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Strategy, Math & Research Methods About MCAT-2015

Structure of the MCAT-2015 Exam: When you sit for your real MCAT exam, you will spend over eight

hours at the testing center. The exam itself will be delivered in four segments, as outlined below.

Passages Questions Time (min)

Examinee Agreement -- -- 10 Optional Tutorial -- -- 5

Chemical and Physical Foundations of Living Systems (CP)

10 59 95

Optional Break -- -- 10

Critical Analysis and Reasoning (CAR) 9 53 90

Optional LUNCH Break -- -- 30

Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems (BB)

10 59 95

Optional Break -- -- 10

Psychological, Sociological and Biological Foundations of Behavior (PsS)

10 59 95

Total Seated Time 7 ½ hours

Total Time at the Testing Center 8+ hours

Ignore the MCAT-2015 Hype:

o THE PERPETUAL HYPE MACHINE: When the MCAT added a writing section a few decades ago, the big-box prep companies were quick to seize the day. The message was clear: “You are going to fail this new section unless you sign up for our program.” Years later, when the MCAT changed from a pencil-and-paper test to a computerized (CBT) exam, the hype was even greater. For the past two years, the MCAT-2015 hype has been over-the-top. Big-box prep companies use any change to the testing protocol as an opportunity to drive sales through intimidation. We’ll spare you the drama. The truth is, the MCAT did not change in 2015. You read correctly. The MCAT did NOT change in 2015—at least not substantively. You now have permission to relax. Everything is going to be okay.

o MCAT-2015 = NEW TOPICS, SAME TEST: As part of our exhaustive preparations for the MCAT-2015 transition, we developed a custom algorithm for analyzing AAMC MCAT questions. Using this tool, we analyzed every question released by the AAMC over the past twenty-five years, plus every question they have released for the new MCAT-2015 exam. To our knowledge, a longitudinal, whole-spectrum analysis of the MCAT on this scale has never been completed by any prep company, most likely not even by the AAMC themselves. The results were revealing. First, we learned that the crux of the MCAT, how they test, how they ask questions, and the kind of critical thinking they require, did NOT change—at least not in any significant way from what the old MCAT exam had become in recent years.

Strategy,Math&ResearchMethods Altius

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The old MCAT exam did CHANGE drastically: The MCAT exam used through January 23, 2015 changed noticeably between its original inception and its final form. These were substantive changes—not the changes to content and length changed for MCAT-2015. The exam gradually transformed from a detail and calculation instrument into a concept-based critical thinking exam. These were the kind of changes that made it a truly “different” exam that required a different study approach and a unique set of critical thinking skills. For the most part, big-box prep companies misunderstood the old exam, produced questions that were not well-matched, and suggested study methods that were questionable at best. This continues to be of concern for MCAT-2015. In fact, the practice materials currently available from status quo prep companies for the new MCAT-2015 exam are even more inaccurate than they were before. Here’s the good news: Altius had the most accurate understanding of the MCAT exam before the MCAT-2015 transition and that gap has only widened.

The old Biological Sciences Section CHANGED significantly over the final decade of its lifespan. This move was a steady—and in the end almost complete—transition from passages adapted from lab manuals or textbooks, to passages adapted from published scientific journal articles. This trend is important for MCAT-2015 examinees because this emphasis on “Journal Adaptation Passages” has not only been conserved, but has been EXPANDED on the new MCAT-2015 exam.

The “new” Critical Analysis and Reasoning Section (CAR) is identical to the old Verbal Reasoning Section: Any attempt by the AAMC to paint this as some new or innovative way to test “Critical Analysis and Reasoning” is absurd. The AAMC has only changed the name of the old Verbal Reasoning (VR) section to create the new Critical Analysis & Reasoning (CAR) section. They have included passages drawn from a few new disciplines (e.g., linguistics, population health) and removed passages drawn from some other disciplines (e.g., science and technology). However, the list of disciplines from which passages are drawn is something they’ve changed from time to time in the past; it is not a change to the substance or difficulty of the section itself. Adding “population health” as a subject area from which passages will be drawn is no different than adding a passage to one of the science sections on a topic that hasn’t been tested previously. The field of topics or subject areas may have expanded, but the unique way the MCAT exam is testing you has not.

Introducing the AAMC Recycling Program: Proof that CAR = VR. More-than-sufficient proof that the new CAR section is nothing more than the old Verbal Reasoning section with a new name is provided below. We list multiple cases in which the AAMC has already recycled old Verbal Reasoning passages into so-called “new” MCAT-2015 CAR passages. If you are thinking they probably altered the passage adaptation slightly, or changed a few questions, you would be mistaken. The following passages have been re-used as-is, word-for-word, with zero changes to the text or the associated questions.

RECYCLED PASSAGES:

Party Identification Passage

Originally used on: AAMC 6R

Recycled on: Official Guide to the MCAT-2015.

Metaphor Passage

Originally on: AAMC 3R

Recycled on: Official MCAT-2015 Practice Exam

Patient Confidentiality Passage

Originally on: AAMC CBT 4

Recycled on: MCAT-2015 Preview Guide Official Guide to the MCAT-2015

James Fenimore Cooper Passage

Originally on: Official Guide to the MCAT-OLD

Recycled on: MCAT-2015 Preview Guide MCAT-2015 Companion Guide Official Guide to the MCAT-2015


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RECYCLING ON OTHER MCAT-2015 SECTIONS: The examples just described by no means constitute a complete list. These are only those recycled passages we have verified as being re-used on the MCAT-2015 CAR section. The AAMC has also reused previously-released passages from the PS and BS sections of the old MCAT on the new CP and BB sections of MCAT-2015. In fact, the AAMC has a long and established pattern of recycling retired passages from one “Official AAMC Practice Resource” to another. The very old (20+ years) “Practice Items” questions have shown up on fairly recent practice materials, including the first edition of The Official Guide to the MCAT. Passages have been bounced around from the archaic 1990’s exams (AAMC 1 and 2), to the retired long-form exams (3R, 4R, 5R, etc.), to the just-retired CBTs (CBT3 through CBT11), and finally to the recently-released (but already retired) “AAMC Self-Assessment Package.” Fully 100% of the passages and questions on the new “AAMC Question Packs” currently for sale on the AAMC website are taken from old AAMC materials written prior to the MCAT-2015 transition.

What does the AAMC Recycling Program mean for me? Don’t get us wrong, we aren’t necessarily criticizing the AAMC for regularly reusing their own materials. Good standardized exams are difficult, expensive, and time-consuming to create. We are, however, using this fact as an absolute refutation of any claim that MCAT-2015 is an entirely new, scary, or even fundamentally different, testing instrument. At least in the case of these recycled passages, it is—in fact—the exact same test. Once again, you have permission to relax, take a deep breath, and forget anything you may have picked up about MCAT-2015 from the fear-mongering big-box MCAT prep companies. A few important things did change on the new MCAT-2015, but they are all cases for which the skills one needed to succeed on the old exam apply equally well to the new exam. We’ll discuss these aspects of MCAT-2015 next.

Changes for MCAT-2015: The most defining aspect of the MCAT over the past decade has been its unique way of testing conceptual understanding. The AAMC authors consistently employ their own brand of question types that require critical thinking, passage-based reasoning, logic, and prediction. These defining characteristics of the exam have continued on MCAT-2015 unaltered. However, there are four important aspects of the new exam that survive the hype and are worthy your consideration. These are the only substantive aspects of the exam that really changed.

1) The NEW Psychological, Social and Biological Foundations of Behavior Section (PsS): With the addition of this fourth section, Psychology and Sociology topics have been added to the MCAT prerequisites. Topics on the MCAT-2015 topic list for PsS are intended to be those covered during a one-semester survey course in each discipline, such as Psychology 101 and Sociology 101. Here are some of the most interesting characteristics we observed during our analysis:

A lot more to memorize! The MCAT has been steadily gaining momentum in its surge away from all things memorization and toward all things conceptual. The new PsS section is a noticeable departure from that trend. The kinds of passages and critical thinking required by the PsS section are a bit of an odd brew. On one hand, they often use the same challenging critical-thinking-based question blueprints they use for the hard science sections. On the other hand, they frequently reward the examinee for having simply memorized a definition or theory.

INSIGHTS ABOUT THE PsS SECTION FROM THE AAMC QUESTION BLUEPRINTS: The algorithm tool mentioned earlier allowed our team to identify specific, reliable question types the AAMC authors have been using religiously throughout the past decade, and which they continue to use on MCAT-2015 (further evidence that the most important characteristics of the exam did NOT change). These data led to a telling insight about the PsS section:

Question Blueprint #1 (QB1): Overall, and by a large margin, the most frequent AAMC question blueprint on the CP and BB sections is the “Make a Prediction” blueprint. In the aggregate, 10% of all AAMC questions use the QB1 blueprint. This question type asks the examinee to use basic science knowledge to predict the outcome of something. Examples of QB1 question stems include: “Which set of experimental conditions will result in the greatest increase in inflammation among the patients in Experiment 1?”; “Based on the passage information, administration of an acetylcholinesterase agonist will have what impact on nerve transmission?”; “Which change to Trial 1 will result in the least chromatic aberration?”; “All of the following changes will increase the speed of the block depicted in Figure 1, EXCEPT:”


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Question Blueprint #31 (QB31): By contrast, one of the least frequent AAMC blueprints is the “Identify an Example of a Theory, Principle, or Term” question format. In the aggregate, about 1% of all AAMC questions use QB31. This question type asks the examinee to recognize an example or illustration of a theory, principle, or term. Examples of QB31 question stems include: “Addition of either reactant to the Reaction 1 mixture increases the production of hydrazine. This is an illustration of which chemical principle?”; “The increased willingness of study participants to purchase a car after purchasing parts from the dealership’s parts department is an example of which phenomenon?”; “The results of Experiment 3 most strongly support which theoretical model of learning?”

A MAJOR DEPARTURE: The data we just described for QB1 and QB31 frequencies is reliably true for the MCAT as a whole—and has been for over a decade. It is also true for the questions found on both the CP and BB sections of MCAT-2015. However, these frequencies do NOT hold true for the new PsS section. In fact, the PsS section is a startling reversal. Based on all currently-released AAMC MCAT-2015 materials, QB31 is the most frequently used question blueprint on the new PsS section! To avoid any possible confusion, we will emphasize again that this is true for the PsS section only. The blueprint trends listed above still hold true for the hard science sections of MCAT-2015; it is only the new PsS section which deviates. You may see already why we called the PsS section a “strange brew.” What has been one of the rarest of all question types in the past (QB31), and remains so on the other sections of MCAT-2015, plays the starring role on the new PsS section.

What does the PsS departure in testing style mean for me? It means you need to know—by name—all of the theories, terms, theoretical perspectives, and psychological disorders from psychology and sociology extremely well. Approximately 1 out of every 7 questions on PsS will use QB31! This question type will often require that you identify a real-life example, case study, or experiment as an illustration of a theory or term from psychology or sociology. Therefore, you’ll have to do more than rotely memorize. Your goal should be to understand the theory, but unlike the hard science sections, a sizeable number of PsS questions may reward you just for having memorized the theory. There are more terms and definitions you will need to memorize for the PsS section than there are for the rest of the MCAT-2015 exam combined!

2) The NEW emphasis on Journal Adaptation Passages: As we mentioned previously, the journal-adaptation passage format was steadily increasing in frequency on the old Biological Sciences section. On MCAT-2015, this approach has taken over the science sections almost completely, as shown in the table below:

Passage Type Old MCAT MCAT-2015

Lab Manual or

Textbook Excerpt

BS = 40-70% BB = 0-20%

PS = 100% CP = 25-50%

Did not include a PsS section PsS = 0-20%

Journal Article

BS = 30-60% BB = 80-100%

PS = 0 % CP = 50-75%

Did not include a PsS section PsS = 80-100%


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What does the shift to journal adaptation passages mean for me? It means that more than ever before, to score well on the MCAT you must develop a talent for quickly and confidently analyzing dense journal adaptations and answering the AAMC question blueprints asked about those passages. These journal-adaptations always feature one or more of the following (sometimes all of them):

Challenging scientific language and vocabulary

Multiple acronyms to keep track of mentally (e.g., TNF-, CDKAL-1, ms2t6A)

Dense textual explanations of biochemical relationships or cascades. For example, the hypothetical language in the two examples below may sound like gibberish right now, but it is exactly what you’ll see on journal-adaptation passage types:

The t-2GAM regulator binds L2A in the presence of the -2g modulator, increasing transcription of the PARK-2 gene.

Protein C preferentially binds -2SDAP, an -CMG-1 agonist.

Challenging graphs and figures taken directly from the journal article. These often feature multiple axes and unfamiliar labeling or coding conventions. The MCAT-2015 graphs and figures are noticeably more difficult than the average figure found on the old MCAT exam. Consider the two examples given below:

3) The NEW Exhaustingly Long Test Day:

You are Preparing for a Mental Marathon: MCAT-2015 is anything but an academic sprint. It is a marathon in every sense of the word. In fact, top competitors can usually run a marathon in a little over two hours, so you could complete four marathons in the time it will take you to complete the MCAT-2015 exam. Okay, y-o-u probably couldn’t run four marathons in a row, but if your superhuman roommate could, he might beat you home from taking the MCAT!

You should plan to arrive at the testing center at least thirty minutes prior to your official start time. Given that check-in times can vary from a few minutes to thirty minutes or more, and adding in the actual seated time of 7.5 hours, you will be at the testing center for over eight full hours. With this in mind, an important part of your MCAT preparation must include purposely training yourself to sit in one place and study for increasingly longer periods of time. Do NOT study for twenty minutes, then call someone on your cell phone, then study for another fifteen


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minutes, and so on. Begin by studying for at least two hours at a time. As time goes on, study for three, four, or five hours in a single sitting. If you need to take breaks, strictly limit them to ten minutes, and only after a minimum of 95 minutes of continuous studying (to mimic the 95-minute length of most MCAT-2015 sections).

4) The new MCAT-2015 Scoring System

o THE GOOD NEWS: Most students are already familiar with the old scoring system of 1-15 per section, with a maximum composite score of 45 for three equally-weighted sections. The good news is, MCAT-2015 is still scored on a 15-point, standardized score scale.

o THE BAD NEWS: This 15-point scale does not start with the number one. In order to clearly differentiate old scores from new scores, the AAMC took the same 15-point scale and moved it up the number chain. This means the number of possible scores on a section, and the relative difference between scores is the same, but the score numbers themselves are entirely different—and entirely unfamiliar to pretty much everyone.

o SIDE-BY-SIDE COMPARISON: We think the easiest way to understand the new system is to compare it side-by-side with the old scoring system. Most of you are already familiar with the idea that a 15 on an MCAT section represents a perfect score, so feel free to understand the new system in terms of the old one:

Total Score

Percentile Rank

OLD MCAT MCAT‐2015

>99 42‐45 523‐528

99 38‐41 521‐522

97 36‐37 518‐519

95 35 515‐516

92 34 514

90 33 513

85 31 510

75 30 507

65 28 504

50 25 500

Section Score

OLD MCAT MCAT‐2015

15 132

14 131

13 130

12 129

11 128

10 127

9 126

8 125

7 124

6 123

5 122

4 121

3 120

2 119

1 118


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Understanding the Exam: What MCAT-2015 is NOT

o MCAT-2015 is NOT a plug and chug exam. Altius has thoroughly analyzed every official question published by the AAMC over the past twenty years. Only about 5% of the exam questions can be classified as calculation-based. This does not mean you won’t need to know the pertinent formulas and how to solve them. Getting that 5% of questions correct is absolutely necessary if you want to earn a great score. It does mean that you should focus primarily on the conceptual questions that make up the overwhelming majority of the exam. Your ability to analyze, visualize and synthesize concepts will always be far more important than your ability to compute. One of the Altius mantras you will hear throughout the program is:

Don’t Memorize, Conceptualize!

We are also fond of reminding our students that on MCAT-2015:

How You Think ≫What You Know

Both of these important mantras emphasize that while questions which require factual recall or plug-n-chug calculation will absolutely appear on your exam, it is extremely important to keep these question types in perspective. Nearly ninety percent of the exam will be conceptual in nature, so you must allocate your study time accordingly. Given the strange departure of the PsS section, it would qualify as a partial exception to this rule. On the PsS section only you are far more likely to be rewarded for memorization.

o MCAT-2015 is NOT a test you can do well on just because you received an “A” in all your science classes. The MCAT tests an entirely different skill set. Most intelligent students can earn an “A” in college-level science courses by memorizing and cramming. Honestly, did you remember what was on your first organic chemistry exam two months after you took it?

For MCAT-2015, the bar has been risen. You will need to understand the basic sciences at a deeper, more conceptual level. You will also need to recall all of the major concepts from organic chemistry, plus all of the concepts from biochemistry, plus all of the concepts from general chemistry, plus all of the concepts from physics, plus all of the concepts from biology, plus all of the concepts from psychology, plus all of the concepts from sociology (and do so all at once), all for a single exam. Think of MCAT-2015 as a comprehensive final covering your entire college science career, but in a conceptual, critical-thinking way that is unlike how your professors have been testing you previously.

Does this intimidate you? If it does, it shouldn’t. Remember that Altius students have already been destroying this new exam. However, it should give you a healthy level of respect for the MCAT, whether you are a straight-A student or someone who barely passed the pre-requisites. Ironically, the MCAT is an equalizer. Our internal research has shown that program adherence and overall discipline are much better predictors of MCAT-2015 score than any measure of previous academic achievement. Be confident. The Altius system has been pumping out 90th percentile scores at FIVE to EIGHT TIMES the national average, and 99th percentile scores at about TEN TIMES the national average, for over a decade. Our systems work seamlessly on MCAT-2015 because—as we’ll say one more time—the exam itself hasn’t changed. During the 2015-16 cycle, students who completed all aspects of the Altius MCAT Mentoring Program averaged a 515.1 on MCAT-2015. That is approximately the 95th percentile, and it is only the average score. If you are committed to logging the study hours necessary, if you are willing to accept correction and learn from your tutor-mentor and others, if you will determine this very moment that you will do everything this program asks of you—then you have absolutely nothing to worry about. Follow the Altius System with exactness and you will earn an incredible score on the new MCAT-2015 exam!

IMPORTANT NOTE We cannot overemphasize that the crux of the MCAT—what really matters—did NOT change in 2015. Clearly, there are changes from the old form to the new one: it is longer, it now tests biochemistry, and there is a new PsS section. Those, however, are changes to CONTENT, not changes to SUBSTANCE. In fact, the way in which the AAMC authors present questions, and the unique flavor of critical thinking required to perform well on those questions, is simply a continuation of what the MCAT has been for the past decade.


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o MCAT-2015 is NOT a test on which you can earn an average score by putting forth an average amount of effort. Students who put forth an average or mediocre effort usually score below the national average. The national average is a 500. With a score of 500, a student has no chance of being accepted to an MD school, and almost no chance of being accepted to a DO school. For most students, it will require a diligent effort just to earn an average MCAT score. A truly exceptional effort is required to earn a score in the 90th percentile or above—which is about where you need to be to be truly competitive at most MD schools.

Understanding the Exam: What MCAT-2015 IS

o MCAT-2015 is a test that focuses primarily on the conceptual understanding of basic science principles. You will still need to know a few formulas, but you should always focus on understanding why and how things happen, rather than just committing to memory that they do. If your tutor ever teaches you something without explaining the why and how behind it, ask that they go back and explain it. Remember: Don’t Memorize, Conceptualize!

o MCAT-2015 is a very difficult test if you do not have the correct focus, adequate preparation, and tremendous self-discipline. Ask around and you’ll find many intelligent students who took the MCAT expecting to do well, but who were severely humbled. Altius will give you all of the tools you need to earn a top score, but you must do Y-O-U-R part.

1) Accept the advice given in the Student Study Manual, in the Weekly Strategy Sessions, and by your tutor-mentor. Listen. Be humble. Work hard to apply these principles and best practices.

2) Do not pick and choose from among the strategies, activities, and program assignments. We can only assure you of success if you adhere to every aspect of this proven program. That point is so vital, it bears repeating: We can only assure you of success if you adhere to every aspect of this proven program. If you do anything less, you are basically making up your own program; and we have no way of knowing what the outcome will be.

3) Be 100% disciplined. We all procrastinate and lose focus. However, during these next few months you must find a way to overcome this common shortcoming. If your MCAT studies don’t interfere with other aspects of your life, if you aren’t studying to the point that you get very tired of studying, then you are probably not doing enough. This is not the season of life to seek perfect social and academic balance. The MCAT is sufficiently challenging, and the required study time is sufficiently large, to merit you placing other priorities on hold for a while to give MCAT-2015 your full attention. Don’t compare what you’re doing to what others are doing. You should expect to work much harder than your friends taking other prep courses. After all, you are planning to score much higher than your friends taking other prep courses!

o With the proven Altius system, extremely high MCAT scores are within anyone’s reach. The average among students who complete the Altius MCAT program has consistently been a 90th percentile score or above. An exceptional effort from an intelligent Altius student with a solid science background will always result in a score in this range. Each year, Altius students earn scores in the 99th percentile and above at a per capita rate that is several times higher than the national averages. Such a score is within the reach of any Altius student if they are willing to: 1) dedicate the necessary time and effort, and 2) faithfully complete EVERYTHING the Altius program asks of them. Many, many Altius students have done it in the past. Why not you?

The 90/10 Rule:

o In the opening pages of this manual, we first introduced you to the 90/10 Rule. Restated simply, 90% of the questions you will face on the MCAT will require conceptual thinking, reading comprehension, logical inference, analysis, or synthesis of information, and only 10% of the questions you will face will require memorized vocabulary, background knowledge, formulas, or calculations. Because we believe it is so essential to your ability to earn a high score, we will now discuss The 90/10 Rule again in greater depth—and will continue to discuss and emphasize it throughout the course. [NOTE: The PsS divergence into QB31 will cause a noticeable uptick in the number of questions requiring memorization, but this will be isolated to the PsS section only. Even with the abundance of QB31 question blueprints, the PsS section is still 60-70% conceptual.]


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o The Average MCAT-2015 Passage: To set the stage for the importance of The 90/10 Rule, let’s take a look at the anatomy of the average MCAT-2015 passage.

OBSCURE PASSAGE TOPICS: On the BB and CP sections, most of the passages you encounter will discuss obscure science topics that are clearly beyond the scope of sophomore-level science classes. Examples of such passages include: “Characterization of the -241 Immunoregulatory Protein in Murine Models,” “The Sexual-Asexual Poly-Life Cycle of the South-African Red Spore Fungus,” or “A Schematic Electrochemical Model of Axonal Transmembrane Conductance.” These topics can seem very intimidating to students at first glance. Fortunately, however, they never—we repeat, never—require prior knowledge of these obscure subjects. The MCAT authors present these passages to evaluate how well you can apply basic science concepts. Although the passage examples just described may sound intense, these passages were only testing simple science concepts such as: proteins, the central dogma, mitosis, meiosis, Mendelian genetics, electrical circuits, and osmosis.

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE TOPICS OUTSIDE YOUR COMFORT ZONE: On the PsS section you will encounter passages that are obscure for completely different reasons. Only 5-10% of the PsS passages are likely to match the scientific complexity of a CP or BB passage. Most PsS passages will be about sociology or psychology experiments that sound tame by comparison. Examples of such passages include: “The Effect of Stereotype Threat on Women,” “Why African-American Males Visit the Doctor Less Frequently,” or “Memory Recall Tests Before and After Head Trauma.” The challenge presented by this kind of passage is that it will force you well outside of your normal “science student” comfort zone. Speaking definitively about theoretical perspectives, Freudian thought regarding sexual repression, or seven different psychologists who all have a different theory of motivation, can be uncomfortable for many premeds.

JOURNAL-ADAPTED ARTICLES: As described earlier, this is the future of the MCAT and all indications are that this passage type will only become more and more frequent. Already, it would not be surprising if on test day 100% of your BB passages, and perhaps 80-90% of your CP passages, were adapted from actual experiments published in peer-reviewed journals.

COMPETING THEORIES OR EXPERIMENTS: This passage type presents two or more competing theories, hypotheses, or experiments. These passages are very similar to CAR passages and focus primarily on your ability to understand, contrast, and evaluate the two theories. Questions often ask things such as: “Which of the findings from the passage most strongly supports the Induction Hypothesis of embryological development?” or “Which finding, if true, would most WEAKEN the hypothesis that the PARK-3 gene is necessary for decreased dopamine production and PD onset?”

LAB OR TEXTBOOK EXTRACTS: As noted previously, while this passage type is decreasing in frequency, you will still encounter some of these passages on MCAT-2015. These passages could be seen as much as 50% of the time on CP, but somewhere closer to 25% is more likely. They will only appear on the BB section occasionally, and you shouldn’t be surprised if your actual MCAT exam doesn’t include any of these easier-to-read textbook-like passages.

STORY PASSAGES: Reasonably considered outliers, this is a rare passage type that is very conversational in tone and usually tells the story of a character such as John or Mary. The passage may describe the daily activities or health concerns of the character, or some significant biological, psychological, or sociological event of interest in their lives. Leading up to the MCAT-2015 transition, these were already rare, occurring at a rate of 1-2%. Therefore, you can imagine our surprise when two of them showed up on the Official MCAT-2015 Sample Exam. We do not believe this unusual distribution is representative of MCAT-2015 as a whole. We do not see any benefit to giving special attention to this rare passage type, but mention it here so that you won’t be surprised if you happen to see one on test day. After speaking to the initial round of MCAT-2015 examinees, most students reported seeing none of these “story-like” passages, while a few students recalled that they “might” have had one, but weren’t sure.


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o The Average MCAT-2015 Question: Next, let’s discuss the most common MCAT-2015 question types that will accompany the passages we just described.

The most common MCAT question type is QB1: “Make A Prediction” This is the same question blueprint described previously, which requires the examinee to make a prediction about a reaction product, physiological change, or other outcome, based only on basic science knowledge. You will encounter this question frequently, about 1 out of every 10 questions.

The second-most common MCAT question type is QB2: “Application of Conceptual Knowledge to a Real-Life Scenario.” This question blueprint tests subjects you have probably heard about before, but tests them at a deeper, more conceptual level. Memorized knowledge never suffices on this question type, as critical thinking and solid understanding is always required. Example of such stems include: “What is the principle quantum number of the orbital from which electrons are removed when Mg(s) becomes Mg2+(aq)?" or "At a certain point, 75% of the crotonic acid in solution is deprotonated. At which point in the following titration curves could this ratio of molecules be found?" This is where reliance on memorization will come back to haunt you and do serious damage to your score. You may have memorized the quantum numbers and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, but they will be of no use to you here. To answer confidently, you will need to understand at a subatomic and molecular level what is actually going on in these real-life scenarios.

The third-most common MCAT question type is QB3: “Present New or Advanced Information & Test Understanding.” This question blueprint will feature question stems such as: “When performing a CT scan, the diagnostician can fine-tune which variable?" or “Based on passage information, the best method for preventing the effects of BH2 blockers is:” Such questions are clearly not on the MCAT topics list. The MCAT-2015 authors do not expect you to know anything about the actual technical specifications of a CT scan, or how to inhibit the deleterious effects of BH2 blockers. However, they do expect that when presented with new or advanced information in the passage you will be able to digest the information provided and make reasonable conclusions or connections.

An increasingly common MCAT question on MCAT-2015 will be QB4: “Draw a Conclusion from Passage Data.” This question type will require you to analyze a graph, diagram, or figure, and form a conclusion based on that data. This question was asked on the older MCAT form, but is increasing in frequency on MCAT-2015. Common stems may include: “Based on Figure 1, which conclusion is most reasonable regarding the influence of Drug A on hemophilia?” or “The results of Experiment 1 suggest which relationship between TNF- and macrophage function?”

Another common MCAT question is QB6: “Explain Why.” This question type asks you to explain why something happens. “Which of the following best explains the observation that humans cannot digest the beta-glycosidic linkages in cellulose, but can digest the beta-glycosidic linkages in lactose?” or “The sRNA molecule in Experiment 2 binds with less affinity than the nucleotide model synthesized in the lab. Which statement best explains the increased binding strength of the synthetic RNA?” Expect to see QB6 several times on each section. The observation you are asked to explain could be stated directly in the question stem, or may have been explained only in the passage. These observations are rarely something with which you would be familiar. Instead, they require you to use your basic understanding of science to explain why something happens, more or less on the spot.

Another common question type is QB7: “Why a Specific Tool, Step, or Reagent?” This question type is likely to ask something like: “The researcher most likely separated the bacterial cultures following Step 2, because:” or “The purpose of acidification prior to addition of the inhibitor was to:” These questions require you to explain the specific purpose for conducting an experimental procedure or step, for selecting one reagent or compound over another, or for reporting data via one particular type of graph or data output.

OTHER BLUEPRINTS: For now, we want you to focus heavily on the most-frequent question blueprints outlined above. The Altius algorithmic tool revealed a total of forty (40) statistically significant recurring question types for the BB and CP sections and twenty (20) CAR question blueprints. We will eventually expose you to all of these question blueprints during your time in the program. The PsS section uses twenty-seven blueprints, all of which are shared in common with the BB and CP sections. The number of question types is lower for PsS because the skills or topics tested by some hard science question types, such as mathematical calculations, reaction mechanisms, or the manipulation of equations, are not used in psychology or sociology.


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o Use these valuable insights to improve your MCAT performance! Given the above insights into the most common MCAT passage formats, and the most common MCAT question types, the importance of the 90/10 Rule becomes even more clear. When you are asked “If the student had conducted Experiment 1 in a vacuum, what changes would have been observed in the results?” there are no vocabulary terms, facts, or formulas you could have memorized from physics that would help you answer the question. You are entirely dependent on your conceptual understanding of those forces that influence the motion of an object, your understanding of vacuum conditions, and your ability to synthesize those concepts to make an accurate prediction. Similar realities apply to the other question types presented above. In other words, for 90% of the questions, you will be entirely dependent on your ability to: read and comprehend the passage, read and interpret graphs and diagrams, abstract information from charts, apply new information or experimental results to the present experiment and its conclusions, infer logical explanations for scientific observations, and make predictions based on new or changing parameters. Understanding these realities makes it abundantly clear why committing to memory every word from your prerequisite textbooks could still leave you woefully unprepared to succeed on MCAT-2015. We’ll say it once again: Don’t Memorize, CONCEPTUALIZE! Don’t focus too heavily on content, because: How You Think ≫What You Know!

o How Do I Study for the 10% (Knowledge-Memorization-Based) Portion of MCAT-2015?

To perform well on the 10% of the MCAT that tests background knowledge, formulas, calculations and the like, you will need to do the following:

1) Memorize, but use Elaborative Rehearsal when doing so. Yes, as much as we feel other programs hurt students by overemphasizing memorization, and as much as we try to refocus you on conceptual thinking instead, you still need to commit some things to memory. Focusing solely on memorization would result in a terrible score, but memorizing nothing would also result in a poor score. There are several questions on each exam for which you would have very little hope of getting the correct answer if you did not remember the pertinent equation, or did not understand basic science vocabulary. Spend whatever time is necessary to commit to memory all pertinent facts, formulas and vocabulary terms highlighted in the Altius Student Study Manual. Your efforts to learn facts and formulas will be greatly reduced if you engage in Semantic Processing and Elaborative Rehearsal—two concepts explained in the Psychology 1 chapter of this manual. Particularly important information and equations are listed in bold italics—be absolutely sure you have these mastered. Fortunately, Altius asks you to memorize far less than most MCAT prep programs.

2) Practice Skill-Based Problems Repeatedly: A certain sub-set of MCAT-2015 questions are highly-conserved from one question to another. Essentially, they are testing a basic skill or problem-solving requirement. Examples of skill-based questions include such things as: manipulating equations, performing mole-to-mole conversions, reading organic chemistry spectra, assigning R/S designations, solving lens problems, and so forth. As you encounter these question types during the program, practice them with your tutor-mentor until they become second-nature.

These skill-based question types require repetitive practice. Too many students assume that because they can perform one mole-to-mole conversion, they will automatically be able to perform a mole-to-mole conversion on the exam. Add in the stress of the exam, limited timing, and a question that is presented in a slightly different way than the few you practiced, and your risk of missing a relatively easy skill-based question increases significantly. To prevent this, you must repetitively practice such problems over and over until they become second-nature. As you encounter skill-based questions during the program, practice them with your tutor-mentor until you can solve at least twenty problems in a row without making an error. This will be a solid indicator that you are ready to perform at a high-level on such questions at that moment. Remember, however, that your accuracy and skill will decrease over time. Therefore, you must include regular repetition to reinforce those skills. The multiple opportunities for repetition integrated into the Altius program are the ideal way to ensure repetitive practice. We have intentionally designed the program so that you will see skill-based problems in the manual, during tutoring, during SRS sessions, during Mastery Sessions, and so forth. All of this planned repetition will of course do you no good whatsoever if you do not attend the session. Decide this minute that there is never a good excuse for missing a Group Session, Student Review Session, Mastery Session, or Proctored Study Hall Session.


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o How Do I Study for the 90% (Conceptual/Critical-Thinking-Based Portion) of MCAT-2015?

To perform well on the 90% of the MCAT that tests conceptual thinking, reading comprehension, analysis, logic, etc., you will need to: 1) Master the Socratic Method, 2) Study Conceptually, 3) Become an MCAT author, 4) Take Classroom Sessions Seriously, and 5) Attend Student Review Sessions Regularly. Let’s examine each of these important components in more detail:

1) Master the Socratic Method: Later in this same chapter, we will describe how to use the Socratic Method. It is also the first of the Weekly Strategy Sessions. If you learn only one thing from the Altius program, learn to use the Socratic Method. The 90% question types on MCAT-2015 require certain kinds of conceptual thinking, such as analysis, comparison, contrast, evaluation, extrapolation, inference, and so forth. Proper use of the Socratic Method leads your brain naturally, almost automatically, into these exact avenues of thought. Use the Socratic Method on every single question on the MCAT and your score will increase tremendously. As with so many things, you cannot become proficient at using it just by reading about it. You will need to practice applying it over and over as you attempt questions—constantly evaluating how you can do it more effectively.

2) Study Conceptually: When you study the lesson outlines from the Student Study Manual your number one priority should be to understand the how and why behind each concept. This kind of knowledge does not come easily. You will need to invest a significant amount of time studying and researching each topic using the “Expensive Memory Principle Study Links.” As you do so, use the Four Conceptual Questions to guide you.

Four Questions that Test Conceptual Understanding: Ask yourself the following four questions about each topic or principle you study. If you can answer each question confidently for every line of every Altius lesson, then you will excel at the conceptual aspects of the MCAT (in other words, 90% of this exam). We cannot overemphasize the importance of these four questions. Keep them close by every time you study and answer them thoroughly for every single topic in the Altius Student Study Manual.

1) Can I visualize it?

2) Can I draw a picture, graph, or diagram of it?

3) Can I explain it to someone else in layman’s terms?

4) Can I think of and describe real-life examples?

3) Become an MCAT Author: There is nothing that would be of greater value to the commander of an army than to have his opponent’s battle plan. In a similar way, there are few things that will benefit you more in terms of earning a high MCAT score than being able to confidently break down, analyze, understand and reproduce the exact “battle plan” used by the authors who create the MCAT. As we attempt real AAMC questions during the Group Sessions, we will point out common MCAT trends, question designs, passage types, and so forth. This will be no substitute, however, for analyzing each passage and question you attempt and drawing up your own “MCAT Battle Plan.”

To Become an MCAT Author means to analyze, evaluate and categorize each real AAMC question you attempt until you can confidently reproduce your own practice questions—questions that are near-perfect replicas of a real AAMC question in terms of style, content, difficulty, design, and delivery. We promise you that if you can develop that skill the MCAT will suddenly open up to you. Your confidence will soar. You will not be intimidated because you can see and predict exactly what the MCAT authors are going to do. For example, for a student who has taken the advice to Become an MCAT Author, our strong emphasis of the 90/10 Rule would not even be necessary. Through the process of Becoming an MCAT Author, this student would have already recognized the approximate 90/10 distribution of each question type for themselves.


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The MCAT Journal: Each Altius student is encouraged to regularly maintain an MCAT Journal. Keeping this journal will allow you to systematically move toward “Becoming an MCAT Author” in an organized way. In this journal, each student will take careful notes on MCAT trends, passage types, question types, question and passage design, and so forth. Always have your journal with you during Group Sessions so that you can immediately note observations from the MCAT questions you are attempting.

We suggest that you separate your journal into multiple sections. For example, you will want to have a section on “Passage Types.” In this section you would make a small note about the basic characteristics of each passage you attempt during Group Session. What was the topic of the passage? How was the information presented? Were equations included? What about charts, graphs, diagrams, flow-charts, or mechanisms? Was the passage difficult, moderate, or easy? Was the topic something most premeds would be familiar with, or did the authors intend it to cover new territory? Another logical section would be one on “Question Types.” In this section you would take notes on the format, design, and difficulty of each question. It would be a very wise idea to track the occurrence of the most frequent question blueprints. As your journal of observations grows, begin looking for trends. For example, how frequently do they ask a question about graphs when one is included in the passage? What types of questions are commonly asked about graphs? A third section might be focused on “Types of Question Stems” and a fourth section on “Types of Answer Choices.” You will discover clear, repeatable trends in the way the AAMC authors phrase or organize question stems, answer choices, and nearly every other aspect of the exam.

As you synthesize all of this information, use it to write your own AAMC-style MCAT questions that are as close to the real thing as possible. Recall that you should be writing ten (10) of your own AAMC-style MCAT questions each week: five science questions, plus five CAR questions. Writing these questions in your journal will make it easy to share them with your tutor and with other students. Seek regular feedback from both your tutor and the members of your SRS Group on the quality of the AAMC questions you are writing. Do your questions match the tone, style, format, and feeling of the real AAMC questions you have seen previously?

4) Take Classroom Sessions SERIOUSLY: This includes Group Sessions, Mastery Sessions, and Proctored Study Hall Sessions. These interactive group components are one of your greatest tools in mastering the 90% question type. First, attend every single session offered at your program level—without exception. Second, attend every session with an aggressive attitude that you are there to learn as much as humanly possible, within that short time frame, about yourself and about the exam. As you faithfully maintain your MCAT Journal, you will have several items you know you want to focus on and try to improve. For example, you may have noted over the last few sessions that you tend to miss questions that involve the introduction of new information within the question stem. As a result, you may have spoken with the proctor or with your tutor about possible ways to improve and, hopefully, have been carefully observing other students in the group who tend to answer these questions correctly. You might have also noted that you tend not to read the passages carefully enough to tease out the necessary information. As you attack the practice problems presented on this particular day, you have a few specific things in the forefront of your mind to focus on. This should always be the case. Begin every session with a specific goal in mind. Isolate one particular strategy, skill, problem, or error and attack it during that session.

As you analyze the practice MCAT-2015 questions presented during these sessions, don’t allow yourself—or other students—to flippantly gloss over a question, answer, explanation, or strategy. Simply explaining how to answer the question correctly is far from sufficient. For each question, the group should discuss questions such as these:

In what unique or characteristic way was the question written?

What did the question author intend to evaluate/test?

What approach or strategy was necessary to reach the correct answer?

What aspect of the question made it most difficult?

How is this question similar to other questions we have attempted previously?


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5) Attend Student Review Sessions (SRS) Regularly: You have been assigned to a small Student Review Session (SRS) Group consisting of three to five students. You are to meet with your SRS Group a minimum of one time for each chapter of the Student Study Manual. Prior to that SRS meeting, you should have divided up the content from a previous chapter into equal sections and assigned each member a section. During the SRS meeting, take turns teaching each other your assigned parts. The ability to teach a topic to others at a deep, conceptual level is indicative of having attained one of the highest degrees of true conceptual mastery.

Meeting with your SRS Group at least one time per chapter is the minimum expectation. However, the most successful students make the members of their SRS Group their go-to study partners. We suggest you study together as an SRS group as often as possible.

The Altius MCAT-2015 program was designed to deliver as many spaced repetitions, in as many scientifically-proven learning environments, as is reasonably possible in a four- to six-month time span. If you are always attending Group Sessions, Mastery Sessions, Proctored Study Hall Sessions, and SRS Groups, you are getting an unparalleled level of problem-based experience and repetition. All that being said, there is a point at which we can do little more than provide you with the opportunity to succeed.

The ULTIMATE responsibility for your MCAT-2015 score rests with you.

You must study on your own. You must show up at every course activity. You must be disciplined enough to make yourself do things that you may not want to do. SRS Group meetings are particularly easy to neglect because they are the only portion of the program that is not directly scheduled and proctored by Altius staff. Nevertheless, meeting regularly with your SRS group is one of the most beneficial aspects of the Altius program. These meetings will provide you with “Teaching Repetition.” Repetition of a concept by teaching it to others is the most powerful semantic processing activity in which you can engage.


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o EXAMPLES OF THE 10% AND 90% QUESTION TYPES: The two sample MCAT-2015 questions that follow are excellent examples of the 10% and 90% question types, respectively. These two questions would likely appear with a passage describing a titration performed as part of an experiment that was reported in a journal article. The passage would most likely include charts, graphs and tabulated results from each trial.

o MEMORIZATION IS NEVER ENOUGH ON MCAT-2015! As you can see from the above examples, knowing formulas and calculations may be necessary, but understanding concepts is far more important. You could memorize every single word from the acid/base chapter of your chemistry textbook and still be unable to answer Question #2. That is why we say:

Don’t Memorize, CONCEPTUALIZE!

Sample MCAT Questions

1) If the student conducting Trial 1 noted the original concentration of hydronium ions to be 2.0 x 10-4 M, what is the concentration of hydroxide ions in the same solution?

A) 1.0 x 10-14 M B) 2.0 x 10-11 M C) 5.0 x 10-11 M D) 3.0 x 10-7 M

Solution: The product of [H+][OH-] always equals 1.0 x 10-14. Note that a hydronium ion is H3O+, but is equivalent to H+. To get the [OH-] simply divide 1.0 x 10-14 by the [H+], 2.0 x 10-4, to get Answer C. This is a 10% question type.

2) The titrant used in Trial 3 has a vapor pressure very near atmospheric pressure. What effect might this have on the students’ calculated molar concentration for Sample 2?

A) It would have no effect, because vapor pressure is independent of titration volume. B) The students’ estimated concentration would be too high. C) The students’ estimated concentration would be too low. D) The students’ estimated concentration would be equal to the vapor pressure.

Solution: Because the vapor pressure is near atmospheric pressure we know the titrant is a very volatile liquid almost ready to boil. Thus, many molecules will be escaping into the gas phase, decreasing the amount available to react. The student may have calculated that he or she added 1.0 moles of titrant, but subtracting that which evaporated before it could react, fewer than 1.0 moles of titrant were actually available to react with the analyte. The student will use the stoichiometric point to determine that the number of moles of titrant added equals the number of moles of analyte in the sample. This estimate will be too high because some of the titrant evaporated—making Answer B correct. This is a 90% question type.


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Altius MCAT Strategy

Make Strategy a Priority:

o WHAT IS GOOD FOR YOU ISN’T ALWAYS EASY: It seems to be human nature to avoid or dislike strategy. When we speak of MCAT strategy we aren’t discussing the gimmicks the big-box prep companies propose for “gaming the test.” You cannot earn a top-notch MCAT-2015 score through tricks or gimmicks. The MCAT is a well-written test that requires superb conceptual mastery of basic science as well as excellent critical thinking skills. When test day arrives, you will either have those skills or you will not, and your score will reflect those facts.

The strategies we emphasize at Altius are more akin to “Best Practices,” or “Fundamentals.” Athletic coaches across the world are constantly trying to get their players to buy-in to the importance of good fundamentals. Fundamentals are proven best practices basic to the successful execution of a particular sport or player position. They include practices such as a quarterback always setting his feet before throwing the football, or a basketball player squaring her elbow before shooting. Great players perfect these fundamentals, while many mediocre players do not. Athletes will often claim, “This is how I’ve always shot the ball, it works for me.” It may indeed be how you have always shot the ball in the past, but it only “works for you” if you accept mediocrity; if you accept the fact that you will never realize your full potential.

Fundamentals are tried and proven methods that improve performance. While raw talent can carry someone a long way, talent plus excellent fundamentals will always carry an athlete further. Ask yourself this question:

Q: When is a high-caliber athlete most likely to throw that rare interception, or miss that shot they’ve made a hundred times?

A: When that star athlete neglects the fundamentals.

This is the kind of thing that drives coaches crazy! Too many games are lost because of a failure to execute basic fundamentals. Don’t “lose” the MCAT game because of poor form, or bad habits. Make it a top priority to understand and implement every strategy we teach you.

As you read the strategies that follow, commit yourself to implement them during the next Group Session, or while attempting the next Question Set. If you ever encounter a strategy that does not make sense to you, please discuss it with your tutor. The worst thing you can do is dismiss the strategy because you do not understand it. We fully acknowledge that some strategies can seem overly simple at first glance. Others can sound like a real pain to implement on every single question. All we can say is this: “Please trust us.” These strategies are the antidote for the bad habits that perpetually cause students to miss questions they ought to have answered correctly. Each strategy has been born out of watching thousands of bright, intelligent students make unnecessary mistakes. Adhering to the strategies outlined below will help you earn several additional points on the MCAT that you will NOT earn if you take this aspect of your preparation lightly.

Treat strategy like any other subject you need to master. Take regular notes on how well you are applying strategies, or on specific questions you missed because you failed to apply a strategy. Keep these notes in your MCAT Journal and remind yourself to focus on improving in these areas the next time you attempt practice questions.


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The Altius Timing System for MCAT-2015: The most important of ALL strategies!

o TIMING IS KING: If your timing is off, nothing else matters. Poor timing will kill your MCAT-2015 score. Students who allow their timing to get off-track on the actual exam can see precipitous drops of ten or more points from their practice exams. This past year, we saw the most precipitous drop we’ve ever seen by an Altius student. A young lady was earning 90% on most of her Question Sets and scoring in the 95th percentile on practice exams. She dropped by over twenty (20) points on test day. What happened? Thinking to herself, “This is the real thing, I’ve got to get this one right,” she took nearly double the time she had during practice to answer each question. As time ticked down, she was frantically clicking radio buttons on every section. Please learn from her misfortune; practice your timing diligently and force yourself to maintain those patterns on test day.

FACT: When you feel rushed, you become frantic. Research has shown that in this frantic state brain wave activity becomes randomized, making recall nearly impossible.

TIMING DEVICES: Wristwatches and timing devices are NOT allowed. There will be a count-down timer on the computer screen.

FAULTY MCAT STRATEGIES: Many prep companies have popularized timing strategies that are simply counterproductive and do NOT work.

Never do the stand-alone questions first. Do everything in the order in which it appears.

Never read the questions before reading the passage. Read the passage first, following our instructions, and then attempt the questions.

Never skim through the passages, trying to decide which ones are most difficult, so that you can do the easier ones first. Attempt the passages in the order presented, beginning to end.

What is probably the most widely-used MCAT prep book in the country suggests the above method, noting that: “Some MCAT passages are not intended to be attempted because the test makers intentionally make some passages too hard for anyone to successfully complete.” That is absolute nonsense. Not only is this a false premise—as demonstrated by Altius students who regularly score well on every single passage and earn 99th percentile scores—but it is depressing. What effect does it have on your psyche to be told by those who are supposed to be helping you that, “You cannot do some passages; they are just too hard for you.” We are confident that with adequate preparation and wise application of strategy, you can score well on any MCAT-2015 passage the AAMC happens to throw at you.

TIMING RULES: SCIENCE SECTIONS = CP, BB & PsS

o FANTASTIC NEWS! Limited timing has always been a major hurdle to students taking the MCAT. The old MCAT form had a very strict timing scheme, giving students barely more than one minute to read a complex science passage. MCAT-2015 gives you CONSIDERABLY MORE TIME to read each passage. This has a significant impact on passage timing and should result in students being able to show their true abilities under a less-stressful time crunch. That said, it is still a strictly timed test and you will have to be nearly perfect at monitoring your pacing.

o Timing Rule #1: Spend a total of eight (8) minutes per passage on the science sections: CP, BB and PsS. This includes the time needed to read the passage and the time you spend answering the questions. Here is a summary of the important characteristics of each section and passage, and how these factors dictate this allocation of timing:

There are always ten (10) Passages per science section You are given ninety-five (95) minutes to complete each science section Fifteen (15) minutes should be reserved to answer exactly fifteen (15) stand-alone questions Eighty (80) minutes are therefore available to complete all ten (10) passages 80/10 = 8 minutes per passage

o Timing Rule #2: Spend exactly one (1) minute on every question, whether passage-based or stand-alone.


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o Timing Rule #3: Spend three minutes reading and analyzing each science passage. Nearly every MCAT-2015 passage will have either four (4) or five (5) accompanying questions. Passages with six (6) questions do appear, but are quite rare. If the passage you are attempting has only four questions, you will technically have one extra minute available that you could spend analyzing the passage. If the passage has five (5) questions, you will have exactly five minutes to attempt those five questions, after having spent three minutes reading the passage. If you happen upon a passage with six (6) questions, you will have either slightly less time to read the passage, or slightly less than one minute per question. Regardless of the number of questions presented, you should spend a total of eight (8) minutes per passage. This is easy to remember and allows you to consistently stay on course throughout the exam. As you prepare for the MCAT, try to get a natural feel for what 1-minute and 8-minute time periods “feel like.”

o Timing Rule #4: Always maintain a timing chart on your scratch paper throughout the exam; use it every single time, period. The cost-benefit analysis (or if you prefer, the risk-reward ratio) for getting off track on your timing is grossly skewed. If you lose track of your timing, your chances of scoring well on MCAT-2015 is close to zero. Losing track of your pacing will cause you to miss several questions that you absolutely would have answered correctly had you remained on track. Avoiding such a disaster is the benefit of perfecting your timing. What is the cost? Almost nothing. To maintain a timing chart, you must first determine to do so. Next, you must form the habit of using a timing chart throughout the program. Third, you must take approximately three to five seconds at the end of each passage or stand-alone set to update your timing chart. No cost, high risk of disaster if you do not, huge benefits and rewards if you do. This is a no brainer.

At the beginning of each science section, write the total time available on your scratch paper. That is 95 minutes for CP, BB or PsS. The timer on the AAMC software does not list total minutes, it lists the time remaining in the hours:minutes format. Thus, you’ll need to get used to dealing with numbers like 1:35 (the start time) and 1:27 (what the timer should say at the end of the first passage).

MAINTAINING YOUR TIMING CHART:

1) Begin the exam by writing down 1:35. This is the total time allotted for a science section. Next, but still before the exam begins, cross out this number and subtract eight from it. Write the answer below the first number. This is what the on-screen timer should say at the END of the first passage. If, at any time while attempting the first passage, you wish to check your time, simply glance at the paper and then at the on-screen timer.

2) After completing the first passage, click the “Next” button to determine if your next task will be a passage or a stand-alone set.

3) If a passage is presented next, subtract eight from the current number and cross out the upper number. This is the time the on-screen timer should read AFTER you complete this passage. If the next task is a stand-alone set, subtract 3 if there are three questions in the set, and 4 if there are four questions in the set. This is what the on-screen timer should read AFTER you complete the stand-alone set.

4) REPEAT this process until the exam is complete.

An example of a timing chart is given below. The notes in parentheses are to emphasize that you write down the time at which you should finish the current passage PRIOR to starting that passage.

Sample Science Section Timing Chart

Time progression

1:35 (start time) 1:35 1:35

1:27 (note before 1st passage) 1:27 1:27

1:19 (before 2nd passage) 1:19

1:15 (before 4 stand-alones)

NOTE: The labels in parentheses are for illustration purposes only; you would not actually write these on your timing chart. The columns are also for illustrating how to maintain the chart as the exam progresses; you will build your timing chart downward in a single column.


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o Timing Rule #5: Do NOT go over your assigned time limit on any question, period. On all sections, CP, BB, CAR and PsS, you have approximately one minute per question. Practice timing during every Group Session, Mastery Session, Practice Exam and Question Set with the express purpose of developing an intuition for what a one-minute time period feels like. Even with a timing chart, if you go way over the limit on a single question or passage, all the timing chart will do for you is verify how truly terrible your circumstance has become: “Wow, I am seven minutes behind, that is almost one entire passage!” Making up time on the MCAT is an awful and dangerous task. Most people who fall behind never get caught up again. Avoid this problem by being absolute in your commitment to MOVE ON when one minute is up, even if you are still unsure of the correct answer. Make an educated guess and move on.

REMEMBER: Moving on before successfully answering a single question costs you one point. Falling behind on your timing will cost you dozens of points.

Beta Questions: We include this note regarding beta questions here because it further illustrates the importance of sticking to Timing Rule #5. Beta questions are questions included in the MCAT exam which have not been officially approved for use. They are being tried out to see how students score on them and to reveal any potential bias or errata. On any real MCAT there will be both individual beta questions and entire beta passages. Beta questions are not scored—you do not miss a point if you answer incorrectly, but you do not earn a point if you answer correctly either. Imagine this futility: You spend a considerable amount of extra time on one difficult, puzzling passage. This causes you to fall behind on your timing and negatively impacts your performance on the entire section. Unknown to you, the entire passage is a beta passage. Even if you answered every question correctly in the end (after ruining your score on the entire section in the attempt), none of it counts. After the exam, the AAMC looks at the data and sees that most students unreasonably struggled too, and they permanently discard the passage. The presence of numerous beta questions on each exam form almost guarantees that this very scenario happens to test takers all the time, entirely unbeknownst to them.

How many of these beta questions are included in each test? The AAMC may have revealed the answer—perhaps even unwittingly—in an older version of The Official Guide to the MCAT. In this book they clearly documented that they do use beta questions and that they are not scored. They provided a comparison between the raw scores of students in their first attempt of the MCAT and on a retake. The highest raw score listed was 38. There were 52 questions on this old form of the exam. What happened to those 14 questions? One might assume that higher raw scores aren’t included because no one who earned a raw score above 38 retook the exam. However, the charts on the following pages displayed the same relationship between take-retake scores from the same survey, but use the scaled scores 1-15 instead. There were several people who received a 15 on that section and did retake the test. It is impossible that they earned a raw score of 38/52 and received a scaled score of 15. Therefore, the 14 missing questions must be accounted for by the difference between the actual raw score, and the actual raw score that counted toward the score after beta questions were removed.

Remember this little caveat about beta questions. It should overwhelmingly convince every student that sticking to your timing chart and never going over the time-limit on any one question is the only sane thing to do. Furthermore, it also speaks to the need to stay calm and never allow yourself to get rattled by a difficult question or passage. That one passage that is so frustrating may not even count toward your score. Nevertheless, such a beta passage can and will impact your score if you allow it to shake your confidence or disrupt your timing.

TIMING RULES: CRITICAL ANALYSIS & REASONING SECTION = CAR

o TIMING ADAPTATIONS FOR THE CAR SECTION: The CAR section follows the same basic timing principles, but features slightly different numbers because the CAR section has a different number of total questions and passages, and does NOT include stand-alone sets. Here are the general characteristics of the CAR section that dictate the most logical approach to timing:

There are always nine (9) passages per CAR section

You are given ninety (90) minutes to complete each CAR section

There are no stand-alone sets on the CAR section, so all available time is reserved for passages

90/9 = 10 minutes per passage


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QUESTION NUMBER VARIES: The number of questions on CAR passages varies. Passages can include five, six, or seven questions. The difference between reading a challenging passage and answering five questions, and reading the same passage and answering SEVEN questions, is quite large. The option exists to simply think of having an average of 10 minutes per passage, but then you lose the advantage of actually having extra time allotted (up to 11 minutes) when you face a passage with more questions. We have MCAT-2015 examples of very challenging passages that also have seven (7) very challenging questions. Looking at these passages specifically, we knew it would make a significant difference for an examinee to know they had eleven (11) full minutes to complete the passage. This led us to devise a variable timing system that allows you to use extra time when you need it.

o Timing Rule #1: The amount of time you will spend on each CAR passage is determined by the number of questions:

5 Questions = 9 MINUTES



This includes the time needed to read the passage and to answer the questions.

FINITE POSSIBILITIES: During our analysis of the CAR section we determined that because there are exactly 53 questions, there are only a few possible permutations of passages with 5, 6 or 7 questions that will add up to exactly 53 total questions. All of the possible arrangements are shown in the chart below. The three rows shaded in blue are the combinations you are most likely to see on your actual MCAT-2015 exam. The “Total Time Required” column represents the number of minutes utilized if one uses the variable 5/6/7 timing approach outlined above (9/10/11 minutes per question, respectively). As the table demonstrates, for any permutation of questions the AAMC throws at you, using this system will occupy 89 out of the total 90 minutes available.

Total Time Required (min)

Number of Questions on Each Passages

Total Questions

89 ‐ 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 53

89 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 53

89 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 53

89 7 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 53

89 7 7 7 7 ‐ 5 5 5 5 5 53

o Timing Rule #2: Spend exactly one (1) minute on every CAR question.

o Timing Rule #3: Spend four (4) minutes reading and analyzing each CAR passage. This is actually a significant amount of time to read a 500- to 650-word passage. On the old form of the MCAT you had to read the same challenging passages in about three minutes. During your CAR training, continue increasing your speed until you can read and understand the passage comfortably in about three minutes. Toward the end of your MCAT preparation, you can adjust upward to four minutes per passage and it will suddenly feel like you have a ton of time. If you only target four minutes and never get used to three minutes, four minutes will feel about the same as three. As long as you religiously end your passage reading period at four minutes, you will always have exactly one minute available per question, regardless of whether there are 5, 6 or 7 questions.


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o Timing Rule #4: Always maintain a timing chart on your scratch paper throughout the exam; use it every single time, period. We won’t rehash the cost-benefit analysis, but please, use a timing chart!

At the beginning of each section, write the total time available on your scratch paper. That is 90 minutes for the CAR section. The timer on the AAMC software does not list total minutes, it lists the time remaining in hours:minutes. Thus, you’ll need to get used to dealing with numbers like 1:30 (the start time), 1:21 (what the timer should say after a 5-question passage), 1:20 (what the timer should say after a 6-question passage), 1:19 (what the timer should say after a 7-question passage).

MAINTAINING YOUR TIMING CHART:

1) Before the exam begins, write down 1:30 on your scratch paper. This is the total time allotted for the CAR section.

2) As soon as the exam begins, click through to the first passage and count the number of questions. By the time you take your actual MCAT, it should be second-nature to instantly recognize: 5 questions = 9 min.; 6 questions = 10 min.; 7 questions = 11 minutes. Cross out 1:30 and subtract the appropriate number (10, 11, or 12); write the answer below 1:30.

3) After completing the first passage, click the “Next” button to see how many questions are on the next passage. Subtract the appropriate number (10, 11, or 12), write the answer down, and cross out the previous number.

4) REPEAT this process until the exam is complete.

An example of a timing chart is given below. The notes in parentheses are to emphasize that you write down the TIME by which you should finish the current passage PRIOR to starting the passage.

Sample CAR Timing Chart

progression

1:30 (start time) 1:30 1:30

1:20 (1st passage, 6Q) 1:20 1:20

1:11 (2nd passage, 5Q) 1:11

1:00 (3rd passage, 7Q)

NOTE: The labels in parentheses are for illustration purposes only; you would not actually write these on your timing chart. The columns are also for illustrating how to maintain the chart as the exam progresses; you will build your chart downward in a single column.


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How to Approach MCAT-2015 Questions: The importance of how you approach an MCAT question cannot be overemphasized. Foolish errors account for a difference of several points on your overall scaled score. Because you have no way of knowing when you will make an error, the only way to reduce errors is to follow proven strategies and best practices on every question.

1) Learn and Use the Socratic Method. According to tradition, when Socrates taught his students he never lectured. Instead, he asked his students a series of questions that progressively led them toward the correct answer. In other words, he helped them to start thinking in the correct way and then allowed them to arrive at their own answers. This is the same approach we encourage our tutors to employ. You as a student can also benefit by employing the Socratic Method on individual MCAT questions. Believe it or not, most students already have in their arsenal all of the information necessary to answer a difficult conceptual MCAT question. However, they continue to struggle with these questions because they are unable to retrieve the necessary information, relate it to the question and generate a principle by which to examine the answer choices. Fortunately, this skill is not something you’re either born with or you’re not; it can be learned. As simple as it sounds, you need to spend more time “thinking” about the topic and less time waiting for your brain to magically generate an answer for you. Thinking is an active process—one in which your brain’s retrieval system should not be left to its own devices. You can assist your brain by asking yourself questions. Below is a list of scenarios with the accompanying questions you might be asking yourself as you apply the Socratic Method. In its most basic sense, it is a list of questions anyone proficient at critical thinking would naturally raise when presented with a problem.

SITUATION/PROBLEM: You are asked to select a graph that best represents the acceleration of the object described in the passage. “What do I know about acceleration?” “What is acceleration?” “Do I know a formula that involves acceleration?” “How does acceleration change in this scenario?” “What else changes in this scenario?” Once you get an answer to one of these initial questions, you can repeat the process: “I know acceleration is change in velocity per time; is velocity changing in this question?” Looking at the graphs (or at any graph on the MCAT for that matter) there are some questions you definitely want to ask yourself: “What does the slope of the line on this graph represent?” “What are the values on the x and y-axes?” “How are those changing over time?” “What does a negative value on this graph represent?” “Is the graph changing linearly or exponentially?” And so forth.

SITUATION/PROBLEM: You are asked the most plausible explanation for why H2S is a gas at room temperature, but H2O is a liquid. “What do I know about H2S?” “What do I know about H2O?” “What are the differences between these two molecules?” “How do they differ in structure, shape, molar mass, electronegativity, etc.?” “Would any of these differences explain the difference in states?” “What do I know about gas to liquid, or liquid to gas transitions?” “What determines a molecule’s state?” Looking at the available answer choices I might ask myself, “If that is true, have I seen any other examples of it in real life or in the lab?” “If that answer is true would anything else I know be challenged?” “Does the statement sound logical?” “Have I ever heard it before or seen anything to support it?”

SITUATION/PROBLEM: You are asked how a new discovery will impact the conclusions drawn by the scientist in the passage. “How are the new discovery and the information in the passage related?” “What did the scientist assume in making his conclusions and does the new information challenge those assumptions?” “What is the main thrust of the scientist’s conclusion?” “Does the new information directly contradict it, or could they both be true?”

SITUATION/PROBLEM: You are asked a question on a subject that seems very obscure or esoteric—possibly beyond the scope of the MCAT. “Were there any references to this in the passage?” “Could anything mentioned in the passage be extrapolated to apply to this situation?” “Does the information provided in any chart or graph relate in any way to this question?” “What are some possible simple-science concepts that I could relate to this situation?” “By reading the answer choices can I infer anything about the question?”

SITUATION/PROBLEM: You are presented with an observation and asked which of the theories in the passage is STRENGTHENED by it. “How can the gist of each theory be stated most simply and succinctly?” “What is the relationship between this observation and the most basic aspect of each theory?” “If this observation were always true in every situation, could each theory still be plausible?” “How can I simplify each answer choice?” “What does each answer choice say or imply with respect to each theory?”


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SITUATION/PROBLEM: You are asked to predict the result of substituting NH3 for H2O in Step 2 of a synthetic scheme. “What are the differences between NH3 and H2O?” “What are some other reactions I know of that involve these two molecules?” “By looking at the product, can I tell where the atoms of the water molecule end up in the product?” “What product would be formed if those atoms were substituted with the atoms from the NH3 molecule?” “Which parts of each molecule are involved in the reaction?” “Do those atoms have similar reactivity?” “Does the product I’ve predicted appear stable?” “Does it violate the Octet Rule?”

The Socratic Method can also help you catch mistakes on easy problems. When you’re about to mark a question, ask yourself, “What do I know about acceleration?” “Is the answer I’ve chosen supported by that knowledge?”

In summary, using the Socratic Method leads you automatically into the very lines of reasoning that define critical thinking. Practice using it. Notice how your tutor and other successful students use it. Sincerely try to get better at it, and you will.

2) Read the entire question stem very carefully. We mean in an anal-retentive, obsessive-compulsive sort of way. You cannot be too careful. Read every single word with care and make sure you understand what each word means and how it changes the question being asked.

3) Rephrase the question stem in your own simplified words. This will ensure that you truly grasp the question stem and—more importantly—it will make it easier for your brain to assimilate the question and decide on an answer.

4) Read and consider each answer choice, A through D, individually. Students seem to have a hard time forcing themselves to do this. They want to look at all the answers at once and just “pick one.” This is foolish. A wrong answer choice will often tempt you into thinking it is true, or affect your evaluation of the other answer choices. If necessary, hold your finger on the screen over answers B through D while you look at A. Decide if A is true or not, then do the same, one by one, for answer choices B through D.

5) As you consider each answer choice, restate it with the question stem. Time and time again, students lose mental track of the question stem while considering the answer choices. They forget the exact way in which the stem was phrased and are tempted into a wrong answer choice. To prevent this, always read each answer choice along with your paraphrased version of the question stem. For example, suppose the question stem was “Which of the following is NOT a function of the liver?” and answer choice a) was “Hematopoiesis.” Instead of just staring at “Hematopoiesis” and trying to decide if it is the right answer or not, combine the stem with the answer and say it to yourself silently (or even speak out loud softly): “Hematopoiesis is NOT a function of the liver.” Then simply ask yourself if that is a correct statement. This avoids any chance of confusion. If you will do this on every single question, you can almost entirely eradicate these kinds of errors.

6) If an answer choice is wrong, consider it a “probably not.” If an answer choice is correct, think of it as a “maybe.” Although you cannot actually mark “maybe” on the computer, this is what you want to think in your head. In other words, don’t get sold too quickly on an answer choice being correct, or decide too quickly that an answer choice is definitely incorrect. If it sounds correct, consider it a “possibility,” but then give the same exact attention to each of the other answer choices. There is often a better or more correct answer choice later on. Leave wrong answer choices as possibilities until you find one that is definitely better. Many of the AAMC’s correct answers can sound odd or unusual at first glance. This leads most students to immediately dismiss the answer choice without serious consideration. Such a distractor can turn an otherwise easy question into a difficult one. Finally, AVOID the strikeout feature available in the testing software during the first run-through on a question. Only after you have reconsidered and re-evaluated every option, and are very confident that an option is wrong, should you cross out that answer choice.

7) Be extremely careful of questions with the words NOT, EXCEPT, LEAST, WEAKENS, or STRENGTHENS. Whenever you come to one of these questions, write out on your scratch paper, in big, bold letters NOT, EXCEPT, etc. This will create a visual cue and mental checkpoint that dramatically decreases the likelihood you will lose track of the qualifier.


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8) What to do when you get completely stuck. When you come to a question that completely perplexes you, the first thing you must do is employ the Socratic Method. Have you asked yourself enough questions to draw out everything you know? The following steps are additional physical and mental actions you can take to help your brain work toward the correct answer.

Write down everything you can

List all related formulas

Draw pictures and diagrams

Write it Down and Draw it Out!

Go back to the passage

Go back to the question stem

Look for clues in the answers choices

Remind yourself that there is a simple explanation using only basic science or reading comprehension.

No matter what you do, never let the MCAT intimidate you. We’ve already established that part of the authors’ “Battle Plan” is to present passages that can appear intimidating because they cover very obscure topics. Armed with knowledge, however, you need not be worried. The answers are always given by either applying simple science principles to the novel situation, or by simply understanding and applying passage information.

When you run out of time for any question—regardless of whether or not you have figured out the answer—move on (Remember the beta questions!).

IMPORTANT NOTE Always remember there is a simple science answer to every question. If you haven’t figured it out yet, that is NOT an indication that the question is hard, or that you’ve forgotten something from your studies; it is only an indication that you need to keep on thinking. Using the Socratic Method will help guide your thinking toward those missing links. Trust us, it’s there, just keep looking!


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Math Review

Estimating: o Round everything! MCAT answer choices are usually very far apart. In the rare case that the

answer choices are fairly close, this is a clue that it is a simple calculation, where greater precision could be expected. You can always go back and narrow your calculations if you need to, but if you are too precise from the beginning you’ll get bogged down and waste precious time.

o Estimating Decimals: The MCAT rarely gives answers as fractions. Thus, you should be generally familiar with decimal equivalents. Commit to memory the following decimal equivalents: 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 and 1/8.

o Estimating Fractions:

For fractions where the numerator is larger, create a compound fraction. For example, 13/5 becomes 2 3/5 or exactly 2.60.

For fractions where the denominator is larger, try the “high/low” method. Change the denominator to one digit higher and to one digit lower. In most cases, this will yield at least one familiar fraction. For example, 3/7 is changed to 3/6 and 3/8. It is thus a little less than 0.5, say 0.45. Similarly, 7/13 is changed to 7/12 and 7/14. Thus it is a little more than 0.5.

o Estimating Square Roots:

It is first helpful to know the square of all whole numbers from 1 through 15. Commit these squares to memory if you haven’t already.

Once these are committed to memory, start squaring numbers. Find one you know that is just more than the number you are taking the square root of, and one that is just less. The answer will be in between those two. For example, the square root of 72 is estimated by saying that 82 is 64 and 92 is 81. Seventy-two is approximately in the middle of 64 and 81, so the square root of 72 is about 8.5.

o Q1. Practice your estimation skills by completing the following calculations in your head: a) What is the square root of 75? b) Change 24/45 to a decimal. c) What is the square root of 120? d) What is the decimal equivalent for 3/13? e) Change 2/7 to a decimal. f) What is the decimal equivalent of 16/3? g) What is the cube root of 25? Check your answers using a calculator.

Scientific Notation:

o Scientific notation not only allows you to make remarkably accurate estimates of large calculations, it also greatly reduces errors when compared to long division or multiplication. The number part of scientific notation (i.e., 2.0) is called “the mantissa.” The exponent part (i.e., x 104) is called “the power” or “the exponent.”

Q2. What should you do to the exponents (i.e., do you add them, multiply them, etc.) when you perform the following functions on numbers in scientific notation? a) add or subtract two numbers in scientific notation, b) multiply two numbers in scientific notation, c) divide two numbers in scientific notation, d) raise a number in scientific notation to a power, e) take the square (or other) root of a number in scientific notation.

Q3. How do you simplify if you end up with a number such as 0.05 x 10-2 or 220 x 1012?

Q4. How do you represent a small whole number, such as 5, in scientific notation?

IMPORTANT NOTE Don’t forget to estimate. It is surprising how often students get stuck because they forget this simple tool. One AAMC practice question results in original answer of 16/81. Eight out of ten students get stumped at that point because they can’t reduce this fraction and it’s not one of the answer choices. However, if you remember to estimate, you could simply round it to 16/80, which simplifies to 4/20, or 1/5th.


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Trigonometry Review:

o Sin 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

0 1/2 √2/2 √3/2 1

o Cos 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

1 √3/2 √2/2 1/2 0

Commit to memory the following approximate decimal equivalents related to the sin and cosine of common angles: √2 = 1.4; √3 = 1.7; √2/2 = 0.7; √3/2 = 0.9

o Trigonometric Relationships:

sin = O/H ; cos = A/H ; tan = O/A

cosecant, secant and cotangent are the inverses of sin, cos and tan, respectively.

tan = sin/cos

sin2x + cos2x = 1

o Other Important Trigonometry Formulas:

Area of a circle: A = r2

Circumference of a circle: C = d or C = 2r

Area of a triangle: A = 1/2bh

Volume of a sphere: V = 4/3r3

Surface Area of a sphere: SA = 4r2

Pythagorean Theorem: A2 + B2 = C2

Q5. All of the angles in any triangle must add up to: .

Converting from degrees to radians: radians = 180°; 2 radians = 360°. There are approximately 6 radians in one circle. Thus, if something is rotating at 12 rad/s, you know that it is making two revolutions per second.

SI Units & Prefixes:

o For questions in the CP and BB sections of MCAT-2015, you will always need to know your SI units well and learn to track them on every question. This is not just an irritant; it will help prevent mistakes and help you see the solution in cases when you otherwise would not. We won’t list the units here, but will mention them for each entity as we cover it. You should, however, be absolutely confident with the following prefixes:

Q6. Provide the fraction and the exponent associated with each of the following prefixes (i.e., deci = 1/10 or 10-1): deci-, centi-, milli-, micro-, nano-, pico-, femto-, deca-, hecto-, kilo-, mega-, giga- and tera-.

To change from an obscure unit to the standard SI units, make the number the mantissa in scientific notation and add the appropriate power:

650nm = 650 x 10-9m

700Mw = 700 x 106W


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Graphs: You will need to be proficient at reading and analyzing graphs in many forms. The angle and shape of the line on a basic x-y plot provides important information.

o Recognizing Linear vs. Non-Linear Relationships: If two variables are both in an equation, and one of them contains an exponent, log, ln, or root, the graph of either variable vs. the other will yield a non-linear graph. However, if BOTH variables contain the exact same math (i.e., both are cubed, or both are square rooted), the graph of one versus the other will be linear.

Q7. Draw the general shape of each of the following graphs: y = x ; y = 1/x ; y = x2 ; y = x3 ; y = x ; y = lnx ; y = sinx ; y = cosx

For example, for the equation X = 1/2at2:

X vs. t; t vs. X; a vs. t; and t vs. a will all be non-linear

X vs. a; or a vs. X will be linear

For the equation v = (2gh):

v vs. g will be non-linear

g vs. h (because they are both under the square root) will be linear

o Graphs as Answer Choices: Often, the four answer choices for a question will be four different graphs. When asked to choose or predict a graph, ask yourself the following three questions.

1) Does the y-value start high or low? In other words, when the graph first begins, is the value represented on the y-axis large or small? ASK YOURSELF: “Is it most logical at the beginning of this experiment or trial for this value to be high (i.e., at its max value) or for it to be low (i.e., at its minimum value)?

2) What is the slope? What does the slope represent? (i.e., on a displacement vs. time graph the slope is equal to velocity; on a velocity vs. time graph it is equal to acceleration, etc.) ASK YOURSELF: Should the slope be positive or negative? Should it be linear or non-linear?

3) What is the sign of the y-axis? Is the value on the y-axis always positive, always negative, or is it both? This will help you decide whether your graph should start above or below the x-axis, and if you expect it to ever cross the x-axis.

o Q8. Practice selecting the proper graph by doing the following activities: a) Sketch a possible graph for how velocity changes with respect to time as a ball is thrown into the air and returns to the ground. b) Sketch a possible graph for acceleration vs. time for the same ball. c) Sketch a pressure vs. time graph for a balloon pierced by a small pin hole (Remember to ask yourself the questions outlined above).

o Q9. Describe the difference between a log-log and a semi-log graph.

o Q10. If a variable is changing exponentially, will it be linear or non-linear on a semi-log graph? On a log-log graph?


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Manipulating Equations:

o The ability to accurately manipulate equations is highly rewarded by the MCAT. This is the ability to use an equation to predict what will happen to one variable if a second variable changes by a specified amount (and all other variables stay the same). In other words, given the equation x = y2, what happens to y if x doubles?

o There are six basic rules and two important caveats you must know when manipulating equations:

RULE #1: If two variables are on the same side of the equation and on the same side of the division line, (numerator vs. denominator) they are inversely related.

RULE #2: If two variables are on the same side of the equation and on different sides of the division line, they are directly related.

RULE #3: If two variables are on opposite sides of the equation and on the same side of the division line, they are directly related.

RULE #4: If two variables are on opposite sides of the equation and on different sides of the division line, they are inversely related.

CAVEAT #1: The process of manipulating equations only works for equations that involve multiplication and/or division and do NOT involve addition or subtraction. For example, for any value of b other than zero, you cannot look at y = mx + b and say that y is directly proportional to m.

CAVEAT #2: In order for this process to work for any equation, we must assume that the two variables we are considering are the only ones changing and that all other variables remain constant. On the MCAT, you will always assume the other variables are unchanged, even if the question doesn’t specifically state that fact.

Q11. Write out a hypothetical equation with multiple variables above and below the denominator on both sides of the equation. Then, for each rule described above, demonstrate the relationship described. Draw an up arrow to represent a variable increasing, and a down arrow to represent it decreasing. If the relationship is direct, the arrows should go the same direction, if it is indirect, they should go in opposite directions.

Have your tutor drill you on simple manipulating equation problems. Don’t stop until you can do several in a row without a mistake.

Sample MCAT Question

3) A student rolls balls down a ramp from various heights and measures the final velocity of the balls at the end of the ramp. The final velocity of each ball will:

A) increase linearly with increasing initial height. B) increase non-linearly with increasing initial height. C) decrease linearly with increasing initial height. D) remain constant for any initial height.

Solution: The formula v = (2gh) describes this relationship. Because h is under the square root and v is not, B is the best answer. We won’t cover this formula until Physics 1, but the principles of linear vs. exponential are true for any equation.


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o More Complex Examples of Manipulating Equations: In some cases, the equations you will need to manipulate will contain exponents or roots. For these situations, remember the following rules:

RULE #5: If the variable you are manipulating bears the exponent or root, do the described math to the factor by which you are manipulating it. The result will be the factor by which the other variable (the one you are trying to predict) will change.

Q12. As an example, what will happen to distance traveled if time is tripled?

RULE #6: If the variable you are manipulating does not contain an exponent or root, but the other variable (the one you are trying to predict) does, ask yourself the following question: “What factor can I plug in to the other variable so that after I do the math to it, it will match the factor by which I am manipulating the first variable?”

Q13. As an example, given the equation X = 1/2at2, what will happen to time if the distance traveled is tripled?

Q14. Have your tutor drill you on complex manipulating equation problems. Don’t stop until you can do several in a row without a mistake.

o Manipulating Equations Using Fractions and Percentages: Sometimes you will be asked to manipulate an equation using a non-whole number such as a fraction or percentage. Q15. For example, what happens to distance traveled if time increases by a factor of 3/2?

Recall that if 3/2 is the factor, and the variable being manipulated has a square on it, you do the math to both the top and bottom, so the factor by which the other variable will change is 9/4.

For percentages, you need to be able to accurately change a percentage into a factor. If something goes down by 20%, by what factor has it changed? It has been multiplied by a factor of 4/5. Thus, if the other variable is directly related, it will also be multiplied by 4/5; if it is inversely related, it will be multiplied by 5/4. Q16. Try this same process for something going down by 25%.

Q17. Multiplying a variable by what fraction (factor) would be equivalent to: 1) an increase of 33%, 2) an increase of 100%, 3) an increase of 120%, 4) an increase of 233%, 5) a 20% decrease, 6) an 80% decrease.

Have your tutor drill you on manipulating equations using fractions and percentages. Don’t stop until you can do several in a row without a mistake.

o Recognizing when to manipulate equations: One of the most frequent problems students face is an inability to recognize when they should manipulate equations. Here are some common examples of scenarios where you should apply the manipulating equations skills we’ve just described:

1) “If X doubles what happens to Y?”: This is the easiest manipulating equations question to recognize. You will see a few of these, but they’re usually more obscure.

2) Two Trials: Any time you can calculate that some variable changed by a specific factor between two trials, experiments, etc., you can use manipulating equations to predict the effect of that change on a second variable (assuming you know an equation that contains both variables).

3) Data Charts: This is really another way of representing multiple trials. Many students will not recognize, however, that they can look at a chart and calculate the factor by which something changed between trials.

4) Half in the Passage, Half in the Question: Often students will fail to realize they can manipulate equations when half of the information is given in the passage (i.e., they randomly mention that volume doubled, or a chart demonstrates that volume doubled) and the other half is asked for in the question stem (i.e., the question asks: “What is the pressure at the end of Trial 2?”).

5) What is the Ratio Between A and B: Questions often ask something such as, “What is the ratio between the velocity at the end of Trial 1 and the velocity at the end of Trial 2, respectively?” This may be two values directly listed in a chart or graph, but it is more likely something you will have to figure out by taking the info given for one trial and manipulating equations to determine the value for the second trial. Finally, you’ll take these two answers and determine the ratio that exists between them.


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Sample MCAT Question

4) The Carson-Magleby equation describes the velocity of a charged particle in a non-idealized magnetic field where air resistance impedes velocity. If the frictional drag coefficient of the surface of the particle, , is increased by 25%, by what percentage will the velocity decrease?

v = 2Fz/qBsin

A) 25% B) 20% C) 125% D) 40%

Solution: The two variables in question are inversely related. If is increased by 25% that is the same as multiplying by 5/4. Velocity, being inversely related, must therefore be multiplied by 4/5. It has thus lost 1/5 of its original value, or 20%. Answer B is correct. In case you are wondering, the Carson-Magleby equation is a figment of our imaginations. We created it just to illustrate that your familiarity with an equation, or lack thereof, is unimportant. All equations follow the same mathematical rules, so don’t be intimidated if you encounter an equation on the MCAT you’ve never seen before.


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Research Methods

Research Design & Execution

o The Scientific Method

You’ve probably been learning about the scientific method since elementary school. The specific steps ascribed to the scientific method vary by source and we do not expect that MCAT-2015 will expect precision in determining what is or is not specified by this general term. Generally speaking, the scientific method refers to:

Scientific Method = The systematic process by which scientists ask questions, develop testable hypotheses, gather data, conduct experiments, and then analyze, interpret, publish, and verify the results of those investigations.

It is more likely that MCAT-2015 will expect you to evaluate research studies presented to you in passages and critique them. Most of the section that follows gives you concepts you can use to understand experimental design and judge its quality. Based on current AAMC practice materials and feedback from early test takers, you should expect to see questions something like this:

“A potential weakness in the experimental design of the study presented in the passage is:”

Three aspects of the scientific method that could be important in evaluating the strengths or weaknesses of research design are highlighted below. Throughout this section we will be adding to a growing list of ways in which you can evaluate the quality of research.

Testable Hypothesis: Well-designed research must begin with a hypothesis that is testable. A testable hypothesis is one for which an experiment can be used to verify a clear yes or no answer. Thus, testable hypotheses must be narrow, specific, and answerable. Asking “What are regulatory binding proteins and how do they work?” is not a testable hypothesis because there is no experiment or study that can answer that question directly. A testable version would be: “Is the presence of the 2-DRP protein necessary for the adhesion of neutrophils to endothelium during the inflammatory response?” Questions framed as an If-Then, or a Stimulus-Outcome pair often make the best research questions (e.g., If Drug A is administered daily at X dosage will blood pressure decrease within a two-month study period? or Does inhibition of cofactor Y decrease in vivo inflammation in response to tissue trauma?)

Q18. Which of the following questions are testable hypotheses? Rank them in order of quality as subjects for experimental research. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of each research question: a) Which fruit is more healthy: bananas or apples? b) Who is the best professional basketball player? c) Is surgery effective as a treatment for illness? d) Which blood plasma clotting factor has the greatest impact on blood coagulation? e) Is intravenous administration of nitrous oxide an effective treatment for acute high blood pressure? f) How does cognitive dissonance impact voting behavior when candidates previously supported by a voter are involved in scandals that violate the voters pre-existing code of personal ethics?

Peer Review: The process by which research submitted for publication is first reviewed and critiqued by one’s colleagues prior to publication. Most journals use single-blind peer review, in which the reviewers (a.k.a., referees) know the author of the paper, but the author never learns who refereed his or her paper.

Verification: (a.k.a., Replication) Good science must be something other investigators can replicate and thereby verify. In fact, the findings of a study aren’t considered settled until it is known that other investigators have been able to replicate the results. This is one reason why research must include a detailed methods section—so that other scientists can mimic the conditions used when attempting to verify the results. If a finding cannot be replicated, it will be assumed that some error or confounding variable unique to the experiment or lab conditions caused the observed result.


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o Types of Research:

Experimental or “Basic Science” Research: Laboratory research conducted in a highly-controlled environment; NOT on human subjects. This type of research allows investigators to have the strictest level of control over all possible variables and conditions; basic science research is therefore thought to be the most reliable way to indicate causation.

Human Subjects Research: Research conducted outside the laboratory, often on human subjects. Drug trials are a common and familiar example. Less control over conditions than in basic science research, making conclusions less definitive. For example, a study drug may fail to decrease blood pressure in some subjects. However, it could later be discovered that all participants did not follow the strict low-sodium diet required by the study guidelines. This deviation from protocol would influence blood pressure measurements in those patients.

There are two kinds of Human Subjects Research:

Experimental = Research involves a specific intervention controlled by the investigator. Subjects are separated into control and treatment groups. (e.g., to test the efficacy of a new drug, patients with allergies are separated into groups randomly and given either the drug or placebo).

Observational = Investigator observes data without direct control over the variables, or implementation of interventions. (e.g., an investigator reviews case studies from COPD [chronic obstructive pulmonary disease] patients and examines demographic information and lifestyle choices in an attempt to identify risk factors associated with COPD).

MEDICAL ETHICS: Ethical questions often arise during Human Subjects Research. We will discuss general medical ethics concepts here, but note that they apply to medical and scientific practices globally, not only to conducting research.

Beneficence = Do good. Doctors and researchers have an obligation to promote the welfare of patients or study participants. Patient welfare should always be a primary consideration in study design and execution.

ENDING A STUDY BECAUSE OF POSITIVE RESULTS: One classical application of beneficence in Human Subjects Research is the obligation to END an experimental study when it is clear a drug or intervention results in obvious benefit. This may sound counterintuitive, but remember that each study must have control groups. If a drug is found to save the lives of dying cancer patients, it is not ethical to continue the study long-term and thereby save the lives of those in the treatment groups while those in the control groups are withheld from taking a drug researchers know could help them.

Nonmaleficence = Do no harm. This is the physician’s oath, but applies equally to researchers. Doctors and researchers have an obligation to not harm their patients or study participants.

ENDING A STUDY BECAUSE OF NEGATIVE RESULTS: The theoretical opposite of the previous example, researchers are similarly obligated to end a research study as soon as it is verified that a treatment harms the subjects. Most early research that is criticized today is drawn into question because it violated this principle. The famous psychology study involving “Little Albert,” for example, while revealing evidence about conditioning, is now thought to have had an unethical impact on the young child involved. Albert was conditioned to have severe generalized phobias of animals and the study involved obvious emotional trauma to Albert.

Autonomy = Patient autonomy and informed consent. Physicians and researchers have an obligation to inform patients or study participants and allow them to make decisions about their own health and treatment. At times, some deception (e.g., placebo) is necessary to effect research. However, this should be the minimal amount possible, the truth should be revealed as soon as possible, and deception in general should be approved by an Internal Review Board (IRB).

Justice = Equal treatment of all people; Equal allocation of resources, to the extent possible, without bias, prejudice or discrimination.


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Observational Research Study Types:

Cohort Study Cross-Sectional Study Case-Control Study

Q19. Provide a conceptual definition for the following observational study types and provide two real-life examples of each: a) cohort study, b) cross-sectional study, c) case-control study.

o Independent vs. Dependent Variables

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE = The variable MANIPULATED or directly changed by the investigator. Also called the “predictor variable.” It can be thought of as the “cause” and always goes on the x-axis.

DEPRENDENT VARIABLE = The Variable MEASURED as a response to changes in the independent variable. Also called the “outcome variable.” It can be thought of as the “effect” and always goes on the y-axis.

Q20. Identify the independent and dependent variables in the following scenarios: a) time spent studying and test score; b) gas mileage and octane rating of the gas used; c) dosage of medication used and lab rat survival rate; d) level of aggression and amount of exposure to violent video games.

o Controls:

Control Group = A group or trial in which all conditions and environmental factors are IDENTICAL to the treatment group, EXCEPT for the treatment.

Positive vs. Negative Controls

Q21. Provide a conceptual definition of a positive control and a negative control and give two real-life examples of each.

o Evaluating Research for Potential Bias:

Sources of Experimental Bias or Error

Selection Bias = Method used to select participants is not truly random. Therefore, the results are not representative of the whole population. There are systematic BASELINE differences among participants because true randomization was not achieved.

Types of Selection Bias:

Specific Real Area Bias Self-Selection Bias Pre-Screening or Advertising Bias Exclusion Bias Healthy User Bias Berkson’s Fallacy Overmatching

Q22. Provide a conceptual definition for the following forms of selection bias: a) specific real area bias, b) self-selection bias, c) pre-screening or advertising bias, d) exclusion bias, e) healthy user bias, f) Berkson’s Fallacy, and g) overmatching.

Observer Bias = Observers or researchers know the goals of the study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations during the study.

Demand Characteristics = Participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation.

Information Bias = Wrong or inexact recording of variables or data. With continuous variables (such as blood pressure), this is referred to as measurement error; with categorical variables (such as tumor stage), this is known as misclassification.

Confounding Variables (a.k.a. confounding factor, confounder) = An extraneous variable that influences the variables being studied, but is not part of the expected correlation or causal pathway being investigated.


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Placebo Effect: One example of a confounding variable. The placebo effect occurs when participants given a placebo (i.e., sham treatment) during a study experience real or perceived health benefits as a result of their belief that they are being treated.

EXAMPLE: Suppose the relationship between A and B is being investigated. A is hypothesized to increase B. Experimental results support this hypothesis. It is later discovered that a third variable, C (a.k.a., extraneous variable), influences both A and B, decreasing A and increasing B. In fact, it was C that created the observed result in B that was attributed to A. Variable C is a confounding variable.

Detection Bias = Systematic differences between groups caused by inconsistency in the method of detection or diagnosis.

EXAMPLE: A study reports that inner city children suffer from ADHD at twice the rate of suburban children. It is later discovered that systematic differences existed between the diagnostic tools and training available at inner city hospitals included in the study vs. suburban hospitals included in the study.

Performance Bias = Systematic differences between groups in terms of the actual care or treatment provided.

EXAMPLE: A physician unconsciously pays closer attention to and conducts more follow-up with patients the doctor knows to be enrolled in a heart study. This results in differences in care for those individuals not accounted for in the study.

Experimenter Bias (a.k.a., Researcher Bias) = Errors introduced into a study due to the expectations of the investigator. Examples could include confirmation bias, or reporting bias by the investigator with respect to results, or unconscious communication of expected results to the participants, influencing their behavior.

Confirmation Bias: The tendency to favor information that confirms one’s hypothesis or preconceived notions, and to dismiss information that discredits them. This will be discussed in further detail in the Psychology 2 chapter.

Reporting Bias: Systematic differences resulting from some findings being reported and other findings not being reported. Investigators may withhold or ignore data that does not support their hypothesis (if conscious and intentional this would be a clear violation of ethics). Statistically-significant results are usually far more likely to be reported than are statistically insignificant results, although both are important to an unbiased determination.

Measurement

Accuracy vs. Precision

Q23. Provide a conceptual definition for the terms accuracy and precision.

Q24. Label the following situations as accurate, precise, accurate and precise, or neither: a) A ruler that is systematically off by ¼ inch. b) A study using blood pressure cuffs, where the cuffs are known to over-report blood pressure by 15 mmHg c) Two chemists try to determine the concentration of a solution known to be 3.2 M: Chemist 1 conducts three trials and obtains values of: 2.1 M, 4.5 M, 3.1 M d) Another researcher, Chemist 2 conducts three trials and obtains values of 2.1 M, 2.0 M, and 2.2 M.

Reliability vs. Validity

RELIABILITY = Results are consistent and repeatable.

Test-Retest Reliability

Inter-rater Reliability

Q25. Provide a conceptual definition for test-retest reliability and inter-rater reliability.

VALIDITY = The test or experiment measures what it purports to measure, and uses methods that meet scientific standards.

Failure to adhere to the standards of the scientific method or other accepted experimental best practices results in low internal validity.


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Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation Coefficient, r2

LINEAR REGRESSION: Correlation coefficients relate to linear regression analysis. A large number of trials involving changes in the independent variable are graphed against the dependent variable, resulting in a scatter plot. A “Least Squares” or “Best Fit” line is drawn that best approximates the trend of the data points. The correlation coefficient is a measure of how tightly the data fit to this line. The closer the data are, as a whole, to the trend line, the higher the r2 value.

Correlation Coefficients vary from 0 to 1. An r2 value of 1.0 would be a perfect correlation.

The correlation coefficient is said to explain the amount of variance in y ACCOUNTED FOR by x.

CAUSATION IS DIFFICULT TO ESTABLISH! Causation is generally assumed in basic science research if all conditions were strictly controlled and A is found to be both necessary and sufficient to cause B. However, even then, most scientists will be reluctant to claim causation. You may notice language in journal articles, even from basic science experiments, that is toned-down. Rather than saying “A causes B,” they will report that “An increase in levels of A is associated with increased B.” Overwhelmingly, the misconception most likely to be tested on the MCAT is that causation can be assumed when only correlation actually exists, or there is too little evidence to support causation.

Hill’s Criteria

Temporality Strength Consistency Specificity Plausibility Dose-Response Relationship Testable by Experiment Coherence Analogy

Q26. Provide a conceptual definition for each of Hill’s Criteria and explain how and why that particular criterion increases the validity of making a claim of causation: a) temporality, b) strength, c) consistency, d) specificity, e) plausibility, f) dose-response relationship, g) testable by experiment, h) coherence, and i) analogy.

Internal Validity vs. External Validity

External Validity = Generalizability; The degree to which the findings can be extrapolated to the general population.

Internal Validity = The extent to which a study’s findings of truth or causation are justifiable, which is a function of the scientific rigor of the study.

Necessary vs. Sufficient

Necessary = A condition that MUST be satisfied in order for an event to occur.

Sufficient = A condition that, if satisfied, guarantees that an event will occur.

Blinding:

Single-blind = Information about the study, control groups, treatment groups, and other potentially biasing details are concealed from the person doing the assessment.

Double-blind = The information described above is concealed from BOTH the person doing the assessment and the subject.

IMPORTANT NOTE It could be easy to confuse the Hill Criteria with Hill’s Coefficient. They are completely UNRELATED. Hill’s Criteria, as described here, is a set of guidelines used to evaluate whether or not a causal relationship exists. Hill’s Coefficient is a BIOCHEMISTRY term. In Biochem, the Hill Coefficient is used to quantify the degree of cooperativity present in a binding association, and is discussed in the Biochemistry 1 chapter. You’ll need to know both for MCAT-2015.


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Basic Statistics Terminology:

o Sample vs. Population

Sample Population Statistic Parameter

o Measures of Central Tendency & Distribution

Mean Median Mode Range Standard Deviation (SD)

Q27. Provide a conceptual definition for the following terms: a) sample, b) population, c) statistic, d) parameter, e) mean, d) median, e) mode, f) range, g) standard deviation.

o Normal Distribution: Hypothetical perfect bell-shaped curve for which the following is true:

1 SD = 68% of the population 2 SD = 95% of the population 3 SD = 99% of the population

Probability:

o Assumption = Outcomes are independent (i.e., do NOT influence one another) and are also mutually exclusive (i.e., they cannot occur together).

o AND vs. OR

AND = MULTIPLY the probabilities of individual events to get the overall probability of both events occurring.

OR = ADD the probabilities of each individual event together to get the overall probability of EITHER event occurring.

Hypothesis Testing:

o Null Hypothesis (H0) vs. Alternative Hypothesis

The Null Hypothesis: H0 is always the LACK OF A RELATIONSHIP OR GROUP DIFFERENCE. In testing for group differences, the Null Hypothesis is that there are no statistically significant differences between groups. When testing for correlation or causation the Null Hypothesis is that there is NO relationship.

The Alternative Hypothesis: The opposite of the Null Hypothesis, the PRESENCE OF A RELATIONSHIP OR GROUP DIFFERENCE. In testing for group differences the Alternative Hypothesis is that there is a difference between groups. When testing for correlation or causation the Alternative Hypothesis is that there IS a relationship.

o t-Test or z-Test p value

The “test statistic” (either a t-value or a z-value) is calculated. This result is compared to a table of t-values or z-values. The table indicates the significance level (discussed below) associated with that test statistic;

o Significance Level ()

= 0.05; 0.01, 0.001

p < 0.05 means we can be 95% confident that the results are real rather than the result of random chance. p < 0.01 means we can be 99% confident, and so forth.


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If the Hypothesis is Directional: (i.e., A is larger than B)

If p > we CANNOT reject H0 = NO STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE (e.g., p > 0.05)

If p < 0.05 we REJECT H0 = STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT

If Hypothesis is Nondirectional: (i.e., There is a difference between A and B. No assertion is made as to whether it is larger/smaller, increased/decreased, etc.)

If p > /2 we CANNOT reject H0 = NO STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE

If p < /2 we REJECT H0 = STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT

TYPE I vs. TYPE II Errors

Type I Error = Claimed difference between groups when none existed (rejected H0 but should NOT have done so).

Type II Error = Did not claim a difference between groups when one DID exist (should have rejected H0 but did not do so).

Confidence Interval (C.I.)

95% is standard

Reflected on graphs as “Confidence Bands.”

(z score)(SD) = Error Margin

C.I. = Mean +/- Error Margin

Standard Error of the Mean (SEM): A quantification of how precisely the mean represents the true mean of the population. SEM decreases as sample size increases.


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Sample MCAT Questions

5) Which trial from the figure could be cited to question the internal validity of this study?

A) MG only B) MG and IL1 C) GAPDH only D) MG, LPS, IL1 and GAPDH

Solution: The data in the figure all have relatively small, and relatively consistent, error margins as indicated by the confidence bands above each bar. The clear exception is the second bar from the left, which has a much larger error margin. A large margin of error indicates a greater possibility that the true values may not be what are reflected in the data and therefore weakens the study’s internal validity. This makes B the correct answer because it is the MG and IL1 trial that is represented by the second bar from the left.

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