Stress and Health Chapter 9. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter...

Stress and Health

Chapter 9

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 9 Learning Objective Menu• LO 9.1 How do psychologists define stress• LO 9.2 Kinds of events that cause stress• LO 9.3 Psychological factors in stress • LO 9.4 Relationship between stress and the immune system• LO 9.5 Relationship between stress, cognitive and personality factors• LO 9.6 Social factors and stress reactions • LO 9.7 Coping with stress• LO 9.8 How culture and religion help cope with stress • LO 9.9 Ways to promote wellness

Stress• Do Now:

• How does a stress reaction in our body impair out immune system?

• Give a concrete example of how this might occur.

Stress

• Health Psychology is a new area of psychology focusing on how physical activities, psychological traits, and social relationships affect overall health.



Stress• Stress - the term used to describe the

physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to events that are appraised as threatening or challenging.

• Stressors - events that cause a stress reaction.

• Distress - the effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors.

• Eustress - the effect of positive events, or the optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being.

LO 9.1 Defining stressAP Theories of stress & effects on well-being

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Cognitive Factors of Stress• Cognitive appraisal approach - states that

how people think about a stressor determines, at least in part, how stressful that stressor will become.• Primary appraisal - the first step in assessing a

stress, which involves estimating the severity of a stressor and classifying it as either a threat or a challenge.

• Secondary appraisal - the second step in assessing a threat, which involves estimating the resources available to the person for coping with the stressor.


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Events that Cause Stress• Catastrophes are events such as floods

or crashes that can result in high levels of stress, including acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.

• Major life changes create stress by requiring adjustments. Major life changes have an impact on chronic health problems and risk of accidents.

Events that Cause Stress


• The daily frustrations and irritations experienced by people are called hassles, and have an impact on day-to-day health.


Causes of Stress• Catastrophe - an unpredictable,

large-scale event that creates a tremendous need to adapt and adjust as well as overwhelming feelings of threat.• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

(PTSD) - a disorder resulting from exposure to a major stressor, with symptoms of anxiety, nightmares, poor sleep, reliving the event, and concentration problems, lasting for more than one month.

LO 9.2 Kinds of events causing stress

AP Theories of stress & effects on well-being

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Causes of Stress• Major Life Events - cause stress by requiring

adjustment.• Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) -

assessment that measures the amount of stress in a person’s life over a one-year period resulting from major life events.

• College Undergraduate Stress Scale (CUSS) - assessment that measures the amount of stress in a college student’s life over a one-year period resulting from major life events.

• Hassles - the daily annoyances of everyday life.

LO 9.2 Kinds of events causing stress


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LO 9.2 Kinds of events causing stressAP Theories of stress & effects on well-being


What are some of the psychological factors in

stress?


• Pressure

• Uncontrollability

• Frustration

• Conflict


Everyday Sources of Stress• Pressure - the psychological experience produced by

urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behavior that come from an outside source.

• Uncontrollability - the degree of control that the person has over a particular event or situation. The less control a person has, the greater the degree of stress.

• Frustration - the psychological experience produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need.

• Conflict - psychological experience of being pulled toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, only one of which may be attained.

LO 9.3 Psychological factors in stressAP Theories of stress & effects on well-being

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Berkowitz Frustration-Agression Theory

• Berkowitz contends that aggression is the result of an interaction between an internal emotional state and cues that are available in the environment. Frustration alone is not sufficient to produce aggression. A frustrating experience creates a readiness to aggress. Whether aggression will occur depends on stimulus cues.

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Everyday Sources of Stress• Frustration - the psychological experience produced by the

blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need. Possible reactions:

• Aggression - actions meant to harm or destroy.

• Displaced aggression – taking out one’s frustrations on some less threatening or more available target, a form of displacement.

• Escape or withdrawal - leaving the presence of a stressor, either literally or by a psychological withdrawal into fantasy, drug abuse, or apathy.

• Conflict - psychological experience of being pulled toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, only one of which may be attained.

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Types of Conflict (social psych)• Approach–approach conflict – conflict occurring when

a person must choose between two desirable goals.• Avoidance–avoidance conflict - conflict occurring

when a person must choose between two undesirable goals.

• Approach–avoidance conflict - conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects.

• Double approach–avoidance conflict - conflict in which the person must decide between two goals, with each goal possessing both positive and negative aspects.

• Multiple approach–avoidance conflict - conflict in which the person must decide between more than two goals, with each goal possessing both positive and negative aspects.

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Seyle’s Reaction to Stress (354)• alarm - When the body first reacts to a stressor,

the sympathetic nervous system is activated

• resistance - the body settles into sympathetic division activity, continuing to release the stress hormones that help the body fight off, or resist, the stressor.

• exhaustion - When the body’s resources are gone, resistance ends, the parasympathetic division activates and exhaustion occurs

• Psychoneuroimmunology-study of the effects of psychological factors on the immune system

Stress• Do Now:• Identify how stress can lead to one

of the disorders from the chapter we studied. Name a specific stressor and explain which disorder it might lead to.

• Which perspective would be best to address the disorder and why?


Suicide• Suicidal behavior is highly linked to

depression.

• People who talk about suicide should be taken seriously and need help.

LO 9.3 Psychological factors in stress

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Suicide• Suicide Attempt: A potentially self-

injurious behavior with a nonfatal outcome, for which there is evidence that the person had the intent to kill self, but failed, was rescued or thwarted, or changed one’s mind. A suicide attempt may or may not result in injuries


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Suicide• Suicide Ideation: Self reported thoughts of

engaging in suicide-related behavior. Suicide ideators are individuals who think about suicide, but do not make an explicit attempt. They may or may not form intent. They may or may not have a plan. Ideation may be transient or ruminative, active or passive, acute or ongoing

• A person at imminent risk has a plan and has taken action(s) to kill self


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Suicide• A person at imminent risk has a plan

and has taken action(s) to kill self

• Every 16 minutes, one American completes suicide. That’s 91 successful suicides every day and more than 33,000 suicides per year.


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Suicide• Suicide was the eleventh leading cause

of death for all ages:• Second leading cause for 25-34 year olds• Third leading cause for 15-24 year olds• Among 15-24 year olds there are 100-200

attempts for every one successful suicide.


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Suicide• Males represent 79.4% of all US

suicides

• Males 75 years or older have the highest rate of suicide

• Firearms are the most common method used by males

• Eighth leading cause of death for males


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Suicide• Females attempt suicide 2 – 3 times

more often than males.

• Females in their 40s and 50s have the highest rate of suicide.

• Poisoning (overdose) is the most common method used by females.

• Eleventh leading cause of death for females


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Suicide• Suicide Risk Factor:

• A combination of individual, relational, community, and societal factors contributing to the individuals risk of suicide. Risk factors are those characteristics associated with suicide – they may or may not be direct causes.


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Risk Factors for Suicide

• Family history of suicide• Childhood abuse• Previous suicide attempts• History of mental illness• History of substance abuse• Feelings of hopelessness• Impulsive or aggressive tendencies• Cultural and religious beliefs (belief that suicide is a noble

resolution of a personal dilemma) • Local epidemics



• Feelings of isolation• Barriers to accessing mental health treatment• Relational, social, work, or financial loss• Physical illness• Access to lethal methods (firearms)• Unwillingness to seek help (because of the stigma attached to

mental health and substance abuse disorders or to suicidal thoughts



• Command hallucinations to harm self• Feeling better and having more energy after a period of

depression• Specific diagnosis:

• Schizophrenia, Major Depression, Bipolar Disorder• Presence of a specific plan or intent• Hopelessness, helplessness, isolation or depressed mood• Loss of pleasure or interest (anhedonia)• Verbal cues (You’d be better without me.”)• Behavioral cues (giving away items, buying a gun)• Situational cues (job loss, divorces, arrest)


Top 5 Risk Groups

• Youth• Medically Ill• Specific Population Groups:

• Native Americans• Alaskan Natives• African American Males ages15-19

• Persons with Mental and Substance Abuse Disorders• The Elderly


Myths about Suicide

• MYTH: People who talk about suicide rarely commit suicide

• TRUTH: People who commit suicide often give a clue or warning of their intention

• MYTH: The suicidal person wants to die and feels there is no turning back

• TRUTH: Suicidal persons often feel ambivalent about dying


Myths about Suicide• MYTH: A person who attempts suicide will always

have thoughts of suicide• TRUTH: Often a suicide attempt is made during a

particularly stressful period. If the remainder of that period can be well managed, then that person can go on with life

• MYTH: If you ask a person directly, “Do you feel like killing yourself?”, this will lead to a suicide attempt

• TRUTH: Asking a person directly about suicide intent often will relieve the anxiety surrounding the feeling and act as a deterrent to the suicidal behavior

Myths about Suicide• MYTH: Improvement following a suicidal crisis means

that the suicidal risk is over

• TRUTH: When a suicidal person begins to feel better, he or she will still be confronted with problems and responsibilities. It may take months to feel consistently better and in control. Hopelessness can persist even when other symptoms of associated disorders have lessened or disappeared.


Bodily Reactions to Stress• Autonomic nervous system consists of:

• Sympathetic system - responds to stressful events• Parasympathetic system - restores the body to

normal functioning after the stress has ceased.

• Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - the three stages of the body’s physiological reaction to stress, including alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

LO 9.4 Stress and the immune systemAP Key contributors in motivation & emotion

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Bodily Reactions to Stress• alarm - When the body first reacts to a

stressor, the sympathetic nervous system is activated

• resistance - the body settles into sympathetic division activity, continuing to release the stress hormones that help the body fight off, or resist, the stressor.

• exhaustion - When the body’s resources are gone, resistance ends, the parasympathetic division activates and exhaustion occurs

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LO 9.4 Stress and the immune system, AP Theories of stress & effects on well-being



Stress and the Immune System• Immune system - the system of cells, organs,

and chemicals of the body that responds to attacks from diseases, infections, and injuries.• Negatively affected by stress.

• Psychoneuroimmunology - the study of the effects of psychological factors such as stress, emotions, thoughts, and behavior on the immune system.

• Natural killer cell - immune system cell responsible for suppressing viruses and destroying tumor cells.

LO 9.4 Stress and the immune systemAP Theories of stress & effects on well-being

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Stress and the Immune System• Further clarification: • Stress causes the immune system to react

as though an illness or invading organism had been detected, increasing the functioning of the immune system. The study of this relationship is called psychoneuroimmunology.

• As the stress continues or increases, the immune system can begin to fail.

LO 9.4 Stress and the immune systemAP Theories of stress & effects on well-being

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LO 9.4 Stress and the immune system




Stress and Personality• The cognitive appraisal approach states

that how people think about a stressor determines, at least in part, how stressful that stressor will become.

• The first step is primary appraisal, in which the person determines whether an event is threatening, challenging, or of no consequence. Threatening events are more stressful than those seen as challenging.

• The second step is secondary appraisal, in which the person assesses the resources available to deal with the stressor, such as time, money, and social support.

LO 9.5 Relationship between stress, cognitive and personality factorsAP Theories of stress & effects on well-being

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Stress and Personality• Type A personality - person who is ambitious, time conscious,

extremely hardworking, and tends to have high levels of hostility and anger as well as being easily annoyed.

• Type B personality - person who is relaxed and laid-back, less driven and competitive than Type A, and slow to anger.


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Stress and Personality• Type C personality - pleasant but repressed

person, who tends to internalize his or her anger and anxiety and who finds expressing emotions difficult.

• Hardy personality - a person who seems to thrive on stress but lacks the anger and hostility of the Type A personality.


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Stress and Personality

• Type B personalities are relaxed and easy-going and have one-third the risk of coronary heart disease as do Type A personalities if male, and one-fourth the risk if female and working outside the home.

• Type C personalities are pleasant but repressed, internalizing their negative emotions


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LO 9.5 Relationship between stress, cognitive and personality factors




Stress and Personality• Optimists - people who expect positive

outcomes.• Pessimists - people who expect negative

outcomes.• Optimism is associated with longer life and

increased immune function.

• Positive Psychology – a movement started by Martin Seligman, the developer of learned helplessness (Ch 5)

LO 9.5 Relationship between stress, cognitive and personality factorsAP Key contributors in motivation & emotion

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Stress and Personality

• Optimists look for positive outcomes and experience far less stress than pessimists, who take a more negative view.


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Stress

• Do Now:• Identify how risk factors and being

in a high risk group increase a person’s vulnerability to suicidal ideation?

• What other factors in personality are involved in suicidal risk?


Stress and Social Factors• Social factors increasing the effects of

stress include poverty, stresses on the job or in the workplace, and entering a majority culture that is different from one’s culture of origin

• Burnout - negative changes in thoughts, emotions, and behavior as a result of prolonged stress or frustration.

LO 9.6 Social factors and stress reactionAP Theories of stress & effects on well-being

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Stress and Social Factors• Acculturative stress - stress resulting from the need

to change and adapt a person’s ways to the majority culture.• Four Methods of Acculturation:• Integration• Assimilation• Separation• Marginalization

• Social support system - the network of family, friends, neighbors, coworkers, and others who can offer support, comfort, or aid to a person in need.

LO 9.6 Social factors and stress reactionAP Impact of social & cultural categories on self-concept

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Stress and Social Factors• Four Methods of Acculturation:• integration - the individual tries to maintain a

sense of the original cultural identity while also trying to form a positive relationship with members of the dominant culture.

• assimilation - the minority person gives up the old cultural identity and completely adopts the majority culture’s ways.

• separation - a pattern in which the minority person rejects the majority culture’s ways and tries to maintain the original cultural identity

• marginalization - neither maintaining contact with the original culture nor joining the majority culture.

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Stress

• Do Now:• Cite examples from your own

knowledge or experience and content from the chapter of how difference cultures and/or religions cope with stress.


Ways to Deal with Stress• Coping strategies - actions that people

can take to master, tolerate, reduce, or minimize the effects of stressors.• Problem-focused coping- coping strategies

that try to eliminate the source of a stress or reduce its impact through direct actions.

• Emotion-focused coping - coping strategies that change the impact of a stressor by changing the emotional reaction to the stressor.

LO 9.7 Coping with stress


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Defense Mechanisms (from personality theory)

• Psychological defense mechanisms - unconscious distortions of a person’s perception of reality that reduce stress and anxiety and can be a form of emotion-focused coping.

• Denial - psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to acknowledge or recognize a threatening situation.

• Repression - psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to consciously remember a threatening or unacceptable event, instead pushing those events into the unconscious mind.

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Defense Mechanisms• Rationalization - psychological defense

mechanism in which a person invents acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior.

• Projection - psychological defense mechanism in which unacceptable or threatening impulses or feelings are seen as originating with someone else, usually the target of the impulses or feelings.



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Defense Mechanisms• Reaction formation - psychological defense

mechanism in which a person forms an opposite emotional or behavioral reaction to the way he or she really feels to keep those true feelings hidden from self and others.

• Displacement - redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a less threatening one.

• Regression - psychological defense mechanism in which a person falls back on childlike patterns of responding in reaction to stressful situations.



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Defense Mechanisms• Identification - defense mechanism in which a

person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety.

• Compensation (substitution) - defense mechanism in which a person makes up for inferiorities in one area by becoming superior in another area.

• Sublimation - channeling socially unacceptable impulses and urges into socially acceptable behavior.



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Cultural Influences on Stress• Different cultures perceive stressors

differently.

• Coping strategies will also vary from culture to culture.

LO 9.8 Culture religion and stressAP Impact of social & cultural categories on self-concept

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Religiosity and Stress• People with religious beliefs also have

been found to cope better with stressful events.

LO 9.8 Culture religion and stress

AP Impact of social & cultural categories on self-concept

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Stress

• Do Now:• What are ways to promote wellness

and to eliminate stress?


Meditation• Meditation - mental series of exercises

meant to refocus attention and achieve a trancelike state of consciousness.

• Concentrative meditation - form of meditation in which a person focuses the mind on some repetitive or unchanging stimulus so that the mind can be cleared of disturbing thoughts and the body can experience relaxation.

• Receptive meditation - form of meditation in which a person attempts to become aware of everything in immediate conscious experience, or an expansion of consciousness.


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Factors Promoting Wellness• Exercise

• Social activities

• Getting enough sleep

• Eating healthy foods

• Having fun

• Managing one’s time

• Practicing good coping skills

LO 9.8 Ways to promote wellness

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Stress and Health Chapter 9. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter...

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