__- ~~------

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE O 174 JOE D STEWART

TAl79) 2 In view of this iacutet is not surprising that a prototypical series of moons appears to be implicit in the series of the 18 meztli to use the N ahuatl termo This becomes evident when one examines PATTERN OF PAlREO NAMES ANO SYI

particularly the Aztec and other Nahuan lists in which 10 of the 18 THE EIGHTEEN MEZTLI (MOONS)

names seem to occur in 5 pairs thus reducing the list to one of only ( 1967 1971) K UBLER ANO GIBSON (

13 different terms if each pair is counted as one iacutetem (Table 1) AND SYMBOLS ARE GIVEl

In the Nahuan tradition this pairing pattem is cIear and unequivocal for the first four pairs in Table 1 (34~ 78 910 and 1213) where the suffix tontli signifies little and the prefix huey -

Name

signifies big We are fortunate in having severa Nahuan lists for (1 ) 1 Cuahuitlehuain sorne of them there are altemate names which do not show the

(2) 2 Tlacaxipehualiztlipairing eg 9) Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given) 10) X ocotlhuetzi (birth of Xocotl) and 12) Teotleco (amval of the gods) 13) iexcl-3 Tozoztontli little T epeilhuitl (festival of the mountains) The several sets of pictorial (3) I symbols for the months also are variable and sometimes bear no I~ Hueytozoztli big

obvious relationship to the names although a connection between name and symbol sometimes can be seen when one studies the desshy (4) 5 Toxcatl criptions of the festivals and patron deities of particular months ( 5 ) 6 Etzalcualiztli The point here however is that the pictorial symbols associated with 17 Tecuilhuitontli littlt the name pairs 34 78 910 and 1213 are also paired in those lord(6) I sources where the names are paired~ whether or not there is any I~ Hueytecuilhuitl big apparent connection between the names and the symbols s lord

Qnly the fifth pair of months in Table 1 17) Tititl18 lzcalli Miccailhuitontli littll therequires extended attention because the pairing is not as evident as (7raquo)9

110 H ueymiccailhuitl bigfor the first four pairs Qne possible indication of the pairing of these the

2 The most convenient widely available illustration of a sample of the pictorial (8) 11 Ochpaniztli symbols of the months is probably tbat of Caso (1967 Figura 14 p 36) [t

Pachontli Pachtli littlshould be noted however that Casos illustration (a composite sample from 112 (orvarious sources) for some omits examples for Pachtli or Pachontil Also the (9)

arrangemenl of the names Ilis a vis the three symbols in the upper leftmiddothand 13 H ueypachtli big comer of Casos Figura 14 is misleading Reading lefttomiddotright in the first ro (or the first two symbols are variants for lzcalli and the third is a symbol for the following month Atlcahualo whereas the arrangement makes it appear thal (10) 14 Quecholli second and third symbols aTe variants for Atlcahualo These errors incidentally (11) 15 Panquetzaliztli have been repeated in both editions of Weavers fine textbook on Mesoamenca ( 12) 16 Atemoztli (WIlaver 1972 1981) Far more helpful are tbe illustrations of individual sets of the figures from various codices in Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figures 7 smI 17 Tititl 11-12 and 14-16 and Plates IV-XIV) (Tititl-Izcalli) tiOII3 Lothrop (1930653) reported possible ethnographic support for Bowdichs sugmiddot

(13) I led gestion 0910267) that the Maya recognized tbat the tzolkin (260day cycIe)

118 Izcalli goapproximates nine Iunations Lothrop found the Quicheacute of Momostenango tIOGuatemala to be still holding a tzolkin festival called uajzaqip vats (8 Monkey) (cfevery 260 years However when asked how often this ceremony was held a

shaman told Lotbrop Every nine months

175 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE 1

PATTERN OF PAIREO NAMES ANO SYMBOLS IN THE NAHUAN SEQUENCE OF

THE EIGHTEEN MEZTLI (MOONS) AFTER NICHOLSON (1971) CASO

(19671971) KUBLER ANO GIBSON (1951) ANO OTHER SOURCES MEANINGS

ANO SYMBOLS ARE GIVEN ONLY FOR PAIRED ITEMS

Narne Meaning Pictorial Symhol

(1) 1 Cuahuitlehua (2) 2 Tlacaxipehualiztli

iacute3 (3) 1

1 4 -shy

T ozoztontli

Hueytozoztli

little vigil

big vigil

maize deity bird piershyced by pointed bone maize plant bird piershyced by pointed bone

(4) (5)

5 Toxcatl 6 Etzalcualiztli

11 T ecuilhuitontli (6) I I~ H ueytecuilhuitl

little festival oiacute lords big festival of 1000s

noble figure various insignia (of rank) noble figure various symbols similar to N9 7

9(7) 1

110

Miccailhuitontli

Hueymiccailhuitl

little festival oiacute thedead big festival oiacute

mummy bundle deatb symbols mummy bundle death

thedead symbols similar to Nt1 9

(8) 11 Ochpaniztli

12 Pachontli Pachtli litde Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass) (9)

13 Hueypachtli big Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass)

(10) 14 Quecholli (11 ) 15 Panquetzaliztli (12) 16 Atemoztli

I 17 Tititl stretching contrac- aged goddess of weav-I (Tititl-Izcalli) tion shrunk wrink- ing Ilamatecuhtli vamiddot

(13) 1 118 Izcalli

led etc growth resurrecshy

rious fire god Xiuhtecuhtli

tion vivacity etc house and plant other (ciacute calli house) figures

176 JOE D STEWAlT

months comes from two lists of the chronicler Cristobal del Castillo where the relevant part of the sequence is given as follows

Atemoztli Atemoztli Izcalli-Tititl (Nemontemi) X ochilhuitl bullbull bull 1 zcalli (Nemontemi omitted) Xochilhuitl

However Kubler and Gibson (1951 47-48) argue persuasively tbat this part of Castillos lists merely reflects Castillos confusion over the beginning of the year and the corrupt and derivative character oiacute bis calendars They note tbat Castillos errors were carried over into the OtomIacute Codex iacuterom Huichapan

Still there are other suggestions that Titiacutetl and Izcalli iacuteorm a conshyceptual pair though not in terms of big and littIe O[ iacuteirst and second Instead they seem to form a contrastive seto With regard to Titiacutetl Kubler and Gibson (1951 34) discuss how it has the apshyparently contradictory semantic senses oiacute stretching and of contraeshytion or tightening The notion oI stretching may be a sort oiacute cosmic one associated with severe winds and weather as in the inshyterpretation oI Juan de Tovar (Kubler and Gibson 1951) but it has more concrete associations with rope-stretching ceremonies and also with weaving (the patron goddess oI Tititl being Ilamatecuhtli the goddess of weavers) Kubler and Gibson noting that contraction is a response to cold conclude that both the stretching and the conshytraction senses may be valido This also makes sense in terms oI ropeshystretching and weaving wherein the act oI stretching the fibers has the eflect of tightening the weave Caso ( 1971 340) prefers the meaning shrunk or wrinlded por Tititl which is an allusion to ddershyliness of the deity Ilamatecuhtli (d Corona N uacutentildeez 1964 m 162) Perhaps these senses oI Tititl also have a seasonal allusion considering that the Iollowing month name Izcalli is generalIy interpreted as growth revival resurrection vivacity etc referring to the first sprouting (jf plant growth Iollowing the dead season Literally the Nahuatl calli means house and Izcalli is sometimes pictorialIy symbolized as a house or temple associated with a growing planto The altemate symbol Ior Izcalli is a Iigure of its patron deity Xiushytecuhtli the fire godo The pictorial symbols Ior Tiacutetiacutetl are more variable but geherally either the goddess Ilamatecuhtli is portrayed or some scene suggesting stretching or contraction is pictured The onIy example oI which I am aware in which the pictorial symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE e

suggest a pairing of Titiacutetl with the Codex Riacuteos (ValIacutecanus A laid out in association with pictu oiacute Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 195 while Kubler and Gibson (195 (repeated by Caso 1967Figure represented by the heads of thei months being represented by othe The head oI Ilamatecuhtli has 2

tongue suggestive of her old agc The head oI Xiutecuhtli on tl expre8ion in accord with the var oI Izcalli Perhaps this is readin ticularIy as the much more elabc where in the Codex Rios (Laacutem these details in similar fashion I sorne additional evidence SUppol even if this be denied the rest o former shorter list of months irr

Further study oiacute the codices an oiacute the months their iacuteestivals patJ evidence oI the pairing oI Tititl oiacute the sources containing such Table 8 p 42) who lists these s 18-month festival calendars an the iacuteormer have been studied thro but that the latter have not recei

The Nahuan-style pairing patt degree in several non-Nahuan (Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan group (Table 2) the pattem is st four oiacute the Iive pairings The ~ serve three pairings though not Mije list sbows sorne variation fre is aetually a tripling correspondi the pair corresponding to Nahuan list but Tarascan 12) Little Sp Nahuan pair 1213 One oiacute th Caso (both Chiapanec versions bomoz in 1875) has the pair 7B

al del Castillo )llows

)

ersuasivdy that fusion over the ive character ~e carried over

Ui form a con-OC first and

With regard it has the apshyId of contracshybe a 80rt of

as in the inshyH) but it has mes and also natecuhtli the contraction is and the conshyterms of ropeshythe fibers has t) prefers the tusion to eldershy1964m 162) ID considering interpreted as Ilg to the first iacuteLiterally the ~f8 pictorially iexclrowing planto pn deity Xiushy~titl are more ~ is portrayed The

symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 177

suggest a pairing of Tititl with Izcalli occurs on Laacutemina cxxxm of the Codex Riacuteos (Vaticanus A 3738) where the month signs are laid out in association with pictures of events from Corteacutess conquest of Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 1954m 287) has a color reproduction while Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figure n) provide line drawings (repeated by Caso 1967Figure 14) Here Tititl and Izcalli are iepresented by the heads of their patron deities (most of the other months being represented by other symbols rather than their deities) The head of Ilamatecuhtli has a strained expression and protruding tongue suggestive of her old age and the wrinkled sense of Tititl The head of Xiutecuhtliacute on the other hand has a fierce livdy expression in accord with the various senses - resurrection etc shyof Izcalli Perhaps this is reading too much into these figures parshyticularly as the much more elaborate portrayals of these deities elseshywhere in the Codex Riacuteos (Laacuteminas LXXI-LXXD) do not emphasize these details in similar fashion PresentIy it will be seen that there is sorne additional evidence supporting the Tiacutetitlllzcalli pairing but even if this be denied the rest of the pattem is enough to suggest a former shorter list of months implicit in the 18-month series

Further study of the codices and manuscripts with pictorial symbols of the months their festivals patron deities etc might provide more evidence of the pairing of TititllIzcalli 1 have not had access to all of the sources containing such material Glass (197530-31 and Table 8 p 42) who lists these sources divides them into two types 18-month festival calendars and calendar wheds He notes that the former have been studied throughly by Kubler and Gibson (1951) but that the latter have not received thorough systematic attention

The N ahuan-style pairing pattern shows up in lesser and varying degree in several non-Nahuan lists reported in Casos Cuadro XI

(Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan Mije and Chiapanec lists) In this group (Table 2) the pattem is strongest in the Otomiacute list which has four of the five pairings The Matlatzinca and Mije lists each preshyserve three pairings though not exactly the same three Also the Mije list shows sorne variation from the Nahuan pattern in that there is actually a tripling corresponding to the Nahuan pair 34 OnIy the pair corresponding to Nahuan 718 is fully attested in the Tarascan list but Tarascan 12) LittIe Spanish Moss partially corresponds to Nahuan pair 1213 One of the two Chiapanec lists tabulated by Caso (both Chiapanec versions reported by the Fray Juan de Alshybornoz in 1875) has the pair 78 The other Chiapanec list has been

12

Z o 00 iexcl o ll1 9 z

- rol-~

O) o 0000lt iexcliexcl00 ~ Ii iexcliexclJ oJ 00

~ ZIl1 ~ lt o Q

Z Z lt lt-

CI 1)=shyO)

iexcli ~-iexcl riI - Il1 z ~ ~o 00 ~Xl

~6 00 Q i z z lt lt iexclz ~jJ Xl ll1 J lt ~ Z-z

~

Ol-ZCl

-

z 00 iexcliexcl z o

o ~

o z ~ ltIl

ltgt

sect

u

ii

(gt ltgt d

a 5 ~ ~

~

~

iexcl

c ~

~ ~ l3 iexcl riexcl~

Q

- (l

- ltIl

iexcl$el e~~ lbO el~ el tI) ti)

-= tlt

-5-5 -5

o o

cel oo loo o el 100 loo iexcl v iexcl ti)3131 v v o viexcliexcl Sti)o o

u u ra-gt ~~ S

ti) o o Se 11 (l11 11 1 s -5l s iexcl iquest-sect11 ltgt I ~~ -t o 11 o tiexcliexcl iexcl$ ltgt ltgtW rn

v el bO ~ eliexcl -El~ ~ cl ~ v -Elel o ciexcl cl oacute ~ v 00 o-5 oacutel v v oo~

l oE blJ blJ - blJO o = o ~E oS

o el ti)blJ il iloacute

il gt ~ ilg -5i~ v ~blJ ~ gt v sti) ltIlamp ~ Voacute -5 5oacute ~ oacute o ltl

100 v ti) v 00 oV v v o

~el 00ltIl ~g V - blJE -oblJ bOO o 20 bull iexcliexcl~ -~ o =0 0_ E1S 00 ~ oHH

~I~~Ill-_CO _110) __S _1I~_ ~ _II~

S El

_~

STRllCTURAL EVIDENCE OF Il

so drastically reordered or rather order of the members of this pair ( separated from each other by ninc non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulat and the fragmentary Huastec (lin~ appear to have no trace of the pairi in bis Cuadro XI for Totonac but reported the Totonac cannot be COI

Tuming to the various Mayans lis onIy where there is evidence of Meiexcl Quicheacute) Caso (196737-38) amo sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quic loanwords and that others though 1

semantic borrowings I t was this tl to partially renconstruct a Toltec sence in Central America predates t month names was carried over in 1

list except for the positional equiva (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist tl is about as vague as in the NahUlu borrowing of the Nahuan 18) IzcalJ as we see in Table 3 On the other 1 gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro x Bum Drying refers to drought clearance (Recinos and Goetz 1953 sequence there is a tripling over posi phonology nor the meanings of the Nahuan One would suspect borrow trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list the tripling might reflect a Mayan (text and Table 4)

Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasse sorne slight positional displacements equivalents of the Mexican pairs 71 cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabu here) is probably correct in its imI list has these displacements as a cons Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positic pectively In the Cakchiquel list a e the pair equivalent to Mexican 9H rather than of Ligin ka as in the Ql

~

liexcl~_~1

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 111

so drastically reordered or rather disordered that the sequential order of the members of this pair (78) is reversed and the two are separated from each other by nine positions Only three of the non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulated by Caso-Chinantec Mazatec and the fragmentary Huastec (linguistically related to Mayan)shyappear to have no trace of the pairing pattem Caso has a heading in his Cuadro XI for Totonac but with only the one month name reported the Totonac cannot be compared

Turning to the various Mayans lists the pairing pattem is obvious only where there is evidence of Mexican influence (Cakchiquel and Quicheacute) Caso (1967 37-38) arnong others has pointed out that sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacute month names are Nahuan loanwords and that others though not phonological loanwords are semantic borrowings It was this that enabled Caso (196774-77) to partia1ly renconstruct a Toltec calendar (as the Nahuan preshysence in Central America predates the Aztecs) The pairing of the month names was carried over in the borrowing into the Quicheacute list except for the positional equivalents of the Mexican pair 34 (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist the evidence of pairing at 1718 is about as vague as in the Nahuan lists Izcol kih is an obvious

iexcl borrowing of the Nahuan 18) Izcalli but with a shift of meaning as we see in Table 3 On the other hand 17) Katic is not a pholoshya ltti

E-o gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro XI gives the meaning Drying or Bum Drying refers to drought Bum to slash-and-bum field ~

CQ clearance (Recinos and Goetz 195331) In the case of the Quicheacute el a sequen ce there is a tripling over positions 161718 but neither the o phonology nor the meanings of the terms suggest borrowing from El o Nahuan One would suspect borrowing on the basis of Nahuan inshy

trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list but in this part of the sequence ~ the tripling might reflect a Mayan tradition as will be seen later iexcl

ltti (text and Table 4) iraquo ltti Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasseur de Bourbourg there are also ~

i3 sorne slight positional displacements of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacutes oshy equivalents of the Mexican pairs 78 910 and 1213 The Quishya ~ cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabulated by Caso but not repeated a here) is probably correct in its implication that Brintons Quicheacute ~ list has these displacements as a consequence of shifts of the months Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positions 6 to 15 and 11 to 12 resshy

pectively In the Cakchiquel list a displacement by one position of the pair equivalent to Mexican 910 reflects the doubling oiacute Tole rather than of Ligin ka as in the Quicheacute

w

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

IQU

EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

S

Mar

a

May

a

Clw

l (

) Tz

elta

l Tz

otzi

l iexclx

ii

Kan

ahob

al

Nah

uan

Gly

plu

Mon

tA

or

Pat

tern

(Y

ucat

ec N

ames

) Pa

tro1l

8 K

ekch

i (

)

Ala

uch

T

alch

oI~

M

ucuc

h N

imch

o

Jagu

ar

7 ui

ncil

Nic

hilk

im

116

Uo

Jagu

ar

lcat

6

uinc

il

1 ui

ncil

11

Zip

C

haca

t 5

uinc

il

2 ui

ncil

i12

4

wnc

il

3 w

ncil

3

uinc

il

4 ui

ncil

~

j17

C

hen

K

hek

Siho

m

118

Yax

Y

ax S

ihom

1 Z

ac

(Si

sac)

Z

izac

Sa

h Si

hom

2

Ceh

W

ucta

sac)

M

ucta

zac

Kha

k Si

hom

f bull S

isac

and

Muc

tasa

c oc

cur

only

in

the

Tze

ltal

lis

t of

Em

eter

io P

ined

a d

iscu

ssed

by

Sel

er

(189

8)

the

othe

r T

zelta

l lis

ts

cite

d by

Tho

mps

on (

1950

106

) a

U h

ave

Zaci

ab a

nd A

helc

hac

or s

imil

ar t

erIm

i in

th

ese

posi

tions

~

C-~

rt-----

--I

Iiexcl-shy

ot-~

-II~~

l

rt

gt1

bullr 1

1

~_

1 ~

ji)

()

ji)

0gt

1bull

O

O

Il

O

O

iexcl

iexcl P

iexcl l

11

iexcl

O

t

0

0

] P

iexcl 0

Cl

lll

1raquo

=

O =

~iexcl ff~

~ sect

=t ~ ~ [

g-

gg

~ ntilde

sl

S 2

~

t-3

iexcl

iexcll

a

Piexcl ~ S

iexcll

t-3

i

iexcl

ji

j t

iexcl

l t7

=shy

~riexcl6 ~

O O

r+

Q

q

11

iexcl 5~l ~S E

L o

~1igt~~Qq

t-3

I

iexcliexcl-

2

iexcl

Iraquor

Beacute

3

~~iexcliexcl~lraquojI~jlnn

t l

e

~I[r

~l~llr

F

lt El

( ~

~ ~~O

C1gt~ ~

~g~

i ~l J

~ J

51

~

iexcll

~

a

~ -

~ ~

B

~~

~i1

~~g~i~~IEg~ ~e~~~

I

-g

f i

-Q

C

) ordm-

~ ~ t

i) ~

Q

~

183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

---~~ ---__---__- ~~------

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE O 174 JOE D STEWART

TAl79) 2 In view of this iacutet is not surprising that a prototypical series of moons appears to be implicit in the series of the 18 meztli to use the N ahuatl termo This becomes evident when one examines PATTERN OF PAlREO NAMES ANO SYI

particularly the Aztec and other Nahuan lists in which 10 of the 18 THE EIGHTEEN MEZTLI (MOONS)

names seem to occur in 5 pairs thus reducing the list to one of only ( 1967 1971) K UBLER ANO GIBSON (

13 different terms if each pair is counted as one iacutetem (Table 1) AND SYMBOLS ARE GIVEl

In the Nahuan tradition this pairing pattem is cIear and unequivocal for the first four pairs in Table 1 (34~ 78 910 and 1213) where the suffix tontli signifies little and the prefix huey -

Name

signifies big We are fortunate in having severa Nahuan lists for (1 ) 1 Cuahuitlehuain sorne of them there are altemate names which do not show the

(2) 2 Tlacaxipehualiztlipairing eg 9) Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given) 10) X ocotlhuetzi (birth of Xocotl) and 12) Teotleco (amval of the gods) 13) iexcl-3 Tozoztontli little T epeilhuitl (festival of the mountains) The several sets of pictorial (3) I symbols for the months also are variable and sometimes bear no I~ Hueytozoztli big

obvious relationship to the names although a connection between name and symbol sometimes can be seen when one studies the desshy (4) 5 Toxcatl criptions of the festivals and patron deities of particular months ( 5 ) 6 Etzalcualiztli The point here however is that the pictorial symbols associated with 17 Tecuilhuitontli littlt the name pairs 34 78 910 and 1213 are also paired in those lord(6) I sources where the names are paired~ whether or not there is any I~ Hueytecuilhuitl big apparent connection between the names and the symbols s lord

Qnly the fifth pair of months in Table 1 17) Tititl18 lzcalli Miccailhuitontli littll therequires extended attention because the pairing is not as evident as (7raquo)9

110 H ueymiccailhuitl bigfor the first four pairs Qne possible indication of the pairing of these the

2 The most convenient widely available illustration of a sample of the pictorial (8) 11 Ochpaniztli symbols of the months is probably tbat of Caso (1967 Figura 14 p 36) [t

Pachontli Pachtli littlshould be noted however that Casos illustration (a composite sample from 112 (orvarious sources) for some omits examples for Pachtli or Pachontil Also the (9)

arrangemenl of the names Ilis a vis the three symbols in the upper leftmiddothand 13 H ueypachtli big comer of Casos Figura 14 is misleading Reading lefttomiddotright in the first ro (or the first two symbols are variants for lzcalli and the third is a symbol for the following month Atlcahualo whereas the arrangement makes it appear thal (10) 14 Quecholli second and third symbols aTe variants for Atlcahualo These errors incidentally (11) 15 Panquetzaliztli have been repeated in both editions of Weavers fine textbook on Mesoamenca ( 12) 16 Atemoztli (WIlaver 1972 1981) Far more helpful are tbe illustrations of individual sets of the figures from various codices in Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figures 7 smI 17 Tititl 11-12 and 14-16 and Plates IV-XIV) (Tititl-Izcalli) tiOII3 Lothrop (1930653) reported possible ethnographic support for Bowdichs sugmiddot

(13) I led gestion 0910267) that the Maya recognized tbat the tzolkin (260day cycIe)

118 Izcalli goapproximates nine Iunations Lothrop found the Quicheacute of Momostenango tIOGuatemala to be still holding a tzolkin festival called uajzaqip vats (8 Monkey) (cfevery 260 years However when asked how often this ceremony was held a

shaman told Lotbrop Every nine months

175 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE 1

PATTERN OF PAIREO NAMES ANO SYMBOLS IN THE NAHUAN SEQUENCE OF

THE EIGHTEEN MEZTLI (MOONS) AFTER NICHOLSON (1971) CASO

(19671971) KUBLER ANO GIBSON (1951) ANO OTHER SOURCES MEANINGS

ANO SYMBOLS ARE GIVEN ONLY FOR PAIRED ITEMS

Narne Meaning Pictorial Symhol

(1) 1 Cuahuitlehua (2) 2 Tlacaxipehualiztli

iacute3 (3) 1

1 4 -shy

T ozoztontli

Hueytozoztli

little vigil

big vigil

maize deity bird piershyced by pointed bone maize plant bird piershyced by pointed bone

(4) (5)

5 Toxcatl 6 Etzalcualiztli

11 T ecuilhuitontli (6) I I~ H ueytecuilhuitl

little festival oiacute lords big festival of 1000s

noble figure various insignia (of rank) noble figure various symbols similar to N9 7

9(7) 1

110

Miccailhuitontli

Hueymiccailhuitl

little festival oiacute thedead big festival oiacute

mummy bundle deatb symbols mummy bundle death

thedead symbols similar to Nt1 9

(8) 11 Ochpaniztli

12 Pachontli Pachtli litde Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass) (9)

13 Hueypachtli big Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass)

(10) 14 Quecholli (11 ) 15 Panquetzaliztli (12) 16 Atemoztli

I 17 Tititl stretching contrac- aged goddess of weav-I (Tititl-Izcalli) tion shrunk wrink- ing Ilamatecuhtli vamiddot

(13) 1 118 Izcalli

led etc growth resurrecshy

rious fire god Xiuhtecuhtli

tion vivacity etc house and plant other (ciacute calli house) figures

176 JOE D STEWAlT

months comes from two lists of the chronicler Cristobal del Castillo where the relevant part of the sequence is given as follows

Atemoztli Atemoztli Izcalli-Tititl (Nemontemi) X ochilhuitl bullbull bull 1 zcalli (Nemontemi omitted) Xochilhuitl

However Kubler and Gibson (1951 47-48) argue persuasively tbat this part of Castillos lists merely reflects Castillos confusion over the beginning of the year and the corrupt and derivative character oiacute bis calendars They note tbat Castillos errors were carried over into the OtomIacute Codex iacuterom Huichapan

Still there are other suggestions that Titiacutetl and Izcalli iacuteorm a conshyceptual pair though not in terms of big and littIe O[ iacuteirst and second Instead they seem to form a contrastive seto With regard to Titiacutetl Kubler and Gibson (1951 34) discuss how it has the apshyparently contradictory semantic senses oiacute stretching and of contraeshytion or tightening The notion oI stretching may be a sort oiacute cosmic one associated with severe winds and weather as in the inshyterpretation oI Juan de Tovar (Kubler and Gibson 1951) but it has more concrete associations with rope-stretching ceremonies and also with weaving (the patron goddess oI Tititl being Ilamatecuhtli the goddess of weavers) Kubler and Gibson noting that contraction is a response to cold conclude that both the stretching and the conshytraction senses may be valido This also makes sense in terms oI ropeshystretching and weaving wherein the act oI stretching the fibers has the eflect of tightening the weave Caso ( 1971 340) prefers the meaning shrunk or wrinlded por Tititl which is an allusion to ddershyliness of the deity Ilamatecuhtli (d Corona N uacutentildeez 1964 m 162) Perhaps these senses oI Tititl also have a seasonal allusion considering that the Iollowing month name Izcalli is generalIy interpreted as growth revival resurrection vivacity etc referring to the first sprouting (jf plant growth Iollowing the dead season Literally the Nahuatl calli means house and Izcalli is sometimes pictorialIy symbolized as a house or temple associated with a growing planto The altemate symbol Ior Izcalli is a Iigure of its patron deity Xiushytecuhtli the fire godo The pictorial symbols Ior Tiacutetiacutetl are more variable but geherally either the goddess Ilamatecuhtli is portrayed or some scene suggesting stretching or contraction is pictured The onIy example oI which I am aware in which the pictorial symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE e

suggest a pairing of Titiacutetl with the Codex Riacuteos (ValIacutecanus A laid out in association with pictu oiacute Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 195 while Kubler and Gibson (195 (repeated by Caso 1967Figure represented by the heads of thei months being represented by othe The head oI Ilamatecuhtli has 2

tongue suggestive of her old agc The head oI Xiutecuhtli on tl expre8ion in accord with the var oI Izcalli Perhaps this is readin ticularIy as the much more elabc where in the Codex Rios (Laacutem these details in similar fashion I sorne additional evidence SUppol even if this be denied the rest o former shorter list of months irr

Further study oiacute the codices an oiacute the months their iacuteestivals patJ evidence oI the pairing oI Tititl oiacute the sources containing such Table 8 p 42) who lists these s 18-month festival calendars an the iacuteormer have been studied thro but that the latter have not recei

The Nahuan-style pairing patt degree in several non-Nahuan (Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan group (Table 2) the pattem is st four oiacute the Iive pairings The ~ serve three pairings though not Mije list sbows sorne variation fre is aetually a tripling correspondi the pair corresponding to Nahuan list but Tarascan 12) Little Sp Nahuan pair 1213 One oiacute th Caso (both Chiapanec versions bomoz in 1875) has the pair 7B

al del Castillo )llows

)

ersuasivdy that fusion over the ive character ~e carried over

Ui form a con-OC first and

With regard it has the apshyId of contracshybe a 80rt of

as in the inshyH) but it has mes and also natecuhtli the contraction is and the conshyterms of ropeshythe fibers has t) prefers the tusion to eldershy1964m 162) ID considering interpreted as Ilg to the first iacuteLiterally the ~f8 pictorially iexclrowing planto pn deity Xiushy~titl are more ~ is portrayed The

symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 177

suggest a pairing of Tititl with Izcalli occurs on Laacutemina cxxxm of the Codex Riacuteos (Vaticanus A 3738) where the month signs are laid out in association with pictures of events from Corteacutess conquest of Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 1954m 287) has a color reproduction while Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figure n) provide line drawings (repeated by Caso 1967Figure 14) Here Tititl and Izcalli are iepresented by the heads of their patron deities (most of the other months being represented by other symbols rather than their deities) The head of Ilamatecuhtli has a strained expression and protruding tongue suggestive of her old age and the wrinkled sense of Tititl The head of Xiutecuhtliacute on the other hand has a fierce livdy expression in accord with the various senses - resurrection etc shyof Izcalli Perhaps this is reading too much into these figures parshyticularly as the much more elaborate portrayals of these deities elseshywhere in the Codex Riacuteos (Laacuteminas LXXI-LXXD) do not emphasize these details in similar fashion PresentIy it will be seen that there is sorne additional evidence supporting the Tiacutetitlllzcalli pairing but even if this be denied the rest of the pattem is enough to suggest a former shorter list of months implicit in the 18-month series

Further study of the codices and manuscripts with pictorial symbols of the months their festivals patron deities etc might provide more evidence of the pairing of TititllIzcalli 1 have not had access to all of the sources containing such material Glass (197530-31 and Table 8 p 42) who lists these sources divides them into two types 18-month festival calendars and calendar wheds He notes that the former have been studied throughly by Kubler and Gibson (1951) but that the latter have not received thorough systematic attention

The N ahuan-style pairing pattern shows up in lesser and varying degree in several non-Nahuan lists reported in Casos Cuadro XI

(Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan Mije and Chiapanec lists) In this group (Table 2) the pattem is strongest in the Otomiacute list which has four of the five pairings The Matlatzinca and Mije lists each preshyserve three pairings though not exactly the same three Also the Mije list shows sorne variation from the Nahuan pattern in that there is actually a tripling corresponding to the Nahuan pair 34 OnIy the pair corresponding to Nahuan 718 is fully attested in the Tarascan list but Tarascan 12) LittIe Spanish Moss partially corresponds to Nahuan pair 1213 One of the two Chiapanec lists tabulated by Caso (both Chiapanec versions reported by the Fray Juan de Alshybornoz in 1875) has the pair 78 The other Chiapanec list has been

12

Z o 00 iexcl o ll1 9 z

- rol-~

O) o 0000lt iexcliexcl00 ~ Ii iexcliexclJ oJ 00

~ ZIl1 ~ lt o Q

Z Z lt lt-

CI 1)=shyO)

iexcli ~-iexcl riI - Il1 z ~ ~o 00 ~Xl

~6 00 Q i z z lt lt iexclz ~jJ Xl ll1 J lt ~ Z-z

~

Ol-ZCl

-

z 00 iexcliexcl z o

o ~

o z ~ ltIl

ltgt

sect

u

ii

(gt ltgt d

a 5 ~ ~

~

~

iexcl

c ~

~ ~ l3 iexcl riexcl~

Q

- (l

- ltIl

iexcl$el e~~ lbO el~ el tI) ti)

-= tlt

-5-5 -5

o o

cel oo loo o el 100 loo iexcl v iexcl ti)3131 v v o viexcliexcl Sti)o o

u u ra-gt ~~ S

ti) o o Se 11 (l11 11 1 s -5l s iexcl iquest-sect11 ltgt I ~~ -t o 11 o tiexcliexcl iexcl$ ltgt ltgtW rn

v el bO ~ eliexcl -El~ ~ cl ~ v -Elel o ciexcl cl oacute ~ v 00 o-5 oacutel v v oo~

l oE blJ blJ - blJO o = o ~E oS

o el ti)blJ il iloacute

il gt ~ ilg -5i~ v ~blJ ~ gt v sti) ltIlamp ~ Voacute -5 5oacute ~ oacute o ltl

100 v ti) v 00 oV v v o

~el 00ltIl ~g V - blJE -oblJ bOO o 20 bull iexcliexcl~ -~ o =0 0_ E1S 00 ~ oHH

~I~~Ill-_CO _110) __S _1I~_ ~ _II~

S El

_~

STRllCTURAL EVIDENCE OF Il

so drastically reordered or rather order of the members of this pair ( separated from each other by ninc non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulat and the fragmentary Huastec (lin~ appear to have no trace of the pairi in bis Cuadro XI for Totonac but reported the Totonac cannot be COI

Tuming to the various Mayans lis onIy where there is evidence of Meiexcl Quicheacute) Caso (196737-38) amo sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quic loanwords and that others though 1

semantic borrowings I t was this tl to partially renconstruct a Toltec sence in Central America predates t month names was carried over in 1

list except for the positional equiva (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist tl is about as vague as in the NahUlu borrowing of the Nahuan 18) IzcalJ as we see in Table 3 On the other 1 gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro x Bum Drying refers to drought clearance (Recinos and Goetz 1953 sequence there is a tripling over posi phonology nor the meanings of the Nahuan One would suspect borrow trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list the tripling might reflect a Mayan (text and Table 4)

Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasse sorne slight positional displacements equivalents of the Mexican pairs 71 cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabu here) is probably correct in its imI list has these displacements as a cons Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positic pectively In the Cakchiquel list a e the pair equivalent to Mexican 9H rather than of Ligin ka as in the Ql

~

liexcl~_~1

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 111

so drastically reordered or rather disordered that the sequential order of the members of this pair (78) is reversed and the two are separated from each other by nine positions Only three of the non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulated by Caso-Chinantec Mazatec and the fragmentary Huastec (linguistically related to Mayan)shyappear to have no trace of the pairing pattem Caso has a heading in his Cuadro XI for Totonac but with only the one month name reported the Totonac cannot be compared

Turning to the various Mayans lists the pairing pattem is obvious only where there is evidence of Mexican influence (Cakchiquel and Quicheacute) Caso (1967 37-38) arnong others has pointed out that sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacute month names are Nahuan loanwords and that others though not phonological loanwords are semantic borrowings It was this that enabled Caso (196774-77) to partia1ly renconstruct a Toltec calendar (as the Nahuan preshysence in Central America predates the Aztecs) The pairing of the month names was carried over in the borrowing into the Quicheacute list except for the positional equivalents of the Mexican pair 34 (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist the evidence of pairing at 1718 is about as vague as in the Nahuan lists Izcol kih is an obvious

iexcl borrowing of the Nahuan 18) Izcalli but with a shift of meaning as we see in Table 3 On the other hand 17) Katic is not a pholoshya ltti

E-o gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro XI gives the meaning Drying or Bum Drying refers to drought Bum to slash-and-bum field ~

CQ clearance (Recinos and Goetz 195331) In the case of the Quicheacute el a sequen ce there is a tripling over positions 161718 but neither the o phonology nor the meanings of the terms suggest borrowing from El o Nahuan One would suspect borrowing on the basis of Nahuan inshy

trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list but in this part of the sequence ~ the tripling might reflect a Mayan tradition as will be seen later iexcl

ltti (text and Table 4) iraquo ltti Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasseur de Bourbourg there are also ~

i3 sorne slight positional displacements of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacutes oshy equivalents of the Mexican pairs 78 910 and 1213 The Quishya ~ cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabulated by Caso but not repeated a here) is probably correct in its implication that Brintons Quicheacute ~ list has these displacements as a consequence of shifts of the months Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positions 6 to 15 and 11 to 12 resshy

pectively In the Cakchiquel list a displacement by one position of the pair equivalent to Mexican 910 reflects the doubling oiacute Tole rather than of Ligin ka as in the Quicheacute

w

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

IQU

EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

S

Mar

a

May

a

Clw

l (

) Tz

elta

l Tz

otzi

l iexclx

ii

Kan

ahob

al

Nah

uan

Gly

plu

Mon

tA

or

Pat

tern

(Y

ucat

ec N

ames

) Pa

tro1l

8 K

ekch

i (

)

Ala

uch

T

alch

oI~

M

ucuc

h N

imch

o

Jagu

ar

7 ui

ncil

Nic

hilk

im

116

Uo

Jagu

ar

lcat

6

uinc

il

1 ui

ncil

11

Zip

C

haca

t 5

uinc

il

2 ui

ncil

i12

4

wnc

il

3 w

ncil

3

uinc

il

4 ui

ncil

~

j17

C

hen

K

hek

Siho

m

118

Yax

Y

ax S

ihom

1 Z

ac

(Si

sac)

Z

izac

Sa

h Si

hom

2

Ceh

W

ucta

sac)

M

ucta

zac

Kha

k Si

hom

f bull S

isac

and

Muc

tasa

c oc

cur

only

in

the

Tze

ltal

lis

t of

Em

eter

io P

ined

a d

iscu

ssed

by

Sel

er

(189

8)

the

othe

r T

zelta

l lis

ts

cite

d by

Tho

mps

on (

1950

106

) a

U h

ave

Zaci

ab a

nd A

helc

hac

or s

imil

ar t

erIm

i in

th

ese

posi

tions

~

C-~

rt-----

--I

Iiexcl-shy

ot-~

-II~~

l

rt

gt1

bullr 1

1

~_

1 ~

ji)

()

ji)

0gt

1bull

O

O

Il

O

O

iexcl

iexcl P

iexcl l

11

iexcl

O

t

0

0

] P

iexcl 0

Cl

lll

1raquo

=

O =

~iexcl ff~

~ sect

=t ~ ~ [

g-

gg

~ ntilde

sl

S 2

~

t-3

iexcl

iexcll

a

Piexcl ~ S

iexcll

t-3

i

iexcl

ji

j t

iexcl

l t7

=shy

~riexcl6 ~

O O

r+

Q

q

11

iexcl 5~l ~S E

L o

~1igt~~Qq

t-3

I

iexcliexcl-

2

iexcl

Iraquor

Beacute

3

~~iexcliexcl~lraquojI~jlnn

t l

e

~I[r

~l~llr

F

lt El

( ~

~ ~~O

C1gt~ ~

~g~

i ~l J

~ J

51

~

iexcll

~

a

~ -

~ ~

B

~~

~i1

~~g~i~~IEg~ ~e~~~

I

-g

f i

-Q

C

) ordm-

~ ~ t

i) ~

Q

~

183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

175 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE 1

PATTERN OF PAIREO NAMES ANO SYMBOLS IN THE NAHUAN SEQUENCE OF

THE EIGHTEEN MEZTLI (MOONS) AFTER NICHOLSON (1971) CASO

(19671971) KUBLER ANO GIBSON (1951) ANO OTHER SOURCES MEANINGS

ANO SYMBOLS ARE GIVEN ONLY FOR PAIRED ITEMS

Narne Meaning Pictorial Symhol

(1) 1 Cuahuitlehua (2) 2 Tlacaxipehualiztli

iacute3 (3) 1

1 4 -shy

T ozoztontli

Hueytozoztli

little vigil

big vigil

maize deity bird piershyced by pointed bone maize plant bird piershyced by pointed bone

(4) (5)

5 Toxcatl 6 Etzalcualiztli

11 T ecuilhuitontli (6) I I~ H ueytecuilhuitl

little festival oiacute lords big festival of 1000s

noble figure various insignia (of rank) noble figure various symbols similar to N9 7

9(7) 1

110

Miccailhuitontli

Hueymiccailhuitl

little festival oiacute thedead big festival oiacute

mummy bundle deatb symbols mummy bundle death

thedead symbols similar to Nt1 9

(8) 11 Ochpaniztli

12 Pachontli Pachtli litde Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass) (9)

13 Hueypachtli big Spanish moss pachtli plant (or grass)

(10) 14 Quecholli (11 ) 15 Panquetzaliztli (12) 16 Atemoztli

I 17 Tititl stretching contrac- aged goddess of weav-I (Tititl-Izcalli) tion shrunk wrink- ing Ilamatecuhtli vamiddot

(13) 1 118 Izcalli

led etc growth resurrecshy

rious fire god Xiuhtecuhtli

tion vivacity etc house and plant other (ciacute calli house) figures

176 JOE D STEWAlT

months comes from two lists of the chronicler Cristobal del Castillo where the relevant part of the sequence is given as follows

Atemoztli Atemoztli Izcalli-Tititl (Nemontemi) X ochilhuitl bullbull bull 1 zcalli (Nemontemi omitted) Xochilhuitl

However Kubler and Gibson (1951 47-48) argue persuasively tbat this part of Castillos lists merely reflects Castillos confusion over the beginning of the year and the corrupt and derivative character oiacute bis calendars They note tbat Castillos errors were carried over into the OtomIacute Codex iacuterom Huichapan

Still there are other suggestions that Titiacutetl and Izcalli iacuteorm a conshyceptual pair though not in terms of big and littIe O[ iacuteirst and second Instead they seem to form a contrastive seto With regard to Titiacutetl Kubler and Gibson (1951 34) discuss how it has the apshyparently contradictory semantic senses oiacute stretching and of contraeshytion or tightening The notion oI stretching may be a sort oiacute cosmic one associated with severe winds and weather as in the inshyterpretation oI Juan de Tovar (Kubler and Gibson 1951) but it has more concrete associations with rope-stretching ceremonies and also with weaving (the patron goddess oI Tititl being Ilamatecuhtli the goddess of weavers) Kubler and Gibson noting that contraction is a response to cold conclude that both the stretching and the conshytraction senses may be valido This also makes sense in terms oI ropeshystretching and weaving wherein the act oI stretching the fibers has the eflect of tightening the weave Caso ( 1971 340) prefers the meaning shrunk or wrinlded por Tititl which is an allusion to ddershyliness of the deity Ilamatecuhtli (d Corona N uacutentildeez 1964 m 162) Perhaps these senses oI Tititl also have a seasonal allusion considering that the Iollowing month name Izcalli is generalIy interpreted as growth revival resurrection vivacity etc referring to the first sprouting (jf plant growth Iollowing the dead season Literally the Nahuatl calli means house and Izcalli is sometimes pictorialIy symbolized as a house or temple associated with a growing planto The altemate symbol Ior Izcalli is a Iigure of its patron deity Xiushytecuhtli the fire godo The pictorial symbols Ior Tiacutetiacutetl are more variable but geherally either the goddess Ilamatecuhtli is portrayed or some scene suggesting stretching or contraction is pictured The onIy example oI which I am aware in which the pictorial symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE e

suggest a pairing of Titiacutetl with the Codex Riacuteos (ValIacutecanus A laid out in association with pictu oiacute Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 195 while Kubler and Gibson (195 (repeated by Caso 1967Figure represented by the heads of thei months being represented by othe The head oI Ilamatecuhtli has 2

tongue suggestive of her old agc The head oI Xiutecuhtli on tl expre8ion in accord with the var oI Izcalli Perhaps this is readin ticularIy as the much more elabc where in the Codex Rios (Laacutem these details in similar fashion I sorne additional evidence SUppol even if this be denied the rest o former shorter list of months irr

Further study oiacute the codices an oiacute the months their iacuteestivals patJ evidence oI the pairing oI Tititl oiacute the sources containing such Table 8 p 42) who lists these s 18-month festival calendars an the iacuteormer have been studied thro but that the latter have not recei

The Nahuan-style pairing patt degree in several non-Nahuan (Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan group (Table 2) the pattem is st four oiacute the Iive pairings The ~ serve three pairings though not Mije list sbows sorne variation fre is aetually a tripling correspondi the pair corresponding to Nahuan list but Tarascan 12) Little Sp Nahuan pair 1213 One oiacute th Caso (both Chiapanec versions bomoz in 1875) has the pair 7B

al del Castillo )llows

)

ersuasivdy that fusion over the ive character ~e carried over

Ui form a con-OC first and

With regard it has the apshyId of contracshybe a 80rt of

as in the inshyH) but it has mes and also natecuhtli the contraction is and the conshyterms of ropeshythe fibers has t) prefers the tusion to eldershy1964m 162) ID considering interpreted as Ilg to the first iacuteLiterally the ~f8 pictorially iexclrowing planto pn deity Xiushy~titl are more ~ is portrayed The

symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 177

suggest a pairing of Tititl with Izcalli occurs on Laacutemina cxxxm of the Codex Riacuteos (Vaticanus A 3738) where the month signs are laid out in association with pictures of events from Corteacutess conquest of Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 1954m 287) has a color reproduction while Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figure n) provide line drawings (repeated by Caso 1967Figure 14) Here Tititl and Izcalli are iepresented by the heads of their patron deities (most of the other months being represented by other symbols rather than their deities) The head of Ilamatecuhtli has a strained expression and protruding tongue suggestive of her old age and the wrinkled sense of Tititl The head of Xiutecuhtliacute on the other hand has a fierce livdy expression in accord with the various senses - resurrection etc shyof Izcalli Perhaps this is reading too much into these figures parshyticularly as the much more elaborate portrayals of these deities elseshywhere in the Codex Riacuteos (Laacuteminas LXXI-LXXD) do not emphasize these details in similar fashion PresentIy it will be seen that there is sorne additional evidence supporting the Tiacutetitlllzcalli pairing but even if this be denied the rest of the pattem is enough to suggest a former shorter list of months implicit in the 18-month series

Further study of the codices and manuscripts with pictorial symbols of the months their festivals patron deities etc might provide more evidence of the pairing of TititllIzcalli 1 have not had access to all of the sources containing such material Glass (197530-31 and Table 8 p 42) who lists these sources divides them into two types 18-month festival calendars and calendar wheds He notes that the former have been studied throughly by Kubler and Gibson (1951) but that the latter have not received thorough systematic attention

The N ahuan-style pairing pattern shows up in lesser and varying degree in several non-Nahuan lists reported in Casos Cuadro XI

(Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan Mije and Chiapanec lists) In this group (Table 2) the pattem is strongest in the Otomiacute list which has four of the five pairings The Matlatzinca and Mije lists each preshyserve three pairings though not exactly the same three Also the Mije list shows sorne variation from the Nahuan pattern in that there is actually a tripling corresponding to the Nahuan pair 34 OnIy the pair corresponding to Nahuan 718 is fully attested in the Tarascan list but Tarascan 12) LittIe Spanish Moss partially corresponds to Nahuan pair 1213 One of the two Chiapanec lists tabulated by Caso (both Chiapanec versions reported by the Fray Juan de Alshybornoz in 1875) has the pair 78 The other Chiapanec list has been

12

Z o 00 iexcl o ll1 9 z

- rol-~

O) o 0000lt iexcliexcl00 ~ Ii iexcliexclJ oJ 00

~ ZIl1 ~ lt o Q

Z Z lt lt-

CI 1)=shyO)

iexcli ~-iexcl riI - Il1 z ~ ~o 00 ~Xl

~6 00 Q i z z lt lt iexclz ~jJ Xl ll1 J lt ~ Z-z

~

Ol-ZCl

-

z 00 iexcliexcl z o

o ~

o z ~ ltIl

ltgt

sect

u

ii

(gt ltgt d

a 5 ~ ~

~

~

iexcl

c ~

~ ~ l3 iexcl riexcl~

Q

- (l

- ltIl

iexcl$el e~~ lbO el~ el tI) ti)

-= tlt

-5-5 -5

o o

cel oo loo o el 100 loo iexcl v iexcl ti)3131 v v o viexcliexcl Sti)o o

u u ra-gt ~~ S

ti) o o Se 11 (l11 11 1 s -5l s iexcl iquest-sect11 ltgt I ~~ -t o 11 o tiexcliexcl iexcl$ ltgt ltgtW rn

v el bO ~ eliexcl -El~ ~ cl ~ v -Elel o ciexcl cl oacute ~ v 00 o-5 oacutel v v oo~

l oE blJ blJ - blJO o = o ~E oS

o el ti)blJ il iloacute

il gt ~ ilg -5i~ v ~blJ ~ gt v sti) ltIlamp ~ Voacute -5 5oacute ~ oacute o ltl

100 v ti) v 00 oV v v o

~el 00ltIl ~g V - blJE -oblJ bOO o 20 bull iexcliexcl~ -~ o =0 0_ E1S 00 ~ oHH

~I~~Ill-_CO _110) __S _1I~_ ~ _II~

S El

_~

STRllCTURAL EVIDENCE OF Il

so drastically reordered or rather order of the members of this pair ( separated from each other by ninc non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulat and the fragmentary Huastec (lin~ appear to have no trace of the pairi in bis Cuadro XI for Totonac but reported the Totonac cannot be COI

Tuming to the various Mayans lis onIy where there is evidence of Meiexcl Quicheacute) Caso (196737-38) amo sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quic loanwords and that others though 1

semantic borrowings I t was this tl to partially renconstruct a Toltec sence in Central America predates t month names was carried over in 1

list except for the positional equiva (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist tl is about as vague as in the NahUlu borrowing of the Nahuan 18) IzcalJ as we see in Table 3 On the other 1 gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro x Bum Drying refers to drought clearance (Recinos and Goetz 1953 sequence there is a tripling over posi phonology nor the meanings of the Nahuan One would suspect borrow trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list the tripling might reflect a Mayan (text and Table 4)

Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasse sorne slight positional displacements equivalents of the Mexican pairs 71 cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabu here) is probably correct in its imI list has these displacements as a cons Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positic pectively In the Cakchiquel list a e the pair equivalent to Mexican 9H rather than of Ligin ka as in the Ql

~

liexcl~_~1

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 111

so drastically reordered or rather disordered that the sequential order of the members of this pair (78) is reversed and the two are separated from each other by nine positions Only three of the non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulated by Caso-Chinantec Mazatec and the fragmentary Huastec (linguistically related to Mayan)shyappear to have no trace of the pairing pattem Caso has a heading in his Cuadro XI for Totonac but with only the one month name reported the Totonac cannot be compared

Turning to the various Mayans lists the pairing pattem is obvious only where there is evidence of Mexican influence (Cakchiquel and Quicheacute) Caso (1967 37-38) arnong others has pointed out that sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacute month names are Nahuan loanwords and that others though not phonological loanwords are semantic borrowings It was this that enabled Caso (196774-77) to partia1ly renconstruct a Toltec calendar (as the Nahuan preshysence in Central America predates the Aztecs) The pairing of the month names was carried over in the borrowing into the Quicheacute list except for the positional equivalents of the Mexican pair 34 (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist the evidence of pairing at 1718 is about as vague as in the Nahuan lists Izcol kih is an obvious

iexcl borrowing of the Nahuan 18) Izcalli but with a shift of meaning as we see in Table 3 On the other hand 17) Katic is not a pholoshya ltti

E-o gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro XI gives the meaning Drying or Bum Drying refers to drought Bum to slash-and-bum field ~

CQ clearance (Recinos and Goetz 195331) In the case of the Quicheacute el a sequen ce there is a tripling over positions 161718 but neither the o phonology nor the meanings of the terms suggest borrowing from El o Nahuan One would suspect borrowing on the basis of Nahuan inshy

trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list but in this part of the sequence ~ the tripling might reflect a Mayan tradition as will be seen later iexcl

ltti (text and Table 4) iraquo ltti Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasseur de Bourbourg there are also ~

i3 sorne slight positional displacements of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacutes oshy equivalents of the Mexican pairs 78 910 and 1213 The Quishya ~ cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabulated by Caso but not repeated a here) is probably correct in its implication that Brintons Quicheacute ~ list has these displacements as a consequence of shifts of the months Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positions 6 to 15 and 11 to 12 resshy

pectively In the Cakchiquel list a displacement by one position of the pair equivalent to Mexican 910 reflects the doubling oiacute Tole rather than of Ligin ka as in the Quicheacute

w

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

IQU

EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

S

Mar

a

May

a

Clw

l (

) Tz

elta

l Tz

otzi

l iexclx

ii

Kan

ahob

al

Nah

uan

Gly

plu

Mon

tA

or

Pat

tern

(Y

ucat

ec N

ames

) Pa

tro1l

8 K

ekch

i (

)

Ala

uch

T

alch

oI~

M

ucuc

h N

imch

o

Jagu

ar

7 ui

ncil

Nic

hilk

im

116

Uo

Jagu

ar

lcat

6

uinc

il

1 ui

ncil

11

Zip

C

haca

t 5

uinc

il

2 ui

ncil

i12

4

wnc

il

3 w

ncil

3

uinc

il

4 ui

ncil

~

j17

C

hen

K

hek

Siho

m

118

Yax

Y

ax S

ihom

1 Z

ac

(Si

sac)

Z

izac

Sa

h Si

hom

2

Ceh

W

ucta

sac)

M

ucta

zac

Kha

k Si

hom

f bull S

isac

and

Muc

tasa

c oc

cur

only

in

the

Tze

ltal

lis

t of

Em

eter

io P

ined

a d

iscu

ssed

by

Sel

er

(189

8)

the

othe

r T

zelta

l lis

ts

cite

d by

Tho

mps

on (

1950

106

) a

U h

ave

Zaci

ab a

nd A

helc

hac

or s

imil

ar t

erIm

i in

th

ese

posi

tions

~

C-~

rt-----

--I

Iiexcl-shy

ot-~

-II~~

l

rt

gt1

bullr 1

1

~_

1 ~

ji)

()

ji)

0gt

1bull

O

O

Il

O

O

iexcl

iexcl P

iexcl l

11

iexcl

O

t

0

0

] P

iexcl 0

Cl

lll

1raquo

=

O =

~iexcl ff~

~ sect

=t ~ ~ [

g-

gg

~ ntilde

sl

S 2

~

t-3

iexcl

iexcll

a

Piexcl ~ S

iexcll

t-3

i

iexcl

ji

j t

iexcl

l t7

=shy

~riexcl6 ~

O O

r+

Q

q

11

iexcl 5~l ~S E

L o

~1igt~~Qq

t-3

I

iexcliexcl-

2

iexcl

Iraquor

Beacute

3

~~iexcliexcl~lraquojI~jlnn

t l

e

~I[r

~l~llr

F

lt El

( ~

~ ~~O

C1gt~ ~

~g~

i ~l J

~ J

51

~

iexcll

~

a

~ -

~ ~

B

~~

~i1

~~g~i~~IEg~ ~e~~~

I

-g

f i

-Q

C

) ordm-

~ ~ t

i) ~

Q

~

183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

176 JOE D STEWAlT

months comes from two lists of the chronicler Cristobal del Castillo where the relevant part of the sequence is given as follows

Atemoztli Atemoztli Izcalli-Tititl (Nemontemi) X ochilhuitl bullbull bull 1 zcalli (Nemontemi omitted) Xochilhuitl

However Kubler and Gibson (1951 47-48) argue persuasively tbat this part of Castillos lists merely reflects Castillos confusion over the beginning of the year and the corrupt and derivative character oiacute bis calendars They note tbat Castillos errors were carried over into the OtomIacute Codex iacuterom Huichapan

Still there are other suggestions that Titiacutetl and Izcalli iacuteorm a conshyceptual pair though not in terms of big and littIe O[ iacuteirst and second Instead they seem to form a contrastive seto With regard to Titiacutetl Kubler and Gibson (1951 34) discuss how it has the apshyparently contradictory semantic senses oiacute stretching and of contraeshytion or tightening The notion oI stretching may be a sort oiacute cosmic one associated with severe winds and weather as in the inshyterpretation oI Juan de Tovar (Kubler and Gibson 1951) but it has more concrete associations with rope-stretching ceremonies and also with weaving (the patron goddess oI Tititl being Ilamatecuhtli the goddess of weavers) Kubler and Gibson noting that contraction is a response to cold conclude that both the stretching and the conshytraction senses may be valido This also makes sense in terms oI ropeshystretching and weaving wherein the act oI stretching the fibers has the eflect of tightening the weave Caso ( 1971 340) prefers the meaning shrunk or wrinlded por Tititl which is an allusion to ddershyliness of the deity Ilamatecuhtli (d Corona N uacutentildeez 1964 m 162) Perhaps these senses oI Tititl also have a seasonal allusion considering that the Iollowing month name Izcalli is generalIy interpreted as growth revival resurrection vivacity etc referring to the first sprouting (jf plant growth Iollowing the dead season Literally the Nahuatl calli means house and Izcalli is sometimes pictorialIy symbolized as a house or temple associated with a growing planto The altemate symbol Ior Izcalli is a Iigure of its patron deity Xiushytecuhtli the fire godo The pictorial symbols Ior Tiacutetiacutetl are more variable but geherally either the goddess Ilamatecuhtli is portrayed or some scene suggesting stretching or contraction is pictured The onIy example oI which I am aware in which the pictorial symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE e

suggest a pairing of Titiacutetl with the Codex Riacuteos (ValIacutecanus A laid out in association with pictu oiacute Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 195 while Kubler and Gibson (195 (repeated by Caso 1967Figure represented by the heads of thei months being represented by othe The head oI Ilamatecuhtli has 2

tongue suggestive of her old agc The head oI Xiutecuhtli on tl expre8ion in accord with the var oI Izcalli Perhaps this is readin ticularIy as the much more elabc where in the Codex Rios (Laacutem these details in similar fashion I sorne additional evidence SUppol even if this be denied the rest o former shorter list of months irr

Further study oiacute the codices an oiacute the months their iacuteestivals patJ evidence oI the pairing oI Tititl oiacute the sources containing such Table 8 p 42) who lists these s 18-month festival calendars an the iacuteormer have been studied thro but that the latter have not recei

The Nahuan-style pairing patt degree in several non-Nahuan (Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan group (Table 2) the pattem is st four oiacute the Iive pairings The ~ serve three pairings though not Mije list sbows sorne variation fre is aetually a tripling correspondi the pair corresponding to Nahuan list but Tarascan 12) Little Sp Nahuan pair 1213 One oiacute th Caso (both Chiapanec versions bomoz in 1875) has the pair 7B

al del Castillo )llows

)

ersuasivdy that fusion over the ive character ~e carried over

Ui form a con-OC first and

With regard it has the apshyId of contracshybe a 80rt of

as in the inshyH) but it has mes and also natecuhtli the contraction is and the conshyterms of ropeshythe fibers has t) prefers the tusion to eldershy1964m 162) ID considering interpreted as Ilg to the first iacuteLiterally the ~f8 pictorially iexclrowing planto pn deity Xiushy~titl are more ~ is portrayed The

symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 177

suggest a pairing of Tititl with Izcalli occurs on Laacutemina cxxxm of the Codex Riacuteos (Vaticanus A 3738) where the month signs are laid out in association with pictures of events from Corteacutess conquest of Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 1954m 287) has a color reproduction while Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figure n) provide line drawings (repeated by Caso 1967Figure 14) Here Tititl and Izcalli are iepresented by the heads of their patron deities (most of the other months being represented by other symbols rather than their deities) The head of Ilamatecuhtli has a strained expression and protruding tongue suggestive of her old age and the wrinkled sense of Tititl The head of Xiutecuhtliacute on the other hand has a fierce livdy expression in accord with the various senses - resurrection etc shyof Izcalli Perhaps this is reading too much into these figures parshyticularly as the much more elaborate portrayals of these deities elseshywhere in the Codex Riacuteos (Laacuteminas LXXI-LXXD) do not emphasize these details in similar fashion PresentIy it will be seen that there is sorne additional evidence supporting the Tiacutetitlllzcalli pairing but even if this be denied the rest of the pattem is enough to suggest a former shorter list of months implicit in the 18-month series

Further study of the codices and manuscripts with pictorial symbols of the months their festivals patron deities etc might provide more evidence of the pairing of TititllIzcalli 1 have not had access to all of the sources containing such material Glass (197530-31 and Table 8 p 42) who lists these sources divides them into two types 18-month festival calendars and calendar wheds He notes that the former have been studied throughly by Kubler and Gibson (1951) but that the latter have not received thorough systematic attention

The N ahuan-style pairing pattern shows up in lesser and varying degree in several non-Nahuan lists reported in Casos Cuadro XI

(Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan Mije and Chiapanec lists) In this group (Table 2) the pattem is strongest in the Otomiacute list which has four of the five pairings The Matlatzinca and Mije lists each preshyserve three pairings though not exactly the same three Also the Mije list shows sorne variation from the Nahuan pattern in that there is actually a tripling corresponding to the Nahuan pair 34 OnIy the pair corresponding to Nahuan 718 is fully attested in the Tarascan list but Tarascan 12) LittIe Spanish Moss partially corresponds to Nahuan pair 1213 One of the two Chiapanec lists tabulated by Caso (both Chiapanec versions reported by the Fray Juan de Alshybornoz in 1875) has the pair 78 The other Chiapanec list has been

12

Z o 00 iexcl o ll1 9 z

- rol-~

O) o 0000lt iexcliexcl00 ~ Ii iexcliexclJ oJ 00

~ ZIl1 ~ lt o Q

Z Z lt lt-

CI 1)=shyO)

iexcli ~-iexcl riI - Il1 z ~ ~o 00 ~Xl

~6 00 Q i z z lt lt iexclz ~jJ Xl ll1 J lt ~ Z-z

~

Ol-ZCl

-

z 00 iexcliexcl z o

o ~

o z ~ ltIl

ltgt

sect

u

ii

(gt ltgt d

a 5 ~ ~

~

~

iexcl

c ~

~ ~ l3 iexcl riexcl~

Q

- (l

- ltIl

iexcl$el e~~ lbO el~ el tI) ti)

-= tlt

-5-5 -5

o o

cel oo loo o el 100 loo iexcl v iexcl ti)3131 v v o viexcliexcl Sti)o o

u u ra-gt ~~ S

ti) o o Se 11 (l11 11 1 s -5l s iexcl iquest-sect11 ltgt I ~~ -t o 11 o tiexcliexcl iexcl$ ltgt ltgtW rn

v el bO ~ eliexcl -El~ ~ cl ~ v -Elel o ciexcl cl oacute ~ v 00 o-5 oacutel v v oo~

l oE blJ blJ - blJO o = o ~E oS

o el ti)blJ il iloacute

il gt ~ ilg -5i~ v ~blJ ~ gt v sti) ltIlamp ~ Voacute -5 5oacute ~ oacute o ltl

100 v ti) v 00 oV v v o

~el 00ltIl ~g V - blJE -oblJ bOO o 20 bull iexcliexcl~ -~ o =0 0_ E1S 00 ~ oHH

~I~~Ill-_CO _110) __S _1I~_ ~ _II~

S El

_~

STRllCTURAL EVIDENCE OF Il

so drastically reordered or rather order of the members of this pair ( separated from each other by ninc non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulat and the fragmentary Huastec (lin~ appear to have no trace of the pairi in bis Cuadro XI for Totonac but reported the Totonac cannot be COI

Tuming to the various Mayans lis onIy where there is evidence of Meiexcl Quicheacute) Caso (196737-38) amo sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quic loanwords and that others though 1

semantic borrowings I t was this tl to partially renconstruct a Toltec sence in Central America predates t month names was carried over in 1

list except for the positional equiva (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist tl is about as vague as in the NahUlu borrowing of the Nahuan 18) IzcalJ as we see in Table 3 On the other 1 gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro x Bum Drying refers to drought clearance (Recinos and Goetz 1953 sequence there is a tripling over posi phonology nor the meanings of the Nahuan One would suspect borrow trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list the tripling might reflect a Mayan (text and Table 4)

Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasse sorne slight positional displacements equivalents of the Mexican pairs 71 cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabu here) is probably correct in its imI list has these displacements as a cons Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positic pectively In the Cakchiquel list a e the pair equivalent to Mexican 9H rather than of Ligin ka as in the Ql

~

liexcl~_~1

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 111

so drastically reordered or rather disordered that the sequential order of the members of this pair (78) is reversed and the two are separated from each other by nine positions Only three of the non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulated by Caso-Chinantec Mazatec and the fragmentary Huastec (linguistically related to Mayan)shyappear to have no trace of the pairing pattem Caso has a heading in his Cuadro XI for Totonac but with only the one month name reported the Totonac cannot be compared

Turning to the various Mayans lists the pairing pattem is obvious only where there is evidence of Mexican influence (Cakchiquel and Quicheacute) Caso (1967 37-38) arnong others has pointed out that sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacute month names are Nahuan loanwords and that others though not phonological loanwords are semantic borrowings It was this that enabled Caso (196774-77) to partia1ly renconstruct a Toltec calendar (as the Nahuan preshysence in Central America predates the Aztecs) The pairing of the month names was carried over in the borrowing into the Quicheacute list except for the positional equivalents of the Mexican pair 34 (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist the evidence of pairing at 1718 is about as vague as in the Nahuan lists Izcol kih is an obvious

iexcl borrowing of the Nahuan 18) Izcalli but with a shift of meaning as we see in Table 3 On the other hand 17) Katic is not a pholoshya ltti

E-o gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro XI gives the meaning Drying or Bum Drying refers to drought Bum to slash-and-bum field ~

CQ clearance (Recinos and Goetz 195331) In the case of the Quicheacute el a sequen ce there is a tripling over positions 161718 but neither the o phonology nor the meanings of the terms suggest borrowing from El o Nahuan One would suspect borrowing on the basis of Nahuan inshy

trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list but in this part of the sequence ~ the tripling might reflect a Mayan tradition as will be seen later iexcl

ltti (text and Table 4) iraquo ltti Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasseur de Bourbourg there are also ~

i3 sorne slight positional displacements of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacutes oshy equivalents of the Mexican pairs 78 910 and 1213 The Quishya ~ cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabulated by Caso but not repeated a here) is probably correct in its implication that Brintons Quicheacute ~ list has these displacements as a consequence of shifts of the months Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positions 6 to 15 and 11 to 12 resshy

pectively In the Cakchiquel list a displacement by one position of the pair equivalent to Mexican 910 reflects the doubling oiacute Tole rather than of Ligin ka as in the Quicheacute

w

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

IQU

EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

S

Mar

a

May

a

Clw

l (

) Tz

elta

l Tz

otzi

l iexclx

ii

Kan

ahob

al

Nah

uan

Gly

plu

Mon

tA

or

Pat

tern

(Y

ucat

ec N

ames

) Pa

tro1l

8 K

ekch

i (

)

Ala

uch

T

alch

oI~

M

ucuc

h N

imch

o

Jagu

ar

7 ui

ncil

Nic

hilk

im

116

Uo

Jagu

ar

lcat

6

uinc

il

1 ui

ncil

11

Zip

C

haca

t 5

uinc

il

2 ui

ncil

i12

4

wnc

il

3 w

ncil

3

uinc

il

4 ui

ncil

~

j17

C

hen

K

hek

Siho

m

118

Yax

Y

ax S

ihom

1 Z

ac

(Si

sac)

Z

izac

Sa

h Si

hom

2

Ceh

W

ucta

sac)

M

ucta

zac

Kha

k Si

hom

f bull S

isac

and

Muc

tasa

c oc

cur

only

in

the

Tze

ltal

lis

t of

Em

eter

io P

ined

a d

iscu

ssed

by

Sel

er

(189

8)

the

othe

r T

zelta

l lis

ts

cite

d by

Tho

mps

on (

1950

106

) a

U h

ave

Zaci

ab a

nd A

helc

hac

or s

imil

ar t

erIm

i in

th

ese

posi

tions

~

C-~

rt-----

--I

Iiexcl-shy

ot-~

-II~~

l

rt

gt1

bullr 1

1

~_

1 ~

ji)

()

ji)

0gt

1bull

O

O

Il

O

O

iexcl

iexcl P

iexcl l

11

iexcl

O

t

0

0

] P

iexcl 0

Cl

lll

1raquo

=

O =

~iexcl ff~

~ sect

=t ~ ~ [

g-

gg

~ ntilde

sl

S 2

~

t-3

iexcl

iexcll

a

Piexcl ~ S

iexcll

t-3

i

iexcl

ji

j t

iexcl

l t7

=shy

~riexcl6 ~

O O

r+

Q

q

11

iexcl 5~l ~S E

L o

~1igt~~Qq

t-3

I

iexcliexcl-

2

iexcl

Iraquor

Beacute

3

~~iexcliexcl~lraquojI~jlnn

t l

e

~I[r

~l~llr

F

lt El

( ~

~ ~~O

C1gt~ ~

~g~

i ~l J

~ J

51

~

iexcll

~

a

~ -

~ ~

B

~~

~i1

~~g~i~~IEg~ ~e~~~

I

-g

f i

-Q

C

) ordm-

~ ~ t

i) ~

Q

~

183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

al del Castillo )llows

)

ersuasivdy that fusion over the ive character ~e carried over

Ui form a con-OC first and

With regard it has the apshyId of contracshybe a 80rt of

as in the inshyH) but it has mes and also natecuhtli the contraction is and the conshyterms of ropeshythe fibers has t) prefers the tusion to eldershy1964m 162) ID considering interpreted as Ilg to the first iacuteLiterally the ~f8 pictorially iexclrowing planto pn deity Xiushy~titl are more ~ is portrayed The

symbols

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 177

suggest a pairing of Tititl with Izcalli occurs on Laacutemina cxxxm of the Codex Riacuteos (Vaticanus A 3738) where the month signs are laid out in association with pictures of events from Corteacutess conquest of Mexico (Corona Nuacutentildeez 1954m 287) has a color reproduction while Kubler and Gibson (1951 Figure n) provide line drawings (repeated by Caso 1967Figure 14) Here Tititl and Izcalli are iepresented by the heads of their patron deities (most of the other months being represented by other symbols rather than their deities) The head of Ilamatecuhtli has a strained expression and protruding tongue suggestive of her old age and the wrinkled sense of Tititl The head of Xiutecuhtliacute on the other hand has a fierce livdy expression in accord with the various senses - resurrection etc shyof Izcalli Perhaps this is reading too much into these figures parshyticularly as the much more elaborate portrayals of these deities elseshywhere in the Codex Riacuteos (Laacuteminas LXXI-LXXD) do not emphasize these details in similar fashion PresentIy it will be seen that there is sorne additional evidence supporting the Tiacutetitlllzcalli pairing but even if this be denied the rest of the pattem is enough to suggest a former shorter list of months implicit in the 18-month series

Further study of the codices and manuscripts with pictorial symbols of the months their festivals patron deities etc might provide more evidence of the pairing of TititllIzcalli 1 have not had access to all of the sources containing such material Glass (197530-31 and Table 8 p 42) who lists these sources divides them into two types 18-month festival calendars and calendar wheds He notes that the former have been studied throughly by Kubler and Gibson (1951) but that the latter have not received thorough systematic attention

The N ahuan-style pairing pattern shows up in lesser and varying degree in several non-Nahuan lists reported in Casos Cuadro XI

(Otomiacute Matlatzinca Tarascan Mije and Chiapanec lists) In this group (Table 2) the pattem is strongest in the Otomiacute list which has four of the five pairings The Matlatzinca and Mije lists each preshyserve three pairings though not exactly the same three Also the Mije list shows sorne variation from the Nahuan pattern in that there is actually a tripling corresponding to the Nahuan pair 34 OnIy the pair corresponding to Nahuan 718 is fully attested in the Tarascan list but Tarascan 12) LittIe Spanish Moss partially corresponds to Nahuan pair 1213 One of the two Chiapanec lists tabulated by Caso (both Chiapanec versions reported by the Fray Juan de Alshybornoz in 1875) has the pair 78 The other Chiapanec list has been

12

Z o 00 iexcl o ll1 9 z

- rol-~

O) o 0000lt iexcliexcl00 ~ Ii iexcliexclJ oJ 00

~ ZIl1 ~ lt o Q

Z Z lt lt-

CI 1)=shyO)

iexcli ~-iexcl riI - Il1 z ~ ~o 00 ~Xl

~6 00 Q i z z lt lt iexclz ~jJ Xl ll1 J lt ~ Z-z

~

Ol-ZCl

-

z 00 iexcliexcl z o

o ~

o z ~ ltIl

ltgt

sect

u

ii

(gt ltgt d

a 5 ~ ~

~

~

iexcl

c ~

~ ~ l3 iexcl riexcl~

Q

- (l

- ltIl

iexcl$el e~~ lbO el~ el tI) ti)

-= tlt

-5-5 -5

o o

cel oo loo o el 100 loo iexcl v iexcl ti)3131 v v o viexcliexcl Sti)o o

u u ra-gt ~~ S

ti) o o Se 11 (l11 11 1 s -5l s iexcl iquest-sect11 ltgt I ~~ -t o 11 o tiexcliexcl iexcl$ ltgt ltgtW rn

v el bO ~ eliexcl -El~ ~ cl ~ v -Elel o ciexcl cl oacute ~ v 00 o-5 oacutel v v oo~

l oE blJ blJ - blJO o = o ~E oS

o el ti)blJ il iloacute

il gt ~ ilg -5i~ v ~blJ ~ gt v sti) ltIlamp ~ Voacute -5 5oacute ~ oacute o ltl

100 v ti) v 00 oV v v o

~el 00ltIl ~g V - blJE -oblJ bOO o 20 bull iexcliexcl~ -~ o =0 0_ E1S 00 ~ oHH

~I~~Ill-_CO _110) __S _1I~_ ~ _II~

S El

_~

STRllCTURAL EVIDENCE OF Il

so drastically reordered or rather order of the members of this pair ( separated from each other by ninc non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulat and the fragmentary Huastec (lin~ appear to have no trace of the pairi in bis Cuadro XI for Totonac but reported the Totonac cannot be COI

Tuming to the various Mayans lis onIy where there is evidence of Meiexcl Quicheacute) Caso (196737-38) amo sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quic loanwords and that others though 1

semantic borrowings I t was this tl to partially renconstruct a Toltec sence in Central America predates t month names was carried over in 1

list except for the positional equiva (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist tl is about as vague as in the NahUlu borrowing of the Nahuan 18) IzcalJ as we see in Table 3 On the other 1 gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro x Bum Drying refers to drought clearance (Recinos and Goetz 1953 sequence there is a tripling over posi phonology nor the meanings of the Nahuan One would suspect borrow trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list the tripling might reflect a Mayan (text and Table 4)

Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasse sorne slight positional displacements equivalents of the Mexican pairs 71 cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabu here) is probably correct in its imI list has these displacements as a cons Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positic pectively In the Cakchiquel list a e the pair equivalent to Mexican 9H rather than of Ligin ka as in the Ql

~

liexcl~_~1

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 111

so drastically reordered or rather disordered that the sequential order of the members of this pair (78) is reversed and the two are separated from each other by nine positions Only three of the non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulated by Caso-Chinantec Mazatec and the fragmentary Huastec (linguistically related to Mayan)shyappear to have no trace of the pairing pattem Caso has a heading in his Cuadro XI for Totonac but with only the one month name reported the Totonac cannot be compared

Turning to the various Mayans lists the pairing pattem is obvious only where there is evidence of Mexican influence (Cakchiquel and Quicheacute) Caso (1967 37-38) arnong others has pointed out that sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacute month names are Nahuan loanwords and that others though not phonological loanwords are semantic borrowings It was this that enabled Caso (196774-77) to partia1ly renconstruct a Toltec calendar (as the Nahuan preshysence in Central America predates the Aztecs) The pairing of the month names was carried over in the borrowing into the Quicheacute list except for the positional equivalents of the Mexican pair 34 (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist the evidence of pairing at 1718 is about as vague as in the Nahuan lists Izcol kih is an obvious

iexcl borrowing of the Nahuan 18) Izcalli but with a shift of meaning as we see in Table 3 On the other hand 17) Katic is not a pholoshya ltti

E-o gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro XI gives the meaning Drying or Bum Drying refers to drought Bum to slash-and-bum field ~

CQ clearance (Recinos and Goetz 195331) In the case of the Quicheacute el a sequen ce there is a tripling over positions 161718 but neither the o phonology nor the meanings of the terms suggest borrowing from El o Nahuan One would suspect borrowing on the basis of Nahuan inshy

trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list but in this part of the sequence ~ the tripling might reflect a Mayan tradition as will be seen later iexcl

ltti (text and Table 4) iraquo ltti Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasseur de Bourbourg there are also ~

i3 sorne slight positional displacements of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacutes oshy equivalents of the Mexican pairs 78 910 and 1213 The Quishya ~ cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabulated by Caso but not repeated a here) is probably correct in its implication that Brintons Quicheacute ~ list has these displacements as a consequence of shifts of the months Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positions 6 to 15 and 11 to 12 resshy

pectively In the Cakchiquel list a displacement by one position of the pair equivalent to Mexican 910 reflects the doubling oiacute Tole rather than of Ligin ka as in the Quicheacute

w

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

IQU

EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

S

Mar

a

May

a

Clw

l (

) Tz

elta

l Tz

otzi

l iexclx

ii

Kan

ahob

al

Nah

uan

Gly

plu

Mon

tA

or

Pat

tern

(Y

ucat

ec N

ames

) Pa

tro1l

8 K

ekch

i (

)

Ala

uch

T

alch

oI~

M

ucuc

h N

imch

o

Jagu

ar

7 ui

ncil

Nic

hilk

im

116

Uo

Jagu

ar

lcat

6

uinc

il

1 ui

ncil

11

Zip

C

haca

t 5

uinc

il

2 ui

ncil

i12

4

wnc

il

3 w

ncil

3

uinc

il

4 ui

ncil

~

j17

C

hen

K

hek

Siho

m

118

Yax

Y

ax S

ihom

1 Z

ac

(Si

sac)

Z

izac

Sa

h Si

hom

2

Ceh

W

ucta

sac)

M

ucta

zac

Kha

k Si

hom

f bull S

isac

and

Muc

tasa

c oc

cur

only

in

the

Tze

ltal

lis

t of

Em

eter

io P

ined

a d

iscu

ssed

by

Sel

er

(189

8)

the

othe

r T

zelta

l lis

ts

cite

d by

Tho

mps

on (

1950

106

) a

U h

ave

Zaci

ab a

nd A

helc

hac

or s

imil

ar t

erIm

i in

th

ese

posi

tions

~

C-~

rt-----

--I

Iiexcl-shy

ot-~

-II~~

l

rt

gt1

bullr 1

1

~_

1 ~

ji)

()

ji)

0gt

1bull

O

O

Il

O

O

iexcl

iexcl P

iexcl l

11

iexcl

O

t

0

0

] P

iexcl 0

Cl

lll

1raquo

=

O =

~iexcl ff~

~ sect

=t ~ ~ [

g-

gg

~ ntilde

sl

S 2

~

t-3

iexcl

iexcll

a

Piexcl ~ S

iexcll

t-3

i

iexcl

ji

j t

iexcl

l t7

=shy

~riexcl6 ~

O O

r+

Q

q

11

iexcl 5~l ~S E

L o

~1igt~~Qq

t-3

I

iexcliexcl-

2

iexcl

Iraquor

Beacute

3

~~iexcliexcl~lraquojI~jlnn

t l

e

~I[r

~l~llr

F

lt El

( ~

~ ~~O

C1gt~ ~

~g~

i ~l J

~ J

51

~

iexcll

~

a

~ -

~ ~

B

~~

~i1

~~g~i~~IEg~ ~e~~~

I

-g

f i

-Q

C

) ordm-

~ ~ t

i) ~

Q

~

183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

Z o 00 iexcl o ll1 9 z

- rol-~

O) o 0000lt iexcliexcl00 ~ Ii iexcliexclJ oJ 00

~ ZIl1 ~ lt o Q

Z Z lt lt-

CI 1)=shyO)

iexcli ~-iexcl riI - Il1 z ~ ~o 00 ~Xl

~6 00 Q i z z lt lt iexclz ~jJ Xl ll1 J lt ~ Z-z

~

Ol-ZCl

-

z 00 iexcliexcl z o

o ~

o z ~ ltIl

ltgt

sect

u

ii

(gt ltgt d

a 5 ~ ~

~

~

iexcl

c ~

~ ~ l3 iexcl riexcl~

Q

- (l

- ltIl

iexcl$el e~~ lbO el~ el tI) ti)

-= tlt

-5-5 -5

o o

cel oo loo o el 100 loo iexcl v iexcl ti)3131 v v o viexcliexcl Sti)o o

u u ra-gt ~~ S

ti) o o Se 11 (l11 11 1 s -5l s iexcl iquest-sect11 ltgt I ~~ -t o 11 o tiexcliexcl iexcl$ ltgt ltgtW rn

v el bO ~ eliexcl -El~ ~ cl ~ v -Elel o ciexcl cl oacute ~ v 00 o-5 oacutel v v oo~

l oE blJ blJ - blJO o = o ~E oS

o el ti)blJ il iloacute

il gt ~ ilg -5i~ v ~blJ ~ gt v sti) ltIlamp ~ Voacute -5 5oacute ~ oacute o ltl

100 v ti) v 00 oV v v o

~el 00ltIl ~g V - blJE -oblJ bOO o 20 bull iexcliexcl~ -~ o =0 0_ E1S 00 ~ oHH

~I~~Ill-_CO _110) __S _1I~_ ~ _II~

S El

_~

STRllCTURAL EVIDENCE OF Il

so drastically reordered or rather order of the members of this pair ( separated from each other by ninc non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulat and the fragmentary Huastec (lin~ appear to have no trace of the pairi in bis Cuadro XI for Totonac but reported the Totonac cannot be COI

Tuming to the various Mayans lis onIy where there is evidence of Meiexcl Quicheacute) Caso (196737-38) amo sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quic loanwords and that others though 1

semantic borrowings I t was this tl to partially renconstruct a Toltec sence in Central America predates t month names was carried over in 1

list except for the positional equiva (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist tl is about as vague as in the NahUlu borrowing of the Nahuan 18) IzcalJ as we see in Table 3 On the other 1 gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro x Bum Drying refers to drought clearance (Recinos and Goetz 1953 sequence there is a tripling over posi phonology nor the meanings of the Nahuan One would suspect borrow trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list the tripling might reflect a Mayan (text and Table 4)

Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasse sorne slight positional displacements equivalents of the Mexican pairs 71 cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabu here) is probably correct in its imI list has these displacements as a cons Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positic pectively In the Cakchiquel list a e the pair equivalent to Mexican 9H rather than of Ligin ka as in the Ql

~

liexcl~_~1

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 111

so drastically reordered or rather disordered that the sequential order of the members of this pair (78) is reversed and the two are separated from each other by nine positions Only three of the non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulated by Caso-Chinantec Mazatec and the fragmentary Huastec (linguistically related to Mayan)shyappear to have no trace of the pairing pattem Caso has a heading in his Cuadro XI for Totonac but with only the one month name reported the Totonac cannot be compared

Turning to the various Mayans lists the pairing pattem is obvious only where there is evidence of Mexican influence (Cakchiquel and Quicheacute) Caso (1967 37-38) arnong others has pointed out that sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacute month names are Nahuan loanwords and that others though not phonological loanwords are semantic borrowings It was this that enabled Caso (196774-77) to partia1ly renconstruct a Toltec calendar (as the Nahuan preshysence in Central America predates the Aztecs) The pairing of the month names was carried over in the borrowing into the Quicheacute list except for the positional equivalents of the Mexican pair 34 (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist the evidence of pairing at 1718 is about as vague as in the Nahuan lists Izcol kih is an obvious

iexcl borrowing of the Nahuan 18) Izcalli but with a shift of meaning as we see in Table 3 On the other hand 17) Katic is not a pholoshya ltti

E-o gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro XI gives the meaning Drying or Bum Drying refers to drought Bum to slash-and-bum field ~

CQ clearance (Recinos and Goetz 195331) In the case of the Quicheacute el a sequen ce there is a tripling over positions 161718 but neither the o phonology nor the meanings of the terms suggest borrowing from El o Nahuan One would suspect borrowing on the basis of Nahuan inshy

trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list but in this part of the sequence ~ the tripling might reflect a Mayan tradition as will be seen later iexcl

ltti (text and Table 4) iraquo ltti Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasseur de Bourbourg there are also ~

i3 sorne slight positional displacements of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacutes oshy equivalents of the Mexican pairs 78 910 and 1213 The Quishya ~ cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabulated by Caso but not repeated a here) is probably correct in its implication that Brintons Quicheacute ~ list has these displacements as a consequence of shifts of the months Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positions 6 to 15 and 11 to 12 resshy

pectively In the Cakchiquel list a displacement by one position of the pair equivalent to Mexican 910 reflects the doubling oiacute Tole rather than of Ligin ka as in the Quicheacute

w

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

IQU

EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

S

Mar

a

May

a

Clw

l (

) Tz

elta

l Tz

otzi

l iexclx

ii

Kan

ahob

al

Nah

uan

Gly

plu

Mon

tA

or

Pat

tern

(Y

ucat

ec N

ames

) Pa

tro1l

8 K

ekch

i (

)

Ala

uch

T

alch

oI~

M

ucuc

h N

imch

o

Jagu

ar

7 ui

ncil

Nic

hilk

im

116

Uo

Jagu

ar

lcat

6

uinc

il

1 ui

ncil

11

Zip

C

haca

t 5

uinc

il

2 ui

ncil

i12

4

wnc

il

3 w

ncil

3

uinc

il

4 ui

ncil

~

j17

C

hen

K

hek

Siho

m

118

Yax

Y

ax S

ihom

1 Z

ac

(Si

sac)

Z

izac

Sa

h Si

hom

2

Ceh

W

ucta

sac)

M

ucta

zac

Kha

k Si

hom

f bull S

isac

and

Muc

tasa

c oc

cur

only

in

the

Tze

ltal

lis

t of

Em

eter

io P

ined

a d

iscu

ssed

by

Sel

er

(189

8)

the

othe

r T

zelta

l lis

ts

cite

d by

Tho

mps

on (

1950

106

) a

U h

ave

Zaci

ab a

nd A

helc

hac

or s

imil

ar t

erIm

i in

th

ese

posi

tions

~

C-~

rt-----

--I

Iiexcl-shy

ot-~

-II~~

l

rt

gt1

bullr 1

1

~_

1 ~

ji)

()

ji)

0gt

1bull

O

O

Il

O

O

iexcl

iexcl P

iexcl l

11

iexcl

O

t

0

0

] P

iexcl 0

Cl

lll

1raquo

=

O =

~iexcl ff~

~ sect

=t ~ ~ [

g-

gg

~ ntilde

sl

S 2

~

t-3

iexcl

iexcll

a

Piexcl ~ S

iexcll

t-3

i

iexcl

ji

j t

iexcl

l t7

=shy

~riexcl6 ~

O O

r+

Q

q

11

iexcl 5~l ~S E

L o

~1igt~~Qq

t-3

I

iexcliexcl-

2

iexcl

Iraquor

Beacute

3

~~iexcliexcl~lraquojI~jlnn

t l

e

~I[r

~l~llr

F

lt El

( ~

~ ~~O

C1gt~ ~

~g~

i ~l J

~ J

51

~

iexcll

~

a

~ -

~ ~

B

~~

~i1

~~g~i~~IEg~ ~e~~~

I

-g

f i

-Q

C

) ordm-

~ ~ t

i) ~

Q

~

183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

~

liexcl~_~1

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 111

so drastically reordered or rather disordered that the sequential order of the members of this pair (78) is reversed and the two are separated from each other by nine positions Only three of the non-Nahuan non-Mayan lists tabulated by Caso-Chinantec Mazatec and the fragmentary Huastec (linguistically related to Mayan)shyappear to have no trace of the pairing pattem Caso has a heading in his Cuadro XI for Totonac but with only the one month name reported the Totonac cannot be compared

Turning to the various Mayans lists the pairing pattem is obvious only where there is evidence of Mexican influence (Cakchiquel and Quicheacute) Caso (1967 37-38) arnong others has pointed out that sorne of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacute month names are Nahuan loanwords and that others though not phonological loanwords are semantic borrowings It was this that enabled Caso (196774-77) to partia1ly renconstruct a Toltec calendar (as the Nahuan preshysence in Central America predates the Aztecs) The pairing of the month names was carried over in the borrowing into the Quicheacute list except for the positional equivalents of the Mexican pair 34 (Table 3) In the Cakchiquellist the evidence of pairing at 1718 is about as vague as in the Nahuan lists Izcol kih is an obvious

iexcl borrowing of the Nahuan 18) Izcalli but with a shift of meaning as we see in Table 3 On the other hand 17) Katic is not a pholoshya ltti

E-o gical borrowing but Casos Cuadro XI gives the meaning Drying or Bum Drying refers to drought Bum to slash-and-bum field ~

CQ clearance (Recinos and Goetz 195331) In the case of the Quicheacute el a sequen ce there is a tripling over positions 161718 but neither the o phonology nor the meanings of the terms suggest borrowing from El o Nahuan One would suspect borrowing on the basis of Nahuan inshy

trusions elsewhere in the Quicheacute list but in this part of the sequence ~ the tripling might reflect a Mayan tradition as will be seen later iexcl

ltti (text and Table 4) iraquo ltti Except in the Quicheacute list of Brasseur de Bourbourg there are also ~

i3 sorne slight positional displacements of the Cakchiquel and Quicheacutes oshy equivalents of the Mexican pairs 78 910 and 1213 The Quishya ~ cheacute reconstruction by Brasseur (tabulated by Caso but not repeated a here) is probably correct in its implication that Brintons Quicheacute ~ list has these displacements as a consequence of shifts of the months Botam and Tzitzi lagam from positions 6 to 15 and 11 to 12 resshy

pectively In the Cakchiquel list a displacement by one position of the pair equivalent to Mexican 910 reflects the doubling oiacute Tole rather than of Ligin ka as in the Quicheacute

w

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

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EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

S

Mar

a

May

a

Clw

l (

) Tz

elta

l Tz

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l iexclx

ii

Kan

ahob

al

Nah

uan

Gly

plu

Mon

tA

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Pat

tern

(Y

ucat

ec N

ames

) Pa

tro1l

8 K

ekch

i (

)

Ala

uch

T

alch

oI~

M

ucuc

h N

imch

o

Jagu

ar

7 ui

ncil

Nic

hilk

im

116

Uo

Jagu

ar

lcat

6

uinc

il

1 ui

ncil

11

Zip

C

haca

t 5

uinc

il

2 ui

ncil

i12

4

wnc

il

3 w

ncil

3

uinc

il

4 ui

ncil

~

j17

C

hen

K

hek

Siho

m

118

Yax

Y

ax S

ihom

1 Z

ac

(Si

sac)

Z

izac

Sa

h Si

hom

2

Ceh

W

ucta

sac)

M

ucta

zac

Kha

k Si

hom

f bull S

isac

and

Muc

tasa

c oc

cur

only

in

the

Tze

ltal

lis

t of

Em

eter

io P

ined

a d

iscu

ssed

by

Sel

er

(189

8)

the

othe

r T

zelta

l lis

ts

cite

d by

Tho

mps

on (

1950

106

) a

U h

ave

Zaci

ab a

nd A

helc

hac

or s

imil

ar t

erIm

i in

th

ese

posi

tions

~

C-~

rt-----

--I

Iiexcl-shy

ot-~

-II~~

l

rt

gt1

bullr 1

1

~_

1 ~

ji)

()

ji)

0gt

1bull

O

O

Il

O

O

iexcl

iexcl P

iexcl l

11

iexcl

O

t

0

0

] P

iexcl 0

Cl

lll

1raquo

=

O =

~iexcl ff~

~ sect

=t ~ ~ [

g-

gg

~ ntilde

sl

S 2

~

t-3

iexcl

iexcll

a

Piexcl ~ S

iexcll

t-3

i

iexcl

ji

j t

iexcl

l t7

=shy

~riexcl6 ~

O O

r+

Q

q

11

iexcl 5~l ~S E

L o

~1igt~~Qq

t-3

I

iexcliexcl-

2

iexcl

Iraquor

Beacute

3

~~iexcliexcl~lraquojI~jlnn

t l

e

~I[r

~l~llr

F

lt El

( ~

~ ~~O

C1gt~ ~

~g~

i ~l J

~ J

51

~

iexcll

~

a

~ -

~ ~

B

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~~g~i~~IEg~ ~e~~~

I

-g

f i

-Q

C

) ordm-

~ ~ t

i) ~

Q

~

183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

1

180 lOE D STEWART

TABLE 3

PAIRING OF MONTH NAMES IN MEXICANmiddotINFLUENCED CAKCHIQUEL AND

QUICHEacute LISTS QUICHEacute AFTER CASO (1975) FF BRINTON AND BRASSEUR

DE BOURBOURG CAKCHIQUEL AFTER RECmOS AND GOETZ (1953) AND CASO (1967)

Nahuan Pattern

6

i7 I II S I

I 9

II 10 I

I shyn

nz I I I 113 I

16

Cakchiquel

Nabey tumuzuz first flying ants or grubs

Rucab tumuzuz second fIying ants or grubs

Nabey mam first old man

Ru cab mam second old man

Liguin ka earth muddy from rains softness of the hand (Caso Lo blando de la mano)

Nabey tokic first harvest (oiacute cocoa) first cut (ref to pruning or tapping oiacute trees forsap)

Ru cab tokic second second tQkic

Nabey pach1 first batchshying incubation (ref to chickens or other birds)

Ru cab pach second pach

Cf Nahuatl pachtli pachontli

Quicheacute (Brinton)

Nabey mam

Ucab mam

Nabe lmguinca

Ucab linguinca

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabey zih first word

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

N abe liginga first sweet hand (Caso Primera mano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Nabey pach

Ucab pach

Nabe zih

I I

I

i ~

l

STRU4

Nahuan Pattem

Kmic 4

bum (

Izcal 2

way (C camino time al lands)

In the varioUl with obscure me ordering This comparing the r Cuadro XI and exceptions The the pre-Hispanic well (Gossen 19 well-preserved e still defy interpr

Despite sorne pattem are appa attention to two pointed out that lists and as Ke1l clues for alignil Mesoamerican Ji

Apparentlyiexcl correspondiacute Nabei lxiI corresponda Nim- and2 big mon~ monthnam

2 Cf Nahll4tl iQ

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

IQU

EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

S

Mar

a

May

a

Clw

l (

) Tz

elta

l Tz

otzi

l iexclx

ii

Kan

ahob

al

Nah

uan

Gly

plu

Mon

tA

or

Pat

tern

(Y

ucat

ec N

ames

) Pa

tro1l

8 K

ekch

i (

)

Ala

uch

T

alch

oI~

M

ucuc

h N

imch

o

Jagu

ar

7 ui

ncil

Nic

hilk

im

116

Uo

Jagu

ar

lcat

6

uinc

il

1 ui

ncil

11

Zip

C

haca

t 5

uinc

il

2 ui

ncil

i12

4

wnc

il

3 w

ncil

3

uinc

il

4 ui

ncil

~

j17

C

hen

K

hek

Siho

m

118

Yax

Y

ax S

ihom

1 Z

ac

(Si

sac)

Z

izac

Sa

h Si

hom

2

Ceh

W

ucta

sac)

M

ucta

zac

Kha

k Si

hom

f bull S

isac

and

Muc

tasa

c oc

cur

only

in

the

Tze

ltal

lis

t of

Em

eter

io P

ined

a d

iscu

ssed

by

Sel

er

(189

8)

the

othe

r T

zelta

l lis

ts

cite

d by

Tho

mps

on (

1950

106

) a

U h

ave

Zaci

ab a

nd A

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ese

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tions

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iexcl P

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] P

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lll

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=

O =

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g-

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~ ntilde

sl

S 2

~

t-3

iexcl

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a

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i

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iexcl 5~l ~S E

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I

iexcliexcl-

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~~iexcliexcl~lraquojI~jlnn

t l

e

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183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

181 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

lAKCHIQUEL AND NahWt Pattem Cakchiquel

Quicheacute (BrintQn)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

IN AND BRASSEUR

OETZ (1953)

Quicheacute (Brasseur)

i17 I 1

18

1shy

Katic drying (drought) hum (slash-and-hurn)

Izcal 2 kih day of had way (Caso Diacuteademal camino) (this month a time oiacute sowing in high lands)

Ucab zih second word

Rox zih third word

Ucab zih

Rox zih

Nabe mam

Ucab mam

labe liginga irst sweet hand [Caso Primera nano dulce)

Ucab liginga

Vabey pach

~cab pach

~abe zih

In the various other Mayan lists we are sometimes faced not on1y with obscure meanings but also with uncertain or confused sequential ordering This is especially true of the Ixil list as can be seen by comparing the radieal1y different orderings suggested by Caso 1967 Cuadro XI and Thompson (1950 Table 8 p 106) There are exeeptions The Tzeltal-Tzotzil subtradition seems to have preserved the pre-Hispanie names and sequential ordering of the rnontbs fairly well (Gossen 1974- 230-231 ) The order of the Yucatecan list seems well-preserved even if the individual narnes of some of the rnonths still defy interpretation

Despite some confusions and uneertainties traces of the pairing pattem are apparent in sorne of the Mayan lists Seler (1898) drew attention to two pairings in the Tzeltal list of Emeterio Pineda and pointed out that this resembles in general the pairing in the Mexiean lists and as Kelley has pointed out pairing provides one of the best ciues for aligning the Mayan lists with the Nahuan and other Mesoameriean lists

ApparentIy the [MatIatzincan] Ynthu-prefix has a value corresponding to Otomiacute Anttzen- Aztec - tontli Quicheacute Nabei Ixil T al-and Zotzil Bikit while the Yntha-prefix corresponds to Otomiacute Atan- Aztee Hue Quicheacute Mam lxi Nim- and Zotzil M ukta The presenee of these littIe and big montbs is one of the biggest he1ps in eross-eorrelating month names (Kelley 1952 5-6)

2 Cf Nahuatl izcalli

TA

BL

E 4

NA

nU

AN

-sT

YL

E

PA

IlU

NO

P

AI

TE

RN

C

OM

PA

RE

D

TO

P

AT

IE

RN

S

OF

R

ED

UP

LIC

AT

ION

IN

H

AY

AN

M

ON

TH

L

I5T

S

OT

HE

R

TH

AN

C

AK

CH

IQU

EL

A

ND

Q

UIC

HEacute

A

FT

ER

C

AS

O

(196

7)

TH

OM

PS

ON

(1

950)

K

EL

LE

Y

(197

6)

AN

D

GO

SS

EN

(1

974)

S

ER

TE

XT

F

OR

DIS

CU

SS

ION

O

F

ME

AN

ING

S

Mar

a

May

a

Clw

l (

) Tz

elta

l Tz

otzi

l iexclx

ii

Kan

ahob

al

Nah

uan

Gly

plu

Mon

tA

or

Pat

tern

(Y

ucat

ec N

ames

) Pa

tro1l

8 K

ekch

i (

)

Ala

uch

T

alch

oI~

M

ucuc

h N

imch

o

Jagu

ar

7 ui

ncil

Nic

hilk

im

116

Uo

Jagu

ar

lcat

6

uinc

il

1 ui

ncil

11

Zip

C

haca

t 5

uinc

il

2 ui

ncil

i12

4

wnc

il

3 w

ncil

3

uinc

il

4 ui

ncil

~

j17

C

hen

K

hek

Siho

m

118

Yax

Y

ax S

ihom

1 Z

ac

(Si

sac)

Z

izac

Sa

h Si

hom

2

Ceh

W

ucta

sac)

M

ucta

zac

Kha

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STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

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( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

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Q

q

11

iexcl 5~l ~S E

L o

~1igt~~Qq

t-3

I

iexcliexcl-

2

iexcl

Iraquor

Beacute

3

~~iexcliexcl~lraquojI~jlnn

t l

e

~I[r

~l~llr

F

lt El

( ~

~ ~~O

C1gt~ ~

~g~

i ~l J

~ J

51

~

iexcll

~

a

~ -

~ ~

B

~~

~i1

~~g~i~~IEg~ ~e~~~

I

-g

f i

-Q

C

) ordm-

~ ~ t

i) ~

Q

~

183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

183

Iiexcl

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl-SOLAR CALENDAR

The correspondence of paired names in the Cakchique1 Quicheacute and Mexican lists was one of the pieces of evidence which enabled Spinden (1924 98-111) to demonstrate not onIy the structural corshyrespondence between the Mexican and Mayan month series but also to align the various lists on the basis of chronological data In view of tbis and of the possiacuteble phonological re1atiacuteonship between Tumuzuz and Tozoztontli is difficult to accept the positional displacements postulated by Acuntildea (1976) which would move the Cakchique1 pair Nabe-tumuzuz Rueab-Tumuzuz out of position with respect to the Mexican Tozoztontli Hueytozoztli

Thornpson also has cornmented on pairings in sorne Mayan lists

The Tze1tal name M ueueh pairs with AlauehJ just as ltizae and Muetazae do in the Tzotzil calendar The prefix mue means great in Tze1tal just as does mueta in Tzotzil (Thompson 1950 117 see a1so p 111) lt1

Tze1tal AlauehMueueh and lxiI TalehoNimeho (in Thompsons alignment which seems preferable to Casas) correspond structura1ly to Nahuan 78 Tzotzil ltizae Muetazac is a good pairing but ocshycupies a sequential position intermediate between Nahuan pairs 1718 and 34 Without any apparent linguistic or semantic resemblance it is not possible to determine which of the Nahuan pairs corresponds structura1ly to tbis Tzotzil pairo In this same part of sequence (corshyresponding to Nahuan 1718 12) we fmd a sequence of names (and glyphs) is several of the Mayan lists which form a grouping in that they refer to colors Any re1ationship of this Mayan grouping to the Nahuan pairing pattero seerns tenuous However it may be noted that Yax in Yucatan means not onIy blue or green but a1so new or strong (Thompson 1950 111 ) perhaps a distant semantic relationship to the corresponding Nahuatl lzealli revival resurecshytion or growth A similar para1le1 is that between the group of Tze1tal-Tzotzil names 1-uinal 2-uincil etc corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 11 and 1213 The term uincil simply refers to the

bull In rus analysis oiacute the Tzotzil month names lrom Chamula Chiapas Gossen (1974 233) translated slsak as white firewood and challenged 1hompsons implicauon tbat it meana little sak as Gossen himseIf knew ol no root similar to si- (or zi) meaning little Gossens doubt is supported by the lack of such a root in the Twtzil dicuonary of Laughlin (1975) Still sac (or zac) does mean wrute and mucta-zac is bigmiddotzac so Zicac and Muctazac do consutute a pairing David H Kelley (personal conununication 1982) doubts that si- means firewood as Gossen suggests

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

184 JOE D STEWART STRUC

20-day period (uinal) As in the preceeding case to suggest any re1ationship between this Mayan grouping and the Nahuan pattem

SUMMARY OF PAIIwould be tenuous but again there may be a faint echo of some BASED ON TEXT 1gtrelationship The Tzotzil list has in position 9 Nichilkin instead of

-uincil Nichilkin means festival of flowers thus recalling one of the altemate names Tlaxochimaco (flowers are given for the ninth Nahuan month This semantic correspondence is commented upon by Thompson (1950 107) citing an earlier observation by R P C

iexclSchultz iexcl IIJThere are two further Mayan pairings that seem to relate to the tI ~ CiNahuan pattem although the evidence again is not unequivocable iexcl

o ((j iexcl E CiOne is the two glyphs of jaguars as patron gods of the Mayan months 1 lt11 5c o(Yucatecan Pop and Uo) corresponding in position to Nahuan 910 ((j iexclj

rs CI

Another Mayan pairing offset by one position (1011) is constituted ~ O ~ ~ by the Chol () or Kekchi () names lcat and Chacat This pair corresponds in position to the paired glyphs for Uo and Zip (bIack iacute

2and red crossed bands respectively) TabIe 5 based on the preceding discussion and on Tables 1-4 ~ a~summarizes the Nahuan-style pairing pattem through the other Mesoshy

5american lists showing any possible trace of it From tbis we see that 6the pattem is fully attested (if the pairing of Tititllzcalli is valid)

only within Nahuan tradition In the Mayan tradition the pattem rra [[is represented strongIy in only the Nahuaized Cakchique1 and Quicheacute lists leaving us with scattered evidence in some of the other lists Looking beyond the Mayan material we find parcial representations b[[[of the pattem in the OtomIacute Matlatzincan Tarascan Mije and Chiashy 11 panec 1ists As far as 1 can see the evidence of the Chiapanec and Mije lists consists of structural parallels without indications of either ri[ [~phonological borrowing from or semantic relationship to the Nahuan mshytradition The structure is better represented in the Otorniacute and Mashy

15tlatzincan lists where there are clase semantic correspondences to some 16of the Nahuan names The Tarascan pair 1213 also parallels the

Nahuan semantically The distinction between the possible preservation of a proto-pattem

in these various lists and the presence of a pattem due to diffusion ~~ 2from Nahuan sources is an important one In the case of the Cakshy

chiquel-Quicheacute lists the lexical borrowings from Nahuan prove conshy1P Phonological (huiclusively that diffusion was involved and at a relatively late date In S Se~tic rclari~

other non-Nahuan lists the severa semantic resemblances to Nahuan + Structural (bUl a4

names constitute evidence either of preservation of proto-meanings or Around any of tWI ( )

of semantic diffusion from Nahuan as suggested in several cases by l POIIIIible but ten

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

185 STRUCTURAL EVIOENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENOAR

TABLE ]

SUMMARY OF PAIRING PATTERN IN MESOAMERICAN MONTH SEQUENCES

RASEn ON TEXT AND TAJlLES 1-4 UNES INDICATE DISPLACEMENTS FROM

NORMAL MESOAMERICAN POSITlONS

_~--------

iexcl o -j

o 2iexcl t Q)

~ ~ lt1) c croA u u i1 ~ o

iexcl 4) lt ~ ciexcliexcl ~Ntilde o

5 ~ --shyiexcl (gt

- S v - g($ 4)($ u l sect c c ($ lt1 g E c~ 4) u gt- bull ~ ii u r iexclc o ~ e - --iquest(l$ lt1 a ro ro ro c iexcl N 2 ((1 7 QI c iexcl iexcl~ o ~ ~ ~ o o CJ ~ ~

iacute 2 [ (P)ali rn 5 6 + [[ [~ [ [

Ir ~sr +) I

I h[[[ bull

I 11 +) I

I I

13 8 8 8 I I ~[[[ shy14 15

~~~ f ffshylli +~ [ lplusmn (8)

1 + 2 I -shy

iP Phonological (buI nol semantic) relationship lo Nahus 5 Semantic relationship or similarity (bnt no pbonological relation~hiacutep) to Nahuan + Structural (buI nol phonological or semantic) relationship lo Nahuan

( ( ) Aroacuteund any of the above indicales likely but 1101 cenain relalionship lo Nahuan l Possible but lenuous relalionship lo Nauhan patteen

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

186 JOE D STEWART

Kubler and Gibson (1951) Only a thorough linguistic analysis which is beyond my competence offers any hope of resolving this question On the basis of present study we can concIude that the Nahuan tradition best preserves the pattern but this does not necessarily mean that it also preserves the set of original Mesoamerican month names Before the deve10pment or invention of the known calendar system with its 18-month cycle there doubtIess already existed numerous luni-solar calendars throughout Mesoamerica that were similar in strucshyture and function but variable with respect to the names of the 12-13 months in the various locallanguages When the new system appeared it was the system itself that diffused not nec~y all of the individual elements The daynames incidentaly show considerably less variashytion through Mesoamerica than the 18 month names (Stewart 1977)

Admittedly it is an assumption that the pattem 1 have been disshycussing represents an ancient series of 12-13 moons that was exshypanded 10 give the series of 18 months of 20 days but it makes a great deal of sense calendricalIy and astronomically Spinden (1924) very strongly presumed the former existence of such a calendar but apshyparentIy did not notice the implications that the pairing pattem held for his opinion Marshack (1974 268-269) also has argued on general grounds that lunar and then solar reckoning probably preshyceded the e1aborate Mesoamerican calendar system On the basis of analogy with the worldwide ethnographic record (Cope 1919 Nilsson 1920) one would expect the ear1ycalendar to have been based in asshytronomy and to have involved a cycle of 12-13 moons (lunations) loosely correlated with the seasonal cycle of the sun ji Movements of the fixed stars and planets probably would have been observed and linked in10 this luni-solar calendar which leads me to take cognizance of another interpretation by Ke1ley ( 1957 105-113) who implicity and partially recognized the pairing pattem in his discussion of the 12shymonth calendars of the Shouthwest In these calendars the months

5 The fact tbat some 01 tbe Meeoamerlcan montb names bave several connotations itself suggests an esrlier calendar in which the months were correlated witb tbe seasons Tbe seasonal connotations of tbe montb names are otberwise puziling in the Mesoamerlcan calendar of 365 days in which tbe montbs because iacutentermiddot calation WIUI not practiced inevitably moved tbrough tbe tropical year at tbe rate of about one day per every four yearB Many writers froro tbe Spaniah chroniclers onward have speculated tbat iacutentercalations were made but none of tbese speculations appears to have substantive support according to a review of tbe questions by Broda de Casas (196946-54 63-(4) Recently Graulich (1981) hlUl attempted to date tbe inception oiacute tbe Mencan 365 day year on tbe basis oiacute seasonal denotations and connotations and Brlcker (1982) has fol lowed his leed and attempted 10 date tbe Mayan eystem

sm

are often con argues that thc that the Meso In bis com~ lists of 12 mo alignment of tJ order to fit inl recognized all 18) Izcalli not recognize Quecholli15 ancient star cal In fact he iu symbolism of t1l etc) and beJie

1 think tl that all tl ciple of e that this (Ke1ley 1

The lunar bull starts can bemiddotu would see the I why the numbe In operation moons in SOl

step with the iexcl the Southwestd analogue is pnl nee of the Am an extremel1 d in which the I This was not ni embedded in ~ nomically ~ cOSInIacutec interreJ4 and other cOmf

1 Luni-solar ~

extends far bad

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

lalysis which ihis question the Nahuan ssarily mean lonth names ndar system d numerous rilar in strucshyoiacute the 12-13 cm appeared 1e individual y less variashyiWart 1977)

ve been disshybat was exshy~es a great (1924) very dar but apshypattern held argued on

robably preshythe basis oiacute H9 Nilsson based in asshy (lunations) Dvements oiacute ~rved and I cognizance nplicity and oiacute the 12shy

the months

connotations Drrelated with Irwise puzzling because iacutentermiddot 1year at the I the SpanishI but nono of I to a review ~tly Graulich lay year on 1982) has folmiddot

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 187

are oiacuteten correlated with the dawn risings oiacute certain stars Kelley argues that these Southwestern sequences have a common origin and that the Mesoamerican calendar developed out oiacute the same milieu In his comparative table (Table VI fiacute p 106) oiacute the Southwestern lists oiacute 12 months and associated stars he suggests a corresponding alignment oiacute the Aztec 18 meztli in which they had to be grouped in order to iacuteit into the 12 Southwestern positions In that grouping he recognized all oiacute the pairings except the least obvious one 17) Tititl 118) Izcalli Instead his alignment shows two pairings which I do not recognize 18) Izcalli1) Cuahuitlehua (Atlcahualo) and 14) Quecholli15 Panquetzaliztli Here Kelley is suggesting that an ancient star calendar rather than a lunar calendar is implicit in the listo In iacuteact he had noticed the considerable degree oiacute overlap in the symbolism oiacute the various Mesoamerican sequences (20 days 18 months etc) and believed them all to have once had stellar associations

I think the evidence presented has been ample to indicate that all these difiacuteerent lists originated iacuterom a single prinshycipIe oiacute early Mexican cosmology and to strongly suggest that this integrating principIe was series oiacute constellations (Kelley 1957 103)

The lunar and stellar hypotheses are not really contradictory as Sfarts can be and have been used to regulate lunar calendars I simply would see the lunisolar reckoning as primary in the sense it explains why the number oiacute items implicit in the 18-meztli series is probably 13 (In operation the ancient calendar probably was reckoned with 12 moons in sorne years and 13 in others in order to stay roughly in step with the seasons) With regard to possible stellar associations the Southwestern model emphasized by Kelley is plausible and another analogue is provided by the calendrical astronomy oiacute the Skidi Pawshynee oiacute the American Prairie In the 19th century these people had an extremely elaborate if not rigidly iacuteormalized luni-solar calendar in which the lunar months were keyed to the movements oiacute stars This was not merely a practical time-reckoning device but was deeply embedded in an annual economic and ceremonial cycle and astroshynOInically based cosmology and a symbolic system or theory oiacute the cosmic interrelationships oiacute stars directions colors primal elements and other components (Chamberlain 1979 Stewart 1979)

Luni-solar calendrical reckoning and attention to the stars probably extends iacutear back into the Paleolithic iacuteorming part oiacute human cultural

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

188 JOE D STEWART

heritage on a very ancient and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in ancient Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in this paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNl

REFERENCES m

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del alti lacIacuteoacuten con los calendarios mayas Estudios UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones His1

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calen knowledge 01 the Mayas Cambridge 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the M Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas J ohanna The Mexican e Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologicll Americana 4 Wien Institut fUf Volkerl 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenico~ de Investigaciones IrlStOacutericas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central M1 American Indians Vol 10 The archaeolo Pt 1 Edited by GF Ekholm and l I Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Papel on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians 11

01 Calilornia Publications in Archaeoj 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexil de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretl Puacuteblico 1964

Glass John B A survey of native Midd scripts in H andbook 01 Middle Amenca ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited b University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar cal Mexico in Mesoamencan archaealogy Norman Hanunond Austin University ( 253

Graulich Michel The metaphor of the d and ritual Current Anthropology 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

188 189

lOE D STEWART

heritage on a very andent and world-wide scale Thus a calendar of 12-13 moons in andent Mesosamerica is almost presumable on general grounds The specific evidence discussed in tbis paper makes that supposition a virtual certainity however the complex Mesoshyamerican calendar system known to us may have come to supercede it

STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

REFERENCES ClTED

Acuntildea Reneacute Calendarios antiguos del altiplano de Meacutexico y su correshylaci6n con los calendarios mayas Estudios de Cultura Naacutehuatl Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1976 12279-314

Bowditch Charles P The numeration calendar systems and astronomical knowledge of the Mayas Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1910

Bricker Victoria R The origin of the Maya solar calendar Current Anthropology 1982 23 101-103

Broda de Casas Johanna The Mexican calendar as compared to oher Mesoamerican systems Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica Nr 15 Series Americana 4 Wien Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat Wien 1969

Caso Alfonso Los calendarios prehispaacutenicos Meacutexico UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Hist6ricas 1967

--- Calendrical systems of Central Mexico H andboQk of Middle American Indians Vol lO The archaeology of NorthernMesoamerica Pt 1 Edited by CF Ekhohn and l Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 333-348

Chamberlain Von Del Pawnee stars Paper presented at the Conference on Archaeoloastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 19middot79

Cope Leona Calendars of the Indians north of Mexico University of Califorrnia Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology 1919 16 119-76

Corona Nuacutentildeez Joseacute Antiguumledades de Meacutexico basadas en la recopilaci6n de Lord Kingsborough Meacutexico Secretariacutea de Hacienda y Creacutedito Puacuteblico 1964

Class John B A survey of native Middle American pictorial manushyscripts in Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 14 Guide to ethnohistorical sources Pe 3 Edited by HloVvard F Cline Austin University of Texas Press 1975 p 3-80

Gossen Gary H A Chamula solar calendar board from Chiapas Mexico in Mesoamencan archaeology New approaches Edited by Norman Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 217shy253

Craulich Michel The metaphor of the day in ancient Mexican myth and ritual Current Anthropology 1981 22 45-60

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

190 JOE D STEWART

Kelley David H A history of pre-SPanish Mesoamerica Unpublished honors BA thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1952

--- Our elder brother coyote Unpublished PhD thesis Rarvard University Cambridge Mass 1957

--- Calendar animals and deitiest Southwestern Journal of Anshythropology 1960 16317-47

--- Eurasian evidence and the Maya calendar correlation problem in Mesoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by NOIlllJan Harnmond Austin University of Texas Press 1974 p 135-143

--- Deciphering the Maya script Austin University of TexasPress 1976

--- AstronoInlcal identities of Mesoamerican gods Archaeoastroshynomy No 2 (Supplement to Journal far the history of astronomYi 1980 v 11) S1-S54

Kubler George and Charles Gibson The Tovar calendar an illustrated Mexican manuscript ca 1585 Memoirs of the Contnecticut Academy af Sciences Yale University Press New Haven 1951 v XI

Laughlin Robert M The great Thotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zishynacantan Smithsonian Contributions eo Anthropology 19 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press~ 1975

Lothrop S K A modern survival of the ancient Maya calendar Proceedings of the Twenty-Third International Congress of Amerishycanists New York 1930 p 652-655

Malmstrom Vincent R A reconstruction of tbe chronology of Mesoshyanrerican calendrical systems Journal for the history of astronomy 1978 9105-16

Marshack Alexander The Chamula calendar board an internal and comparative analysis M esoamerican archaeology new approaches Edited by Norman Rarnmond Austin University of Texas Pifess 1974 p 254-270

Nicholson Renry B Religion in pre-Rispanic Central Mexico H andshybook of Middle American Indians Vol 10 The archaeology of norshythern Mesoamerica P 1 Edited by G F Ekholm and 1 Bernal Austin University of Texas Press 1971 p 395-446

Nilsson Martiacuten P Primitive time-reckoning Lund CWK Gleerup 1920

Orozco y Berra Manuel Historia antigua y de la conquista de Meacutexico Meacutexico Editorial Porrua (1960 reprint of first edition 1880)

JAU 0 a

STRUCTURAL EVlDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR 191

Prem Ranns ] Calendrics and writing in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University 01 California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Midtlle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eine Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Des Festkalender der Tze1tal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898~ 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen S prach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Rerbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Rarvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationsrup in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the international symposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Rellmuth v 1 Article 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomiexcly and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexico 1979

Thomipson J Eric S Maya hieroglyphic wntmg Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya mnd their predecessors Second edition New York Academic Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

191 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF A LUNI-SOLAR CALENDAR

Prom Hanns J Calendrics and Vviriting in Mesoamerica Contributions of the University o California Archaeological Research Facility Bershykeley University of California Department of Anthropology 1971 11 112-132

Recinos Adriaacuten and Delia Goetz The annals of the Cakchiquels Transshylated from the Cakchiquel by A Recinos and D Goetz Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1953

Satterthwaite Linton Calendrics of the Maya Lowlands Handbook of Middle American Indians Vol 3 Archaeology of southern Mesoshyamerica Pt 2 Edited by Gordon R Willey Austin University of Texas Press 1965 p 603-631

Seler Eduard Eme Liste der Mexikanischen Monatsfeste Zeitschrift ur Ethnologie 1887 19172-176 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

- Des Festkalender der Tzeltal und der Maya von Yucatan Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 1898 30410-416 (Reprinted in Seler 1902)

--- Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach-und Alshytertumskunde in 5 volumes Berlin A Asher and Co 1902

Spinden Herbert J The reduction of Mayan dates Papen of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Cambridge Mass Harvard University 1924 v VI n 4

Stewart Joe D Patterns of variation and relationship in Mesoamerican and Old World calendar lists Proceedings of the internationalAmerishysymposium on Maya art architecture and hieroglYPhic writing (Guashytemala City 1977) Edited by Nicholas M Hellmuth v 1 Article

Meso- 19 In press

--- Pawnee astronomy and calendar Paper presented at the Conshyference on Archaeoastronomy in the Americas Santa Fe New Mexieo 1979

Thompson J Erie S Maya hieroglyphic writing Washington D C Carnegie Institution of Washington 1950

Weaver Muriel Porter The Aztecs Maya and their predecessors New York Seminar Press 1972

--- The Aztecs Maya amd their predecessors Seeond edition New York Acaderrue Press 1981

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