Presented by : Anna

STRIDOR

Stridor is :

• Harsh vibration sound, • Different pitch (high, low)

• Produced by turbulent airflow through a narrowed/obstructed airway

(upper respiratory tract – nose, larynx, trachea).

Stridor may occur during the following respiratory phases :

Inspiratory phase = suggest airway obstruction above glottisExpiratory phase = suggest obstruction in lower tracheaBiphasic (both inspiratory & expiratory) = suggest glottic/subglottic lesion.

Mechanism of developing stridor

•An infant or child’s airway lumen is naturally narrower/smaller than adults.•Therefore, any minor reductions to this airway diameter (such as inflammation, mucosal edema, foreign object, collapsing epiglottis) can result in further narrowing or obstruction of the airway. •Due to this narrowing, it causes an exponential increase in airway resistance which makes it significantly difficult for the child to breathe.

Stridor can occur at the following places:1. Nose & Mouth2. Larynx (Epiglottis, Supraglottis,

Glottis,Subglottis)3. Trachea.

Causes of stridor in children According to Site of Obstruction Nose and pharynx Choanal atresia Lingual thyroid or thyroglossal cyst Macroglossia Micrognathia Hypertrophic tonsils/adenoids Retropharyngeal or peritonsillar abscess Larynx Laryngomalacia Laryngeal web, cyst or laryngocele Laryngotracheobronchitis (viral croup) Acute spasmodic laryngitis (spasmodic croup) Epiglottitis Vocal cord paralysis Laryngotracheal stenosis Intubation Foreign body Cystic hygroma Subglottic hemangioma Laryngeal papilloma Angioneurotic edema Laryngospasm (hypocalcemic tetany) Psychogenic stridor Trachea Tracheomalacia Bacterial tracheitis External compression

ACUTE• Acute laryngo-

tracheobronchitis (Croup)• Acute epiglottitis• Foreign body inhalation• Retropharyngeal abscess

CHRONICLaryngomalacia

CROUP (Laryngotracheobronchitis)

Viral croup accounts for over 95% of laryngotracheal infections.

Occurs from 6 months – 6 years. (Peak incidence : 2nd year of life)

Viruses : Parainfluenza (most common). : Respiratory Synctial Virus (RSV)

: Influenza Mucosal inflammation and increased secretions affect

the : : Larynx (glottic & subglottic regions), : Trachea : Bronchi.

Potential danger because it causes critical narrowing in the child’s airways (trachea).

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

Previous upper respiratory tract infection prior to development of upper

airway obstruction. Child develops “Barking” cough Hoarseness of voice Inspiratory stridor (when excited, at rest or both) Symptoms worsen at night and often recur with decreasing

intensity for several days and resolve completely within a week.

Agitation and crying greatly aggravate the symptoms and signs.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION : Agitated child Normal to moderately inflamed pharynx Slightly increased respiratory rate Suprasternal, infrasternal, intercostal retractions in very

severe cases.

Investigations

Croup is a clinical diagnosis and does not necessarily require a

radiographof the neck.

Radiographs of the neck can show the typical subglottic narrowing, or steeple sign, of croup on the posteroanterior view.

MANAGEMENT

First --- Assess/Determine the severity

Clinical Assessment of Croup (Wagener) Severity : 1) Mild - Stridor with excitement or at rest, with no respiratory distress.2) Moderate – Stridor at rest with intercostal, subcostal or sternal recession.3) Severe – Stridor at rest with marked recession, decreased air entry and altered level of

consiousness. Pulse oximetry : Helpful but not essential Arterial blood gas : Not so helpful as blood parameters

may remain normal to the late stage. Child may get distressed with the blood taking procedure!

MANAGEMENT

Indications for hospital admission :

o Moderate and severe viral croupo Toxic looking o Age : < 6 monthso Poor oral intakeo Family lives a long distance from

hospital/lacks realiable transportationo Lacks reliable caregiver at home

MANAGEMENTMILD(Outpatient)

MODERATE(Inpatient)

SEVERE(Inpatient)

Dexamethasone

Oral/Parenteral0.15 kg/single

dose may repeat at 12, 24

hours.Prednisolone1-2 mg/kg/stat

Or if vomitting : Nebulised

Budesonide2mg single dose only

Dexamethasone

Oral/Parenteral0.3-0.6mg/kg

single

And/or

Nebulised Budesonide

2mg stat And 1 mg 12

hrly

Nebulised adrenaline

0.5mg/kg 1:1000

andDexamethaso

neOral/Parenteral0.3-0.6mg/kg

Nebulised Budesonide

2mg stat, 1 mg 12 hrly

AndOXYGEN

If no improvement : Nebulised adrenaline Intubate & Ventilate

ACUTE EPIGLOTTITIS

Acute epiglottitis is a life-threatening emergency due to respiratory obstruction.

Affects all children’s age group, but most common in 1- 6 years children.

It is caused by H. influenzae type b. The introduction of universal Hib immunisation in many countries during infancy has led to a decrease of over 99% in the incidence of epiglottitis and other invasive H. influenzae type b infections.

There is intense swelling of the epiglottis and surrounding tissues associated with septicaemia.

Clinical manifestation.

Often, an otherwise healthy child suddenly develops :- Sore throat - Fever

Within a few hours, patient appears :- Toxic,- Difficulty in swallowing- Labored breathing- Drooling usually present (as patient finds it painful to swallow).- Neck hyperextended to attempt to maintain airway.- Child may assume tripod position – sitting upright & leaning

forward with chin up and mouth open while bracing on the arms. - Brief period of air hunger with restlessness may be followed by

rapidly increasing cyanosis and coma. - Stridor – usually is a late finding and suggest that airways

maybe almost completely blocked!

Investigations Laryngoscope - Performed immediately in a controlled environment (O.T. or ICU). Lateral radiographs of the upper airway (in cases where epiglottis is thought to be the cause, but not certain). - Classic radiograph will show the “Thumb” sign.- Proper positioning of the patient crucial to avoid misinterpretation. of the film.

Attempts to lie the child down or examine the throat with a spatula must not be undertaken as they can precipitate total airway

obstruction and death.

Management of acute epiglottitis

Once the diagnosis of epiglottis is suspected, urgent hospitalization is required (ICU or OT or Anaesthetic room with resuscitation facilities).

Treatment should be started immediately with a team of senior anaesthetist, paediatrician and ENT surgeon. (compulsory for senior experienced staff to be present!)

Intubate child under general anaesthesia. Urgent tracheostomy (very rare) if intubation impossible. Take blood samples for culture (Only after airway is secured!). Start patient on antibiotics immediately (e.g. cefuroximine) for 3-

5 days as most patients might have concomitant bacteremia. Tracheal tube can be removed usually within 24 hours

(Depending on patient’s progress). Most children recover fully within 2-3 days.

MINUTES COUNT IN ACUTE EPIGLOTTIS!

FOREIGN BODY INHALATIONChildren age 1 to 3 are most like to swallow or breathe in a

foreign object,such as a coin, marble, pencil eraser, buttons, beads, or other

small items orfoods as they are always very intrigued and interested in their surroudings.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

Choking & Coughing (common)(is present in 95% of patients presenting with foreign body aspiration)

Stridor is commonly present with upper airway or upper tracheal foreign bodies. - Indicates prompt intervention required!

- Approximately 50% of children have inspiratory stridor or expiratory wheezing, with prolongation of the expiratory phase, and medium-to-coarse rhonchi.

Patients may present with (depending on location/degree of obstruction) : 1) Larynx - Hoarseness / aphonia - Stridor 2) Trachea - Wheezing (can mimic asthma) 3) Bronchial - Cough - Unilateral wheezing - Decreased breath sounds

INVESTIGATIONS

RADIOGRAPHY Neck - AP view of neck - Lateral view of soft tissues Chest - PA view (take both during inspiration &

expiration) - Lateral view

Some points to remember about radiography investigation : Obtaining 2 views of the foreign body helps to determining its location and excludes the

presence of superimposed multiple foreign bodies. Most foreign bodies are radiolucent Radiolucent tracheal foreign bodies may show signs of an infraglottic opacity or of

swelling from airway inflammation on PA and lateral neck radiographs.

INVESTIGATIONS

BRONCHOSCOPY (FLEXIBLE) : If the clinical suspicion is high for foreign body aspiration, flexible bronchoscopy should be performed for definitive

diagnosis and treatment.

COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY (CT SCAN)

As a result of its greater contrast resolution In addition to providing plain radiographic findings, such as

hyperlucency, atelectasis, and lobar consolidation, CT scans can depict the foreign body within the lumen of the tracheobronchial tree and the 3-dimensional position of the foreign body within the thorax.

MANAGEMENT

1) Most cases of inhalation events are not witnessed, hence diagnosis usually depends on high index of suspicion.

2) Bring child to hospital3) Immediately do a lateral neck X-ray, AP-Chest X-ray

(but hard to detect at times).4) Endoscopy under general anaesthesia is usually the

preferred choice of investigation as it also allows removal of the foreign body.

5) Children with foreign body inhalation are usually comfortable despite some stridor and chest recession.

6) Most interventions can be organised semi-urgently.7) However, immediate attention is required if the child

decompensates.

RETROPHARYNGEAL ABSCESSRetropharyngeal abscesses are deep neck space infections

that can pose an immediate life-threatening emergency, withpotential for airway compromise and other catastrophiccomplications

RETROPHARYNGEAL ABSCESS The retropharyngeal space can become infected in two

ways : 1) Infection spreads from a contiguous area 2) Penetrating trauma (can directly inoculate the space)

The "classic" retropharyngeal abscess observed in pediatric patients occurs when an upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) spreads to retropharyngeal lymph nodes, forming chains in the retropharyngeal space on either side of the superior constrictor muscle.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATION Common complaints : Sore throat Fever Neck pain Neck stiffness (torticollis) Jaw stiffness (trismus) Stridor Drooling of saliva Muffled voice Sensation of lump in the throat Breathing difficulties Sometimes an upper respiratory illness can

precede symptoms by weeks.

INVESTIGATIONS

1) Laboratory Studies (Non-specific)- WBC counts can be elevated- Culture and sensitivity test (Gram stain can help direct

with empiric antibiotic treatment).

2) Imaging Studies (Lateral plain X-ray)- May also demonstrate gas or a foreign body in the retropharyngeal space.- Perform the study during inspiration with the neck held in normal extension

MANAGEMENT Medical Care

ABC - Determining airway stability remains a top priority. Allow patients to remain in a position of comfort, which is usually supine with their necks

extended. Neck flexion or forcing a child to sit up can occlude the airway.

Only experienced physician in airway management should attempt a definitive procedure. Remember that sedatives and paralytics can cause relaxation of airway muscles with

subsequent complete occlusion!

Start empiric antibiotic therapy without delay (After obtaining blood culture results) Broad-spectrum coverage is indicated. Clindamycin is first-line treatment. Because of the increasing frequency of resistant bacteria, treatment may be initiated alone or in combination with cefoxitin or a beta-lactamase–resistant penicillin, such as ticarcillin/clavulanate, piperacillin/tazobactam, or ampicillin/sulbactam.

Patients with cellulitis can be treated with parenteral antibiotics alone. Closely observe these patients for development of an abscess. Some authors advocate the

use of antibiotics alone for small abscesses. These patients need to be closely monitored for improvement.

MANAGEMENT

SURGICAL INTERVENTION Needle aspiration of an abscess can be performed both to assist in

diagnosis and to treat an abscess. This should only be performed by a qualified surgeon in the operating suite. Definitive airway management should be immediately available.

A small retropharyngeal abscess can be aspirated with an 18-gauge needle by the intraoral route. Larger abscesses require incision and drainage using either an intraoral or transcervical approach or both, depending on the location of the carotid sheath in relationship to the abscess.

Completely evacuate pus from the abscess. Obtain a specimen for Gram stain, culture, and sensitivity. Abscesses in the parapharyngeal space isolated lateral to the carotid sheath can be aspirated by an external approach.

CT scanning or ultrasonography may be used to help guide the aspiration.

DIPHTERIA

- Diphtheria is an infectious disease caused by the bacteriumCorynebacterium diphtheriae.

- This disease primarily affects the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract (respiratory diphtheria), although it may also affect the skin (cutaneous diphtheria) and lining tissues in the ear, eye, and the genital areas.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATION The symptoms usually begin after a two- to five-day incubation period. Symptoms of

respiratory diphtheria may include the following: sore throat, fever, malaise, hoarseness, difficulty swallowing, stridor difficulty breathing.

With the progression of respiratory diphtheria, the infected individual may also develop an adherent gray membrane (pseudomembrane) forming over the lining tissues of the tonsils and/or nasopharynx.

Individuals with severe disease may also develop neck swelling and enlarged neck lymph nodes, leading to a "bull-neck" appearance.

Extension of the pseudomembrane (which consists of fibrin, bacteria, and inflammatory cells, no lipid) into the larynx and trachea can lead to obstruction of the airway with subsequent suffocation and death. (stridor and respiratory difficulty).

The dissemination of diphtheria toxin can also lead to systemic disease, causing complications such as inflammation of the heart (myocarditis) and neurologic problems such as paralysis of the soft palate, vision problems, and muscle weakness.

INVESTIGATIONS

LABARATORY TEST Confirmed by isolation of the bacterium Corynebacterium

diphtheriae. Diagnostic tests to isolate the bacterium involve obtaining cultures from the nose and throat in any individual suspected of having diphtheria, as well as their close contacts.

It is also important to determine whether or not the isolate is capable of producing diphtheria toxin, and this can be accomplished by testing in specialized laboratories.

ECG To see if there are any signs of myocarditis development.

MANAGEMENT

Diphtheria antitoxin - is the mainstay of therapy. It neutralizes circulating diphtheria toxin and reduces the progression of the disease. The effectiveness of diphtheria antitoxin is greatest if it is administered early in the course of the disease.

Antibiotics - administered as soon as possible to patients with suspected diphtheria. Antibiotics help

eradicate the bacteria, thereby stopping toxin production, and they also help to prevent transmission of diphtheria to close contacts. Penicillin and erythromycin are the recommended antibiotics. Asymptomaticcarriers, as well as all close contacts potentially exposed to diphtheria, alsorequire antibiotic treatment.

Supportive measures - inserting a breathing tube (intubation), may be necessary if the patient cannot breathe on

their own or if there is the potential for airway obstruction.

Potential cardiac and neurologic complications also need to be closely followed and addressed in consultation with the proper specialist.

LARYNGOMALACIA

•Most common congenital laryngeal anomaly in children.•Most common cause of stridor (approximately 60% of cases)•Stridor characteristics : - Inspiratory - Low pitched-Exacerbated by any exertion, crying, feeding. -Stridor happens due to the collapse of supraglottic structures inwards during inspiration.•Symptoms usually appear within the first 2 weeks of life•They increase in severity up to 6 months (although gradual improvement can begin at any time). •Laryngopharyngeal reflux is common.

INVESTIGATIONS

FLEXIBLE LARYNGOSCOPE CHEST X-RAYS (when the breathing is

moderate to severe) BARIUM CONTRAST X-RAY (dysphagia

present) COMPLETE BRONCHOSCOPY

(patients with moderate to severe obstruction – because 15-60% of infants with laryngomalacia have synchronous airway anomalies).

MANAGEMENT

EXPECTANT OBSERVATION (as most symptoms resolve spontaneously as the child and airway grows).

SURGICAL INTERVENTION – Endoscopic Supraglottoplasty for patients with severe obstruction (Especially when there are other life-threatening events associated together e.g. cor pulmonale, cyanosis, failure to thrive).

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION ACUTE STRIDOR

CROUP Laryngotracheobronchitis

ACUTE EPIGLOTTITIS INHALED FOREIGN BODY RETRO-PHARYNGEAL ABCESS

DIPHTERIA

•The most common cause of acute stridor (Inspiratory) in children.•Usually age 6 months to 2 years.•Barking, •seal-like cough, low fever and worse at night.

•Acute onset•Is intensely painful Prevents the child from speaking or swallowing; •Saliva drools down the chin •Soft inspiratory stridor•High fever in an ill, toxic-looking child •Respiratory difficulty over hours •Child sits immobile, upright, with an open mouth to optimise the airway.

•Common especially in children aged 1 to 2 years.•Preceded by choking or coughing.•Stridor (inspiratory) happens depending on location of foreign object and usually indicates almost fully blocked airways.

• Common (under age 6 years).

• Present with high fever and difficulty swallowing.

• Retropharyngeal abscesses present with pain on swallowing and hyperextension of the neck.

• Peritonsillar abscess presents with trismus, difficulty with swallowing and difficulty with speaking.

• Stridor of low pitch can occur.

Insidious onset Exudate spreads

within 2-3 days and may form adherent membrane

Serious cause of stridor, but rare.

Stridor can occur.

REMEMBER : STRIDOR is a SYMPTOM,

NOT a diagnosis or disease, and the underlying cause must

be determined.

THANK YOU

References :Paediatric Protocols for Malaysian Hospitals – 2nd EditionIllustrated Textbook of Paediatrics, - 3rd EditionNelson’s Textbook of Pediatrics – 19th Edition.