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SNETPSRIA 2013

Strategic Research and Innovation AgendaFebruary 2013

The Strategic Research and InnovationAgenda of SNETP is composed of thefollowing documents:

� � The Executive Summary Document� � The main Strategic Research and Innovation

Agenda Document (this document)

Contact: [email protected]

S t r a t e g i c R e s e a r c h a n d I n n o v a t i o n A g e n d a 3

S t r a t e g i c R e s e a r c h a n d I n n o v a t i o n A g e n d a

Following its launch in 2007, the firstdocument issued by the SustainableNuclear Energy Technology Platform(SNETP) was the Strategic Research

Agenda (SRA) now named Strategic Researchand Innovation Agenda (SRIA). This documentformalised the common vision of more than 70 Member organisations into more accurateresearch and development orientations andprogrammes: the SRIA enables thetransformation of a shared vision into realityand, thus, the Platform to contribute toEuropean energy policy and to the objectives ofthe Strategic Energy Technology plan (SET-Plan), in particular with the implementation ofthe European Sustainable Nuclear IndustrialInitiative (ESNII).

Today more than three years after the firstedition of the SRIA, SNETP has grown tomore than 110 members and has structured itsactivities: the launching of NUGENIA for thesafe and reliable operation of the present reactorfleet (generation II) and the deployment ofgeneration III reactors; implementation of theESNII initiative which aims to prepare thefuture deployment of the generation IV nuclearsystem relying on fast neutron technology with aclosed fuel cycle; and the preparation of a futureindustrial initiative on cogeneration for thesupply of heat for industrial purposes.

During this period, the role of nuclear energyremains as strong representing about 30% of theEuropean electricity supply despite its share inthe energy mix reducing slightly to 20%. Theimportance of the role of nuclear energy isacknowledged in the European CommissionCommunication on the decarbonisation of theeconomy (Energy roadmap 2050 –COM/2011/885 of 15 December 15, 2011).Electricity is expected to play a greater role inthe future energy supply. The scenario studiesproject a doubling of the electricity share in theenergy demand at 40% in 2050, and the same

scenarios say that the lowest cost scenarios ofdecarbonisation are the ones with the highestshare of nuclear energy.

But also an important event has occurred duringthis period with the Fukushima Daïchi accidentwhich has raised concern about the safety ofnuclear energy especially in the public mind. Ithas led to a renewed attention to the safety ofnuclear power plants, in particular in respect ofextremely severe external hazards. Research anddevelopment is an essential tool for betterunderstanding the accident phenomenology andthus for prevention and mitigation of severeaccidents. A key responsibility of nuclearoperators, and especially in the frame ofSNETP, is to take benefit of the lessons learnedfrom this accident. These research anddevelopment programmes shall be defined andimplemented with the highest priority in theupdate of the SRIA. In particular, the issue ofextremely severe and rare accidents shall beconsidered in a more global approach to safety inorder to better understand the design marginsand the behaviour of nuclear reactors underbeyond design basis accidents. This will assistthe development of more robust measures toprevent and mitigate their possibleconsequences.

Lastly, this update of the SRIA takes intoaccount the achievements of the R&Dprogrammes described in the 2009 version.

This updated version of the SRIA has beenelaborated to respond to this new situation andhaving in mind the following guidelines:

� For each part of the SRIA – NUGENIA, ESNII andNC2I – it was crucial to make the role of nuclearsafety more explicit as a key driver for theidentification of R&D needs.

� In line with its expected role in the energyroadmap 2050, nuclear energy is a long termresource for Europe and it will need to enhance its

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The Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform

Foreword

5

sustainability by minimisation of radioactivewaste and by optimisation of the use of theavailable uranium resources while maintaining itscompetitiveness.

This new edition of the SRIA is compatible andcomplementary to the SNETP vision report andthe original SRA, but more detailed descriptionsare provided for the R&D needs to beperformed in the short and medium term.

With this updated Strategic Research andInnovation Agenda, SNETP supports the roleof nuclear energy in European energy policy forthe benefit of its members and Europeancitizens with the highest priority to safety,increased sustainability and consolidatedcompetitiveness for nuclear energy.

Yves KaluznyChairman of the Executive Committee of the

Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform

S t r a t e g i c R e s e a r c h a n d I n n o v a t i o n A g e n d a6

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ExecutiveSummary


� Introduction

For sustainable prosperity, an affordableand secure energy supply with minimisedenvironmental impact is a primary need,

for Europe and beyond. With a growing worldpopulation, global energy demand is projected toincrease one-third from 2010 to 2035 with anincreased share of electricity production. Europewill have to face three energy challenges:security of energy supply, limitation ofgreenhouse gas emissions and sustainedcompetitiveness of energy-reliant economies.

The European Council committed in March2007 to very ambitious goals putting Europe atthe forefront of the fight against climate change.The “20-20-20” objectives for 2020 are:

� 20% reduction in greenhouse gas emissionscompared to 1990

� 20% energy savings� 20% share of renewable energies in the total

energy mixTo achieve both these medium term goals(2020) and a long term vision along this line(2050), the European Commission launched in2007 the “Strategic Energy Technology (SET)Plan” which identifies a list of competitive lowcarbon energytechnologies to bedeveloped anddeployed in Europe.The SET planidentifies nuclearfission as one of thekey low carbonenergy technologies.

For the 2020 objectives, the intention is to“maintain the competitiveness in fissiontechnologies together with long term wastemanagement solutions”. For the vision of 2050,

the SET Plan recommends to act now to“complete the preparation for the demonstrationof a new generation of fission reactors withincreased sustainability”.

The Communication from the EuropeanCommission of December 2011, entitled“Energy Roadmap 2050”, recognises theimportance of nuclear energy’s contribution inEurope today. With approximately 122 GWe inoperation in Europe, 30% of electricitygeneration (produced by more than 131 reactorslocated in 14 countries in the EU-27), nuclearfission represents the largest low-carbon energysource in Europe (2/3 of the decarbonisedelectricity).

The primary priority and responsibility in frontof European citizens for the nuclear energysector is, of course, nuclear safety. TheFukushima accident increased public concernabout nuclear energy and drew renewedattention to the safety of nuclear power plants.

To be sustainable, nuclear energy productionmust contribute to the well-being of futuregenerations, by reducing the use of naturalresources and avoiding detrimental effects onpublic health and the environment, includingthe minimisation of ultimate waste.

Security of supply is a key factor in the role ofnuclear energy. With the current efficiency ofuranium in nuclear power plants and at theprojected 2012 rate of consumption, the naturalresources may last up to approximately100 years, depending on the nuclear powergrowth rate in the next decades. Security ofsupply will be assured for thousands of yearswhen fast neutron reactors are deployed.

The contribution of nuclear energy to reduceCO2 emissions could be further increased byusing it directly for heat intensive applications.A particular effective approach is using nuclearreactors for cogeneration of electricity and heat.

The primary priorityand responsibility

in front of Europeancitizens for the nuclearenergy sector is, ofcourse, nuclear safety


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Executive Summary

9

More than 110 members coming from industry,research & technology organisations,universities, technical safety organisations,service providers, non-governmentalorganisations and associations have beengathered in The Sustainable Nuclear EnergyTechnology Platform (SNETP) to define acommon vision regarding the role of nuclearenergy and R&D needs for the safe, sustainable,and efficient use of nuclear fission technology.SNETP is structured around three main pillars:

� NUGENIA, since its launching in March 2012, is aninternational association mandated by SNETP. Itsmain role is to develop R&D supporting safe,reliable, and competitive second (present) andthird generation nuclear systems.

� The European Sustainable Nuclear IndustrialInitiative (ESNII) was officially launched inNovember 2010 under the SET Plan. ESNIIpromotes advanced fast reactors with the objectiveof resource preservation and minimisation of theburden of radioactive waste.

� The Nuclear Cogeneration Industrial Initiative(NC2I) aims at demonstrating an innovative andcompetitive energy solution for the low-carboncogeneration of process heat and electricity basedon nuclear energy.

Figure 1: The SNETP three pillars

� Safety vision

The safety of nuclear installations resultsfrom a permanent process ofimprovement to both reduce the

probability of accidents and mitigate theirconsequences and requires dedicated researchand development. In the past, the bulk of safetyresearch has been mostly carried out withinnational programmes supported either by public

financing schemes or by the operators. Morerecently, the R&D effort is however beingincreasingly shared internationally, in particularthrough the EURATOM FrameworkProgrammes and the OECD/NEAprogrammes. Thanks to the work performedwithin SNETP, the present release of theSNETP Strategic Research and InnovationAgenda is able to present a more comprehensivelist of the issues that Platform membersacknowledge ranking at highest priority. Mostof these topics are also suitable forharmonisation at European level.

The Fukushima accident has increased society'sconcern for the safety of nuclear power plants.Although the detailed analysis of the accidentwill take many more years, it will result in anincreased emphasis on particular R&D. In theframework of this enhanced global effort, theSNETP Governing Board empowered a TaskGroup to investigate how the lessons learnedfrom the Fukushima accident could impactsafety related R&D orientations and priorities.According to the conclusions of the Task Group,no really new phenomena were revealed by theFukushima accident, but the Task Groupidentified 13 main research subjects to beaddressed with the appropriate priority, in theareas of plant design and identification ofexternal hazards, analysis and management ofsevere accidents (in particular new systems formitigation of their consequences), emergencymanagement and radiological impact.

In parallel, most of the countries operatingnuclear reactors have launched systematicreassessments of the safety margins of theirnuclear fleet under exposure to severe naturalhazards. The European Council of 24-25 March2011 requested that a comprehensive safetyassessment be performed on all EU nuclearplants, in the light of the preliminary lessonslearned. The request of the Council comprised“stress tests” performed at national level,complemented by a European peer review.Although the stress tests were based oninformation available at the time and were notprimarily intended to specify areas for futureresearch, they also indicated the need for futurestudies and developments.

Looking ahead, and considering in particularthe outcomes from the Fukushima accident, theregulators - according to the WENRAobjectives - will require enhanced safety forreactors already in operation as well as so forthose either in construction or to be built. To


address these new and more demandingrequests, pre-normative research is to bepromoted within SNETP to achieve theinherent safety objectives. More generally,research should contribute to allow “bestestimate” evaluation of the reactor systems’behaviour, up to the cliff edge thresholdresulting in their complete degradation.

More inputs from the analysis of the Fukushimaevent will be generated in the coming years bothfrom the analysis of the situation on the site andfrom the application of simulation codes to theaccident. It can be, however, already confirmedthat the main challenges identified from thelessons learned from the accident are thefollowing:

� To better characterise any natural events, likeearthquakes, floods, etc., including methodologiesfor dealing with rare events.

� To extend even more in-depth the safety responseto any type of initiating event, especially severenatural hazards and any combination of them. Itshall be done for current reactors, Generation IIIreactors and future reactors.

� To include more systematically at the design stagethe beyond design basis accidents to assure therobustness of the defence in-depth and to avoidcliff edge effects. The approach shall includesituations where all units on the same site areaffected by a beyond design event.

� To develop wider and more robust lines of defencewith respect to design basis aggressions andbeyond design basis events, by defining additionalmeasures to consider in the design and new orimproved systems for mitigation of consequences.

It is therefore expected that safety analysis of thenuclear installations will include in the future,additional advanced elements, like:

� Evaluation of the best estimate behaviour of thenuclear installation systems for beyond designbasis accidents to assess possible challenges to thefulfilment of safety functions.

� Evaluation of the ultimate capacity of the systemswith respect to the load applied and preciseidentification of the margins and provisions thatprevent non-linear or catastrophic damage.

This will require an extension of the capabilityof physical modelling and computer tools indifferent areas and in particular in the area ofsevere accident and containment systemsimulation, enhanced in order to derive theradioactive source term due to the accident.Experimental and theoretical research efforts

will be necessary to support the possibleevolution of the safety regulations and practices.

Specific emphasis will have to be put also onemergency management, which has beenchallenged during the Fukushima accident due to:

� the concomitance of many events, the severeenvironmental conditions and the mutualinteraction between the affected units on site

� the complexity and the difficulty of the decisionmaking process which diminished the effectivenessand promptness of actions and which generatedboth confusion and delays

� the practical impossibility of recovering aworkable and stable electrical supply source forseveral days

The improvement of emergency preparednessand response shall include the consideration ofseveral items:

� the availability of more sophisticated tools toprovide to the operators with more reliable andquick indications/measurements of reactor status,to help in the implementation of an appropriaterecovery strategy

� the availability of redundant intervention meansin the vicinity of the site

� the availability of better and faster environmentalmonitoring systems, better models forcontamination predictions, health effects of low doses, and effect of contamination on the environment – in particular the marineenvironment

� a broader consideration of organisation and socialissues and cultural aspects

� better international cooperation/expertise whichcould provide help with plant status diagnostics,with forecasting accident evolution and onmitigation strategies

� Sustainability of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle

Alarge number of studies have beencarried out worldwide, and particularlyin Europe but also within the

framework of the Generation IV roadmap, toanalyse the meaning of “sustainability” when itis applied to the NFC. From that work, there isclear consensus today that a sustainable NFC ismainly linked to the durability of the solutionsaddressing the three following issues:


� optimum use of natural resources � nuclear waste minimisation� minimum impact on environmentThese objectives must be pursued whilemaintaining or increasing at the same time thesafety, the economiccompetitiveness andthe protection againstdiversion orundeclared nuclearmaterial productionand misuse oftechnology.

The change to enhanced sustainability is aprogressive process that has already started. As amatter of fact, some of the technologies forplutonium-recycling fuels are commerciallyavailable and industrially operational, inparticular in some EU countries, e.g. France, UK.

One of the most efficient routes to reducingnatural uranium consumption is to increase theconversion ratio (ratio between the total amountof artificial fissile material created inside thereactor core and the total amount of fissileisotopes “consumed”) of present and futurereactors and to recycle fissile material.

Figure 2: The closed nuclear fuel cycle illustrating the recycling and optimisation of energy resources and the minimisation of nuclear waste (Source: CIEMAT)

First improvements in the use of naturalresources could be made through advancedLWR systems with higher conversion ratio andimproved fuel design, and the associated backend of the fuel cycle. Attractive opportunitieshave already been identified for AdvancedGeneration III reactors, such as new coredesigns and loading strategies, fuelsaccommodating very high burn-ups for LWR(>70 GWd/tHM) and improved capacity forplutonium and reprocessed uranium recycling,including 100 % MOX cores, plutonium multi-

recycling for LWR and 100% plutonium coresfor HTR. The corresponding R&D challengeshave been taken into account in the NUGENIAchapter.

However, fast nuclear reactors can be designedto reach conversion ratios equal or even greaterthan one, in such a way that no more naturalfissile isotope is needed to sustain nuclear energysince the reactors generate more fissile isotopesthan they consume to produce energy. Thesereactors, called “breeders” need to be fed atequilibrium with fertile isotopes (238U or232Th) which are available in plentiful amounts,both in nature and as leftovers from the presentenrichment of the nuclear fuel in 235U.

High level waste (HLW), which contains highlyradioactive isotopes, significant quantities oflong lived radio-nuclides and is strongly heatemitting, is mainly generated by the operation ofnuclear reactors. HLW can be the spent fuel orwaste from its reprocessing or from other stepsof the NFC. The present solution for HLW is tocondition it inside isolating and protectingpackages that are then disposed of in a DeepUnderground Geological Repository (DGR). Anumber of technological and geological barriersare set up in this way to avoid any hazard to thepopulation or the biosphere. This solution hasbeen scientifically proven to be reliable and safe,and most of its technologies are ready fordeployment. The first implementations in theEU are expected in Finland, Sweden and Francewithin the next 7-20 years.

To optimise HLW management, researchshould focus on minimising several parametersof the HLW: the mass and volume ofconditioned NW to be disposed of, the longterm radiotoxic inventory, the effective“lifetime” of conditioned NW; the heatgeneration of conditioned NW as function oftime and the long term radiological impact.

These objectives can be achieved conceptually intwo generic types of scenario:

� A fleet of fast neutron critical reactors thatsimultaneously produce electricity and transmuteall the actinides. The only input into the system(reactors and fuel cycle facilities) is natural ordepleted uranium and the output is electricity andresidual Intermediate Level Waste (ILW) plusHLW, including the fission fragments, activationproducts and actinide reprocessing losses. In thisoption, the minor actinides (MA) could behomogeneously diluted within the whole fuel orseparated in the form of dedicated targets.

A higher burn-upindirectly leads to a net reduction

of natural uraniumconsumption


However the core design of these reactors has tobe optimised from the point of view of neutroneconomy and safety performance, and thefeasibility of the associated fuel cycles should alsobe addressed.

� A “double strata” reactor fleet. The first stratum isa set of critical reactors dedicated to electricityproduction using “clean fuel” containing only Uand Pu. The reactors in this stratum can be eitherpresent or future thermal reactors or fast reactors,or an appropriate combination of bothgenerations. The second stratum is devoted totransuranic elements (TRU) or MA transmutationand is based on special fast reactors or subcriticalfast systems, Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS),loaded with homogeneous fuels with high MAcontent.

The evaluation of this type of scenario indicatesthat while maintaining the safety of operation,they should ultimately be able to significantlyreduce the long term uranium consumption,making the present reserves last for severalthousand years. At the same time, the HLWlong term radiotoxic inventory could be reducedby more than a factor of 100 and its heat load bymore than a factor of 10, at medium and longterm. According to these studies the last figurewill allow the DGR capacity to be increased byfactors from 3 to more than 10 (in hard rock,clay and tuff geological formations).

The deployment of these advanced fuel cyclesinvolves large technological challenges:

� new fuels (targets) and fuel assembly designsbearing significant amounts of MA, and theirfabrication technology

� the technologies of FNR and ADS, including newmaterials, thermal-hydraulics, simulation tools,nuclear data and, in the case of ADS, the couplingof an accelerator with a subcritical core

� new recycling technologies based on advancedaqueous and pyro-metallurgic reprocessing,adapted to highly active and hot fuels containinglarge amounts of Pu and MA, and minimising theproduction of secondary wastes

Additional fuel cycle scenarios studies arerequired to complete the evaluation on thefeasibility of sustainable solutions for thetransition period from the present nuclear fleetuntil the deployment of fast nuclear systems,taking into account present perspectives fordeployments of advanced thermal reactors andfuture FNRs. Similarly, the evaluation of theimpact of these technologies in the DGR designs,

taking into account updated nuclear policies ofEU Member States, technology deployment anddifferent options for the fast systemsdeployments, needs still to be completed.

Finally, it should be mentioned that, althoughcurrently there are no short or medium termindustrial prospects in Europe for thedeployment of the thorium cycle, thorium couldbecome an attractive option for the long termdue to its large European resource base andpotential role in the nuclear waste minimisation.An interesting strategy for the long term couldbe the combination of Molten Salt Reactors(MSR) technologies. Both thermal and fastneutrons MSR with the thorium fuel cycle couldbecome important long term research topics.

� NUGENIA - nuclear fission technologies for Generation II and III nuclear plants

NUGENIA (NUclear GENeration II &III Association), established on14 November 2011, developed the

roadmap which forms the basis for theGeneration II & III part of the SNETP SRIA.The main mission of NUGENIA, whichreceived a mandate from SNETP, is to be theintegrated framework between industry, researchand safety organisations for safe, reliable andcompetitive Generation II & III nuclear fission.

Figure 3: Golfech NPP over the Garonne river (Source: EDF)


The R&D under NUGENIA is organised in sixtechnical areas:

1. Plant safety and risk assessment2. Severe accidents 3. Improved reactor operation4. Integrity assessment of systems, structures and

components5. Fuel, waste management and dismantling6. Innovative LWR Generation III design

plus two cross-cutting areas:

� Harmonisation� In-service inspection and inspection qualification

Each area coordinates its detailed roadmapwhile ensuring proper transverse homogeneity.Periodic updates of the roadmap (typically every3-4 years) will allow adaption to evolvingcontexts. The roadmap presented in this SRIA isbased on extracts from the detailed NUGENIAroadmap.

NUGENIA Technical Area 1 (TA1), Safety andrisk of NPPs, is devoted to improving under-standing and numerical representation for therelevant phenomena involved in incidents andaccidents at NPPs,in order to increasethe realism of plantbehaviour assess-ment and toenhance the accura-cy of safety marginassessment. Themain challengesidentified within this TA1 are:

� challenges in the field of Probabilistic SafetyAssessment, including quantitative aspects,methodologies to assess shut-down state, andexternal events, assessing of risk related to spentfuel pool, and best practice for probabilistic safetyassessment (PSA) application.

� deterministic assessment of plant transients:improving models for plant transients includingthermal hydraulics, design and evaluation ofpassive safety systems, coupled multi-physicscodes, containment behaviour, fluid structureinteractions.

� impact of external loads (including electricaldisturbances) and other hazards on the safetyfunctions

� advanced safety assessment methodologies: safetymargins and best estimate methods, integratingthe deterministic and probabilistic safetyassessments,

� design of new reactor safety systems.

NUGENIA Technical Area 2 (TA2) is devoted tosevere accidents. Despite the highly efficientaccident prevention measures adopted for thecurrent Generation II and the still moredemanding ones for the Generation III plants,some accident scenarios may, with a lowprobability, result in a severe accident (SA), asrecently enphasised with the Fukushima Daiichi

accident in Japan.This SA caneventually result incore melting, plantdamage and dispersalof radioactivematerials outside theplant containment,thus threatening

public health and the environment.

This risk can be substantially decreased whenstate-of-the-art devices currently available forprevention and mitigation of severe accidentsare installed. Lessons from the Fukushimaaccident and consequences related to accidentmanagement provisions from the recentlycompleted ENSREG stress tests and othernational activities will lead to furtherenhancement of the safety of NPPs.

Within NUGENIA TA2, general objectives aredefined and followed to further reinforce NPPsafety provisions through better understanding ofsome predominant phenomena, improvingSevere Accident Management Guidelines(SAMGs) and designing new prevention devicesor systems for mitigation of SA consequences.

The highest priority safety challenges aredescribed in the following sub-areas:

� in-vessel corium/debris coolability� ex-vessel corium interactions and coolability� containment behaviour including hydrogen

explosion risk� source term� impact of severe accidents on the environment � severe accident scenarios� emergency preparedness and response

NUGENIA Technical Area 2 (TA2)is devoted to severe

accidents


NUGENIA Technical Area 1 (TA1)deals with Safety andrisk of current Nuclear

Power Plants

NUGENIA Technical Area 3 (TA3) is devoted toimproved reactor operation. Safe and efficientoperation of the plants is the result of a blend ofhuman, organisational and technologicalaspects. The R&D topics developed to improvereactor operation include the following issues:

� human and organisational factors� integration of digital technologies� core management� water chemistry and LLW management� radiation protection

After the accident at Fukushima, studies onHuman and Organisational Factors (HOF) willbe mainly addressing human and organisationalperformance in emergency conditions, tosupport preparedness for an emergency.

Digital technologiesare nowadaysdeployed in allmodern powergeneration plantsand also in largeindustrial plants. Inthe nuclear power sector, however, the regulatoryconditions and financial risk are favouringextending the use of analogue systems, evenbeyond their initially expected service lifetime,and delaying the deployment of newtechnologies. Implementation of digitaltechnologies is becoming a more and moreurgent issue for the life extension of theGeneration II reactors, as well as for thedeployment of the Generation III, offering aunique opportunity for improving operationalperformance while respecting safety margins.

Other operational targets supported by researchin TA3 will be optimisation of core loadingstrategies, water chemistry management andreduction of radiological dose for workers.

NUGENIA Technical Area 4 (TA4) addressesSystems, Structures and Components (SSCs).Structural assessments of SSCs are an importantpart of NPP management programmes (e.g.ageing management, maintenance and designchanges) to improve safety and availability.These assessments are required, for instance, toenable and improve the effectiveness of periodicsafety reviews. Aspects that need to beconsidered include definition of integrityassessment over the whole life cycle, the variousdegradation mechanisms, ageing issues, safety

margins and harmonisation. While theassessment principles used in that context aregenerally comparable in Europe, the actual

methodologies andcodes are stilldifferent in thevarious Europeancountries.

The objective ofNUGENIA TA4 is

to improve understanding, and to developmethods and tools in order to increase the safetyand availability of systems, structures andcomponents needed for reliable and safemanagement of nuclear power plant lifetime.Research challenges requiring R&Dprogrammes have been identified as follows:

� integrity Assessment, both for metalliccomponents and concrete

� quantification of the loadings, also for metalliccomponents and concrete

� materials Performance and Ageing, coveringmaterial properties, metallic components,polymer materials, ageing and degradationmechanisms, metallic component issues, issues forconcrete structures, polymer materials andmodelling of ageing

� ageing Monitoring, Prevention and Mitigation,including topics on ageing monitoring of metalliccomponents, R&D topics on concrete material,polymers and electrical equipment, andprevention and mitigation of ageing for metalliccomponents and concrete

� functionality, including R&D topics on equipmentreliability, industrial obsolescence, maintenanceand qualification

NUGENIA Technical Area 5 (TA5), FuelDevelopment, Waste and Spent FuelManagement and Decommissioning, coversdevelopment of nuclear fuel for existing,advanced and innovative core designs, aspects offuel use in reactors (nuclear fuel behaviourmechanisms) and the fuel management steps –manipulation, transport and interim wet and dry

storage. It alsoincludes factorsrelating to thegeneration andmanagement ofradioactive waste, andthe dismantling anddecommissioning ofnuclear power plants.

NUGENIA Technical Area 5 (TA5),Fuel Development,

Waste and Spent FuelManagement andDecommissioning

NUGENIATechnical Area 4 (TA4)addresses Systems,Structures and

Components (SSCs)

NUGENIA Technical Area 3 (TA3)

is devoted toimproved reactor

operation


Nuclear fuel production and use has reached arelatively mature state; nevertheless there ismotivation to improve LWR oxide-based fueltypes; to increase burn-ups; to increase fuel reli-ability safety margins; to reduce reactoroperating costs (including fuel costs); to reducethe amount and/or radio-toxicity of spent fuel;to recycle existing waste (uranium, plutoniumand minor actinides from prior reprocessingoperations); to improve proliferation resistance.

In order to performthis research it isnecessary to main-tain keyexperimental infra-structures, such asflexible high fluxirradiation facilities,hot cells and PIElaboratories.

Decommissioning R&D will focus on wasteminimisation strategies and on the developmentof efficient dismantling technologies for struc-tures and components, including remotedismantling techniques.

NUGENIA Technical Area 6 (TA6), InnovativeLWR design. In advance of industrialdeployment of the fourth generation of nuclearreactors (ESNII), and considering the ageing ofthe current European nuclear power plant fleet,there will be an opportunity for preparing thenext Light Water Reactor generation forelectricity production throughout the 21stcentury.

R&D for the design and construction of reactorcomponents will be a cross-cutting aspect thatwill apply to all Light Water Reactors, existingand new designs, in order to improve: safety &commissioning, operability, sustainability,economics and public acceptance especiallyfollowing the Fukushima accident.

Knowing that new technology deployment atthe industrial scale could be a long process, thefollowing time lines will be considered:

� evolutionary technology for mid-term application� breakthrough technology for the longer term� advanced LWR designs such as with higher

conversion ratio or small modular reactors,expected to be ready for commercial operation by15 to 20 years

The R&D work proposed to support existingand new light water reactor concepts, will befocused on achieving long term operation bydesign; safety by design; innovative componentsfor reduced maintenance; and enhancedeconomics.

Harmonisation is aimed at reducing anysubstantial difference within a group ofcountries in design and fabrication of systemsand components, in nuclear safety level andrequirements, as well as in safety assessmentprocesses and practices. It involves the search fora long-term convergence towards the agreedWENRA objectives.

Accordingly the objectives of the NUGENIAharmonisation Technical Area are setting up theR&D basis for an effective standardisation ofreactor component assessments and improvingthe safety level of the nuclear installationthrough shared design approaches and licensingprocesses.

There are three main fields of endeavour:

� pre-normative research (PNR) for new design andoperating conditions, but also for definition oflimits, criteria and establishment of practices

� establishment of shared codes and standards� strategy providing smooth and efficient methods

to progressively enlarge consensus amongstakeholders

Challenges forinspection andqualification will bethe qualification ofprocedures based onnew non-destructivetesting technologies,the optimisation of inservice inspectionfrequency, to be basedon risk reduction

quantification, and the definition ofmethodologies for pre-service inspection fornew builds.

For the developmentof these fast reactorswithin ESNII, it is of

paramount importanceto excel in safety,

reliability, radiologicalprotection and security


NUGENIA Technical Area 6 (TA6)

is devoted toinnovative LWR design

and technology


� European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative ESNII

One of the major concerns of society withregard to the implementation of nuclearenergy is the high-level nuclear waste.

Fast spectrum reactors with closed fuel cycleswill allow a significant reduction in high-levelnuclear waste radiotoxicity and volume. Fastreactors will also allow an increase in naturalresource (uranium) utilisation by a factor ofaround 50. In this way, it is clear that the use offast reactors with a closed fuel cycle approachwill allow more sustainable implementation ofnuclear energy.

For the development of these fast reactorswithin ESNII, it is of paramount importanceto excel in safety, reliability, radiologicalprotection and security.

The main objective of ESNII is to maintainEuropean leadership in fast spectrum reactortechnologies that will excel in safety and will beable to achieve a more sustainable developmentof nuclear energy. With respect to the 2010evaluation of technologies, sodium is stillconsidered to be the reference technology sinceit has more substantial technological and reactoroperations feed-back. The Lead(-bismuth) FastReactor technology has significantly extendedits technological base and can be considered asthe shorter-term alternative technology, whereasthe Gas Fast Reactor technology has to beconsidered as a longer-term alternative option.The main goal of ESNII is to design, license,construct, commission and put into operationbefore 2025 the Sodium Fast ReactorPrototype reactor called ASTRID and theflexible fast spectrum irradiation facilityMYRRHA.

ASTRID will allow Europe to demonstrate itscapability to master the mature sodiumtechnology with improved safety characteristicsresponding to society's concern of having thehighest possible level of safety. Therefore, thedesign of ASTRID focuses on meeting thechallenges in terms of industrial performanceand availability, improved waste managementand resource utilisation and a safety levelcompatible with WENRA objectives for newnuclear build, whilst at the same time targetingto achieve of the Generation IV goals. Anassociated R&D programme will continue to

accompany and support the development ofASTRID to increase the lines of defence androbustness of this technology, and allow thegoals of the 4th generation to be reached, notonly on safety and proliferation resistance, butalso on economy and sustainability.

Figure 4: ASTRID design primary system (Source: CEA)

With MYRRHA, Europe will again operate aflexible fast spectrum irradiation facility insupport of the technology development (inparticular for material, components and fuelirradiation tests) of the three fast reactor systems(SFR, LFR and GFR). Also, MYRRHA willoffer a wide range of interesting irradiationconditions for fusion material research. SinceMYRRHA will be conceived as an AcceleratorDriven System, it will be able to demonstratethe ADS technology, thereby allowing thetechnical feasibility of one of the keycomponents in the double strata strategy forhigh-level waste transmutation to be evaluated.Due to the fact that MYRRHA will be based onheavy liquid metal technology (namely lead-bismuth eutectic), it can serve the role of LeadFast Reactor European Technology Pilot Plant(ETPP) as identified in the LFR roadmap. Anassociated R&D programme will accompanyand support the development of MYRRHA.

For the financing of the total investment cost ofthese facilities, it will be of paramountimportance to establish the appropriateconsortium structure and legal basis, allowingcandidate consortium members to identify theadded value of the facility for their own interest.

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In parallel to the realisation of ASTRID andMYRRHA, activities around the Lead FastReactor technology and the Gas Fast Reactortechnology should be continued, taking intoaccount their specific needs.

For the development of the Lead-cooled FastReactor, maximum synergy of activities will besought with the MYRRHA development tooptimise resources and planning. For the LFRdemonstrator ALFRED, the main focus shouldbe on design activities typical for a critical powerreactor connected to the grid, as well as on R&Dactivities on the lead coolant, addressing thespecific characteristics that differ from leadbismuth. Design activities and support R&Dshall be performed in the next years to themaximum extent compatible with availableresources and taking full advantage of feedbacks,where applicable, from the ongoing design ofMYRRHA and related R&D programmes.These activities will allow the LFR consortiumto reach the level of maturity needed to start thelicensing phase and then the construction ofALFRED, provided that adequate financialresources are made available.

Figure 5: MYRRHA Lay-out picture (Source: SCK-CEN)

In addition to the closure of the nuclear fuelcycle in a sustainable manner, the Gas FastReactor has the potential to deliver hightemperature heat at ~800 °C for process heat,production of hydrogen, synthetic fuels, etc..The Helium cooled Fast Reactor is aninnovative nuclear system having attractivefeatures: helium is transparent to neutrons and ischemically inert. Its viability is howeveressentially based on two main challenges. First,the development and qualification of aninnovative fuel type that can withstand theirradiation, temperature and pressure conditionsput forward for the GFR concept. Secondly, ahigh intrinsic safety level will need to bedemonstrated for this GFR concept. This willimply dedicated design activities followedprobably by out-of-pile demonstrationexperiments. These high priority R&D activitiesshould be embedded into an overall R&Droadmap in support of the development of the

Gas Fast Reactor concept. For the development,guidance and implementation of this R&Deffort, a GFR centre of excellence will becreated. This centre could develop the technicalcapability to launch the ALLEGRO gas cooleddemonstrator.

Based on the ADRIANA project, a number ofsupporting facilities for the different systemsand technologies have been identified. Therealisation and operation of these supportingfacilities, in particular a fast reactor MOXproduction line, will be of primary importanceto reach the aforementioned objectives.

Raising the financial resources to carry out theESNII projects and to build the differentfacilities will be a key factor of success. In thisrespect, international collaboration through GIFand bilateral or multi-lateral frameworks will besought to optimise resources. In the next years,project financing capabilities may modify theESNII part of this Strategic Research &Innovation Agenda.

� Nuclear Cogeneration

Nuclear cogeneration relates to the co-production of heat and electricity usinga nuclear reactor. Fossil fuels are today

by far the main source of heat for Europeanindustry, transport and households. Theproduction of heat with nuclear technology is amajor innovation that can open a new andsignificant market potential for nuclear systems,whilst providing a notable contribution toEuropean energy policy in terms of curbingCO2 emissions and increasing security of energysupply.

Additionally, short-term opportunities forhouseholds such as district heating, anddesalination to solve fresh water shortages, andlong-term opportunities for reducing fossil fuelusage in transport, by generating synthetic fuelsvia nuclear powered hydrogen production, add asignificant market and carbon emissionreduction potential.

Nuclear cogeneration is already a reality. InEurope, more than 1000 GWh of low-temperature heat was produced in 2006 inBulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania,Slovakia and Switzerland. Water reactors have



extensive operational experience, including inlow-temperature cogeneration. Lowtemperature cogeneration from a fast neutronreactor was proven for desalination in the case ofone Kazakh plant (BN-350). Significantdevelopment is however needed before nuclearcogeneration can be considered for mediumlevel temperature applications.

High temperature reactors (HTR) on the otherhand provide significant perspectives formedium and high temperature cogenerationapplications. The HTR features high efficiency,due to elevatedprimary coolanttemperatures, and avery high level ofinherent safety. TheHTR technologybuilds on thedevelopments inGermany in the1980s, as well as in previous research in UK andUSA, re-established and revived in severalnational and European framework programmeprojects from the year 2000 onwards. Thecoupling of HTR with end-users for hightemperature cogeneration has still to bedeveloped.

Two HTR design concepts use the same highsafety standard TRISO fuel particles eitherembedded in graphite spheres for the pebble bedcore or in compacts inserted into graphite blocksin the block-type core. The present majorrealisations of the design are the test reactorsHTR10 (pebble bed) in China and the HTTR(block-type) in Japan. The HTR design allowshigh flexibility in terms of power rating andtemperature. In addition, its inherent safetycharacteristics, including limitation of fueltemperature in case of accidents and thethreefold containment of radioactivity in theTRISO fuel particles, complemented by theinert helium coolant, underscore the high safetycredentials of HTR.

For HTR-development, the design options canbe classified into:

1. Short term: indirect cycle, steam production 550-600°C (current coal fired power plantconditions as reference), power/heat splitdepending on demand

2. Mid term: follow materials developmenttowards higher temperature applications in fossil-fired plants, possibly switch to a heat carrier otherthan steam

3. Long term: 950°C or beyond (primary side)requires change and thus development ofstructural material for applications such asthermo-chemical H2 production and other hightemperature processes

The R&D efforts for nuclear cogenerationimplementation can be subdivided into threeparts: generic R&D, R&D towardsdemonstration of nuclear cogeneration usinghigh temperature reactor technology and R&Dto broaden the potential of HTR technology.

The following nuclear cogeneration R&Dsubjects are generic, as they are relevant for allnuclear systems operating in cogenerationmode, but their importance and relevancedepend strongly on the nuclear systemenvisaged, and the process it is connected to:

� tritium transport reduction to secondary andtertiary systems

� impact of process transients on cogenerationsupply unit, and vice versa

� coupling technology including energy buffering� adaptation of existing LWR and future SMR to

meet strongly growing demand for district coolingand seawater desalination in arid countries

R&D towards demonstration of nuclearcogeneration using high temperature reactorsmainly concerns safety demonstration, licensingsupport and technology innovation to maintainand strengthen the HTR knowledge base andsupport demonstration, possibly throughinternational collaboration.

Beyond demonstration, the potential of nuclearheat sources can be further broadened byappropriate R&D. Of particular relevance is theresearch in the following areas:

� for HTR: increased primary coolant temperature(950ºC) for enhanced efficiency and broaderapplication perspectives

� alternative fuel cycles, including thorium, toconserve fuel resources, minimise waste andoptimise cycle length

Major investments are needed in modernexperimental infrastructure and facilities toenable the above R&D to be performedadequately. The following facilities are essential:

� new irradiation facilities for the investigation,characterisation, development and, ultimately,validation and qualification of HTR fuels andmaterials. Accident testing requires developmentof novel and specific irradiation test facilities and

19

The HTR design allows high flexibilityin terms of power

rating andtemperature

equipment. Additionally an in-pile helium loop isneeded to assess material behaviour underrepresentative primary coolant flow andirradiation conditions

� out-of-pile testing facilities such as accident testhelium loops

� modern hot cells with heating tests and state-of-the-art PIE possibilities to enable the generationof the appropriate data for code development andvalidation, and to increase the fundamentalunderstanding of material and fuel behaviour

� fuel manufacturing laboratory, also able to handletransuranic elements

These facilities serve two purposes: on the onehand they are essential for appropriate R&D tobe performed, on the other, they form the basisfor the design, licensing and operation of ademonstration plant.

� Cross-cutting R&D topics

In the present SRIA the R&D topics havebeen organised according to the related reac-tor technologies, however some topics have

intrinsic cross-cutting nature. This is the case forfuel cycle technologies bridging different reactorgenerations, in particular the fuel reprocessing.Education & Training and Knowledge manage-ment are also topics affecting to all nucleartechnologies. Knowledge management is essen-tial as it allows storing and disseminating theresults of research.

Many opportunities to improve the optimalutilisation of natural resources and nuclear wasteminimisation are open by the reprocessing of thenuclear fuel after its use in nuclear reactors. Thefuel reprocessing allows separating materials thatcan be reused in thermal or fast nuclear reactors,either to produce additional energy or to minimisethe final waste to be sent to the geologicalrepository. Indeed, the reprocessing of used nuclearfuel is a critical component of all the strategies forlong-term sustainability of nuclear energy.

Reprocessing of the fuel used in the present LWRsis a common industrial practice in France, andsimilar technologies also available in the UK. Theplutonium and uranium recovered are partiallyrecycled in the same LWRs in the form of MOXand the rest is saved for use in future FNR.

The challenges for the R&D in fuelreprocessing, include the industrialisation oflaboratory technologies for separation of minoractinides from the high level wastes of thereprocessing of the fuel used in the presentreactors; the development of reprocessing ofadvanced fuels foreseen for future reactors(FNR, ADS, advanced thermal reactors andHTR); technologies able to perform jointextraction of several actinides; and theminimisation of secondary wastes in all thesestrategies. These developments should beperformed coherently with the technologies foradvanced fuel fabrication and characterisation.

In the short term,the required R&Dfor nuclear wastereprocessing can beperformed in severalexisting basicscience andvalidation facilities,but in the mediumterm demonstrationplants for the

reactors, fuel fabrication and advancedreprocessing technologies will be needed, bothat national and European levels. At long termthe R&D should focus on the industrialimplementation of partitioning andtransmutation.

With regards to E&T the key challenge is stillto raise the attractiveness for qualified youngpeople of studies and professions related tonuclear technologies. This challenge has beenenhanced by the impact of the Fukushimaaccident. Systematic approaches are underpreparation to develop solutions tailored to meetthe challenges that nuclear E&T is facing in thenear future.

Of particular relevance is the relationshipbetween nuclear education and training andnuclear research: First, the quality of nuclearresearch directly depends on the interest andengagement of highly qualified scientists andengineers in those activities. Second, researchplays a crucial role for the qualification of youngscientists and engineers by providing know-whyand other important competences required tosolve relevant technological and safety issues andto ensure the capability for leadership inorganisations involved with nuclear energyissues.

With regards to E&Tthe key challenge is still to raise theattractiveness for

qualified young peopleof studies and

professions related tonuclear technologies


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SNETPSRIA 2013


Table of contents

Message from the SNETP Chairman 25

Introduction 27

Safety vision 331. Introduction 332. The Fukushima accident and its implications 343. Outcomes of the European Stress Tests 344. Priority research items identified by the SNETP Fukushima Task Group 355. New directions and challenges in safety research 36

Sustainability of the nuclear Fuel Cycle 391. Introduction 392. Nuclear Fuel Cycle 393. R&D to improve sustainability of Nuclear Fuel Cycles 40

NUGENIA - nuclear fission technologies for Generation II and III nuclear plants 45Introduction 45TECHNICAL AREA 1 – Safety and risk of NPPs 46TECHNICAL AREA 2 – Severe accidents 50TECHNICAL AREA 3 – Improved reactor operation 54TECHNICAL AREA 4 – Systems, Structures and Components 56TECHNICAL AREA 5 – Fuel Development, Waste and Spent Fuel Management and Decommissioning 63TECHNICAL AREA 6 – Innovative LWR design and technology 66

ESNII fast reactor systems for sustainable fuel cycles 69Introduction 69The ASTRID Project (Advanced Sodium Technical Reactor for Industrial Demonstration) 71The MYRRHA Project (Multipurpose Hybrid Research Reactor for High-tech Applications) 75The ALFRED Project (Advanced Lead Fast Reactor European Demonstrator) 80The ALLEGRO Project 83

NC2I - Nuclear Cogeneration Industrial Initiative 89Introduction 89Challenges: Research, Development and Innovation 92R&D Infrastructure: the bridge to deployment 93R&D to bring innovation to the market 94

Cross-cutting R&D topics 95Fuel reprocessing 95Education, training and knowledge management 96

Conclusions and way forward 99

Glossary 101

Contributors 103


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Message from the SNETP Chairman

The Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform SR

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Launched in September 2007, theSustainable Nuclear EnergyTechnology Platform (SNETP)gathers more than 110 members from

at least 22 European countries. The SNETPissued the first Strategic Research Agenda in2009 defining three pillars of the platform.These pillars evolved into functional workingbodies with a defined European outlook andidentified representatives.

The first pillar integrates and develops furtherR&D capabilities to maintain the safety andcompetitiveness of existing technologies.SNETP has mandated the internationalassociation NUGENIA established in March2012 to take over the work originated in theSNETP WG Gen II/III, NULIFE, andSARNET.

In the second pillar are gathered actors with theaim of developing a new generation of moresustainable reactor technologies. ESNII waslaunched as an industrial initiative recognised bythe SET-Plan in September 2010.

Since 2011 the third pillar, focused ondeveloping new industrial applications of nuclearpower, is represented by NC2I Task Force.

The period 2007-2013 has witnessed theconsolidation of SNETP within the Europeanframework, as well as the defining of prioritiesand deployment strategies. The publication ofan updated Strategic Research and InnovationAgenda (SRIA) allows the platform to updateafter 4 years since the first issue the prioritiesand strategic approaches. The content of thesecond edition of the SRIA has been open tobroad consultation and represents the viewpointof various stakeholders representing utilities,vendors, technology providers, researchorganisations, technical safety organisations,universities, consultancy companies and non-governmental organisations.

I would like to express my gratitude to all ofthem.

F. PazderaChairman of the Sustainable Nuclear

Energy Technology Platform

25S t r a t e g i c R e s e a r c h a n d I n n o v a t i o n A g e n d a

For sustainable prosperity, an affordableand secure energy supply withminimised environmental impact is a

primary need, for Europe and the rest of theworld. With a growing world population,global energy demand will increase one-thirdfrom 2010 to 20351.

Currently the major share of energy needs iscovered by fossil fuel resources; consequentlyincreased geopolitical tensions and energy pricevolatility have a negative impact on the economy.Energy security has become a global concern.The target to decarbonise Europe’s economy by80-95% by 2050 implies a major reduction ingreenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, anaffordable, secure and sustainable energy supplyis necessary to preserve prosperity in Europe.The International Energy Agency (IEA) hashighlighted the critical role of governments andunderlined the need for urgent action.

The Sustainable Nuclear Energy TechnologyPlatform is the European Technology Platformgathering stakeholders involved in the researchand innovation and in the demonstration anddeployment of nuclear fission reactors and fuelcycle facilities, and the associated education andtraining. More than 110 members from industry,research & technology organisations, universities,technical safety organisations, service providers,non-governmental organisations and associationsshare a common vision on the role of nuclearenergy and on the need for a safe, sustainable, andefficient use of nuclear fission technology.

SNETP aims at promoting the research,development and demonstration of Europeannuclear fission technologies.

This second edition of the Strategic ResearchAgenda, issued four years after the first one, isnow called Strategic Research and InnovationAgenda (SRIA), to underline the importance ofInnovation in the framework of the nuclearfission technology road-map. It takes intoconsideration changes occurring in recent years,both due to the economic crisis, and due to theFukushima accident and its implications atpolitical level. It also takes into account thatdevelopment of nuclear technology should bedone in a progressive way, to warranty that safetyis respected and the very large investmentsinvolved are protected, along the whole processfrom conception to demonstration.

This issue includesan assessment of theachievements andprogress since theprevious release, anevaluation of thelessons learnt fromthe Fukushima

accident (including conclusions from theSNETP Fukushima Task Force) and an updateof the present SNETP vision of nuclearresearch, making more explicit, both, the role ofsafety on all points of the nuclear R&Dprogrammes, and the principle of enhancedsustainability by the minimisation of waste andoptimisation of the use of available resources,while maintaining competitiveness.

Over 100 scientists, researchers and engineershave contributed to the update of thisdocument. NUGENIA and the rest of theWorking Groups in SNETP have collaboratedin the creation of the Strategic Research andInnovation Agenda.

SNETP aims at promoting the research,

development anddemonstration ofEuropean nuclearfission technologies

Figure 6: Increase of Energy Consumption Worldwide 2010-2035 (Source: IAEA World Energy Outlook 2011)


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1 - IAEA World Energy Outlook 2011

Context of energy policy

Europe has to face three energy challenges:security of energy supply, limitation ofgreenhouse gas emissions and competitivenessof energy-reliant economies, while keeping theglobal temperature increase below 2ºC and thusavoiding dangerous impact on climate.

The European Council committed in March2007 to very ambitious goals putting Europe atthe forefront of the fight against climate change.The “20-20-20” objectives for 2020:

� 20% reduction in greenhouse gas emissionscompared to 1990

� 20% energy savings� 20% share of renewable energies in the total

energy mixThe EU is currently on track to meet two ofthose targets, but will not meet its energyefficiency target unless further efforts are made2.The European Council has also given a long-term commitment to the decarbonisation pathwith a target for the EU and other industrialisedcountries of an 80 to 95% cut in emissions by2050 compared to 1990 levels.

To achieve both the medium term goals (2020)and the long term vision (2050), Europelaunched in 2007 the “Strategic EnergyTechnology (SET) Plan” which identifies a listof competitive low carbon energy technologiesto be developed and deployed in Europe3.

The SET plan identifies nuclear fission as one ofthe key low carbon energy technologies whichEurope must develop and deploy. For the 2020objectives, the intention is to “maintain thecompetitiveness in fission technologies togetherwith long term waste management solutions”.This can be translated as maintaining at least thecurrent level of nuclear energy in Europe’selectricity mix (around 30%) through long-termoperation of existing plants and an ambitiousprogramme of new build.

For the vision of 2050, the SET Planrecommends us to act now to “complete thepreparation for the demonstration of a newgeneration of fission reactors with increasedsustainability”.

Role of nuclear energy in Europe

The Communication from the EuropeanCommission in December 2011 entitled“Energy Roadmap 2050”4, recognises theimportance of nuclear energy’s contribution inEurope today. With approx. 122 GWe inoperation in Europe, that equates to 30% ofelectricity generation (produced by more than131 reactors located in 14 countries in the EU-275), nuclear fission represents the largest low-carbon energy source in Europe (2/3 of thedecarbonised electricity).

Thus, nuclear energy is the most important lowcarbon technology in Europe’s energy mix. It isestimated (see the platform’s Vision Report) thatcompared to a representative mix of alternativebase-load capacity (essentially gas and coal),Europe’s nuclear power plants represent a savingof almost 900 million tonnes of CO2 per year,i.e. approximately the level of emissions fromthe whole transport sector.

Access to secure andaffordable energy isvital if society is tomeet these needs.Because of its polyva-lence, access toelectricity is particu-larly important.

Nuclear energygenerates aroundone-third of EUelectricity and two-thirds of its

carbon free electricity

Figure 7: EU GHG emissions towards an 80% domestic reduction (100% = 1990) (Source: Low-Carbon Economy Roadmap March 2011 - European Commission)

Figure 8: Electricity generation shares in EU-27 in 2011(Source: Eurostat / Electricity production and supply statistics)

2 - Energy Efficiency Plan -COM(2011) 109

3 - Communication from theCommission COM (2007)723 final, see this link:http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0723:FIN:EN:PDF

4 - Communication from theEuropean Commission (COM2011) 885 final, see thislink:http://ec.europa.eu/energy/publications/doc/2012_energy_roadmap_2050_en.pdf

5 - European NuclearSociety – July 2012: http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclear-power-plant-europe.htm


http://ec.europa.eu/energy/publications/doc/2012_energy_roadmap_2050_en.pdf






http://eur-lex.europa.eu/ LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0723:FIN:EN:PDF




To be sustainable, energy production must avoidendangering the well-being of future genera-tions, not only by reducing the use of naturalresources but also by minimising detrimentaleffects on public health and the environment,including the production of ultimate waste. Inparticular, electricity production must achievehigh levels of safety and limit harmful emissionsover the full lifecycle of the plant (cradle tograve).

Nuclear energy is the most cost competitivecarbon free form of electricity generation. Theshare of new power generation and investmentshows how renewables are often capital-intensive, representing 60% of investment for30% of additional generation.

Furthermore the European nuclear industry is abig job creator in the low carbon energy mix.Based on the scenario “Delayed CCS” of the EUEnergy Roadmap 2050 (where nuclearcontributes nearly 20% in 2050) the nuclearindustry will create 347,000 additional jobs inEurope coming from Lifetime extension, newbuild, decommissioning and geological disposalprogrammes, over and above the jobs created bythe regular operation (900,000 jobs). Thecorresponding total "valued added" for theEuropean economy can be estimated to €70billion per year6.

Security of supply is a key factor in the role ofnuclear energy. With the current efficiency ofuranium in nuclear power plants and at theprojected 2012 rate of consumption, the naturalresources may last approximately 100 years7,depending on the nuclear power growth rate inthe coming decades. The security of supply willbe assured for thousands of years if fast neutronreactors with closed fuel cycle are deployed.

The Fukushima accident increased publicconcern about nuclear energy and drew a newattention to the safety of nuclear power plants.

As an immediate action after the accident, theSNETP Governing Board decided to set up adedicated task force to assess the lessons learnedfrom the Fukushima accident, in order toidentify the appropriate measures andadaptations of SNETP’s work programme. Theresults and conclusions of the Fukushima TaskForce report are reflected in this edition of theSRIA.

SNETP considers nuclear safety as its primepriority and responsibility in front of theEuropean citizens. Nuclear energy is and willneed to remain a key element in meetingEurope’s needs for security of energy supply,competitiveness, and the fight against climatechange.

Mandated by the European Commission, theEuropean Committee for Standardisation - CEN - and the European Committee for Electro-technical Standardisation - CENELEC - are entitled to developEuropean Standards (EN) for the nuclear sector.They encourage European research anddevelopment activities to feed relevant results intothe international standardisation organisationsand support new initiatives to enlarge the processof standardisation of nuclear codes.

Technology Platforms

European Technology Platforms were estab-lished by the European Commission as

industry-led stake-holder forums in 2003to promote researchand development in technologicaldomains. They “pro-vide a framework forstakeholders, led by

Technology platformsplay a key role

in ensuring the highimpact of EU researchin leading marketsand technological

areas

Figure 9: Greenhouse gas emissions (in tonnes of CO2-equivalent) per GWh for different electricity production means, (Source: World Nuclear Association)

Figure 10: Share of new power generation & investment in 2011. (Source: World Energy Outlook, IEA)

6 - Socio economic role ofnuclear 2020-2050http://ec.europa.eu/energy/nuclear/forum/opportunities/doc/opportunities/2012_04_04/socioeconomic_role_nuclear_2020_2050_final.pdf

7 - Uranium: Resources,Production and Demand“Red Book” 2011, OECD’sNEA and IAEA


http://ec.europa.eu/energy/nuclear/forum/opportunities/doc/opportunities/2012_04_04/socioeconomic_role_nuclear_2020_2050_final.pdf





industry, to define research and development prior-ities, timeframes and action plans on a number ofstrategically important issues where achievingEurope's future growth, competitiveness and sus-tainability objectives is dependent upon majorresearch and technological advances in the mediumto long term”.8

Technology Platforms play a key role inensuring the high impact of EU research inleading markets and technological areas with theoverall objective of closing the gap with globalinnovation leaders and driving jobs and growth.European Technology Platforms will supportthe European Commission in implementingThe Innovation Union and Horizon 2020.

The Strategic Research and Innovation Agendais one of the most important outputs from aTechnology Platform, as it provides decision-makers as well as the scientific community atlarge with research, development anddemonstration roadmaps to achieve a sharedvision. Due to its vital role, it is important tokeep the document up to date.

SNETP 2007 - 2012

The Sustainable Nuclear Technology Platformis now nearly six years old. During this time,SNETP has achieved efficient collaborationbetween its stakeholders and has also developeda common vision regarding the futurecontribution of nuclear fission energy in Europe.The three pillars of the platform have evolved indifferent ways:

� NUGENIA is now, since its launching in March2012, an international association mandated bySNETP. Its main role is to help develop R&Dsupporting safe, reliable, and competitive secondand third generation nuclear systems. NUGENIAhas currently 59 members from 17 countries.

� The European Sustainable Nuclear IndustrialInitiative (ESNII) was officially launched inNovember 2010 under the SET Plan. ESNIIpromotes advanced reactors with the objective ofresource preservation and the minimisation of theburden of radioactive waste. The Initiative hasalready 22 members and is continuously growingwith its four projects: ASTRID, MYRRHA, ALFREDand ALLEGRO.

� The Nuclear Cogeneration Industrial Initiative(NC2I) aims at demonstrating an innovative andcompetitive energy solution for the low-carboncogeneration of process heat and electricity basedon nuclear energy. NC2I was officially launched atthe SET-Plan Conference in November 2011.Recently, a group of industrial heat usersmanifested its interest in High TemperatureReactor (HTR) technology, although othertechnologies are not excluded. Internationalcooperation (e.g. with China or the US) could leadto a joint development of a demonstrator.

Public and stakeholder communication

SNETP also identifies efforts to resolve theconcerns raised by the public and stakeholders.

The nuclear industrymakes more and moreefforts to inform pop-ulations aroundnuclear installations,in particular throughthe use of local infor-mation committees.

Against the background of the AarhusConvention, the national authorities of allEuropean Member States engaged to provideinformation to any citizen representative body,and to listen to the questions raised regardingthe potential risks of nuclear installations.

This may involve developing new research itemsin the field of social sciences, but alsohighlighting some new technical fields forstudies devoted to answering questions fromstakeholders.Figure 11: The SNETP three pillars

Nuclear safety is the first priority of all activities, being amandatory conditionand an underlying

objective.

8 - http://cordis.europa.eu/technology-platforms/home_en.html





Structure of the Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda

This new Strategic Research and InnovationAgenda of SNETP maintains the objective of itsfirst edition to address the short-(around 2015),medium-(around 2020) and long-termchallenges (2050), as the SET-Plan does, withrespect to fission technologies.

The first chapter of the updated version of theSRIA is focused on safety. The Fukushimaaccident has raised public concern about nuclearenergy and has drawn more attention to thesafety of nuclear power plants. This chapteridentifies the challenges nuclear energy iscurrently facing in this new situation and therelevant areas of R&D that will play an essentialrole in future utilisation of nuclear power.

The second chapter addresses the R&Dchallenges for improving the current fuel cycles.The current reactors are only able to use lessthan 1% of the uranium extracted in nature. Toenhance the use of uranium and minimisation ofthe final waste the closed fuel cycle andadvanced neutron reactors play a vital role. Thischapter identifies those R&D measures thatoptimise natural resources in the short term.

The third chapter deals with the R&D to makeadvances in the safe, reliable and efficientoperation of nuclear power plants, which iscovered by NUGENIA. Key issues have beenidentified to meet safety requirements. Thischapter is structured in line with NUGENIA’seight Technical Areas: plant safety and riskassessment; severe accidents; improved reactoroperation; Integrity assessment of systems,structures and components; fuel, wastemanagement and dismantling; innovative LWRGeneration III design; harmonisation; and in-service inspection and inspection qualification.This chapter also focuses on the current state of

the art and the challenges nuclear energy has toface in the short and medium term.

ESNII fast reactor systems are treated in thefourth chapter. The European SustainableNuclear Industrial Initiative focuses on the moresustainable development of nuclear energy andits fuel cycle. This chapter deals with the currentstatus, state of the art and R&D challenges ofthe four ESNII projects: ASTRID, the SodiumFast Reactor Prototype, MYRRHA, a flexiblefast spectrum irradiation facility, ALFRED, theLead Fast Reactor Prototype and ALLEGRO,the Gas Fast Reactor Prototype.

The fifth chapter addresses another potentialmarket for nuclear energy, the cogeneration ofheat and electricity using a nuclear reactor,mainly for industrial heat application. Fossilfuels are currently the main source of heat forEuropean industry. This chapter addresses HighTemperature Reactor (HTR) technology, due toits large potential for these new applications, aswell as other technologies.

The sixth chapter focuses on cross-cuttingactivities: fuel reprocessing and Education andTraining. Technical topics addressed as cross-cutting in the SRA 2009, like materials, pre-normative research, simulation tools andinfrastructures have been integrated in the threemain technological chapters.

This new edition of the SRIA is compatible andcomplementary to the SNETP vision report, theoriginal SRA, and associated documents, butmore detailed descriptions are provided for theR&D needs to be performed in the short andmedium term. Longer-term topics, described inless detail in this update are not less important.Indeed, the SNETP’s Strategic Research andInnovation Agenda is a living document and willcontinue to be periodically reviewed andupdated.


�1. Introduction

Dedicated research and development, andpervasive safety culture, are key factors inthe permanent process of improvement

of nuclear installations and their safety.

Safety of nuclear installations has undergonecontinuous efforts since the beginning of thenuclear era and has been since then a relevantdriving force for research and developmentnuclear technology. This trend is expected to bestrengthened in the future also as a consequenceof the recent events at Fukushima.

Needs for safety research are expressed by themain stakeholders - designers, operators,regulators and TSOs - from their respectiveperspective. Part of this research - mainlyaddressing phenomenology, data-basegeneration and modelling - can be performedjointly, also relying upon contributions fromuniversities and research centres, to allow thesubstantiation of common knowledge, while thecomplement - addressing design, operation andapplied technology issues - is to be carried-outindependently, to guarantee full independencyamong the actors inthe nuclear field.

Up to now, the bulkof safety research hasbeen carried outwithin national pro-grammes supportedby either publicfinancing schemes, orby the operators, inthe respective fieldsof endeavour. Presently, the R&D effort is large-ly shared through EURATOM frameworkprogrammes and, at international level, throughthe OECD/NEA programmes, and in compli-ance with the IAEA programmes andguidelines.

The safety related R&D has been alreadyaddressed as a cross-cutting issue, in the 2009edition of the SNETP Strategic ResearchAgenda, which identified a series of safety-specific tasks both for current and advancedreactor systems.

Thanks to the work performed within SNETP -the Gen II/III WG, the NUGENIA associationand the ESNII and Cogeneration task-groupsthe present release of the SNETP StrategicResearch and Innovation Agenda is able topresent a more integrated selection of the issuesthat Platform members acknowledge as rankingat highest priority, and also suitable forharmonisation at European level.

Looking ahead, and considering in particularthe outcomes of the Fukushima accident, theregulators - according to the WENRAobjectives9 - are to require enhanced safety forreactors already in operation as well as for thoseeither in construction or to be built. On theother hand, the operators will continue to beseeking continued amelioration of the efficiencyand availability of the plants e.g. throughimproved fuel utilisation, nominal powerincrease and extended service time.

To address these new and more demandingrequests, pre-normative research is to bepromoted within SNETP to allow achieving theinherent safety objectives, thus providing thestakeholders with better optimised definitions ofsafety criteria. Moreover, suitable R&Dprogrammes are needed to support any possibleevolution of operational practices.

More generally, research should contribute toallowing best estimate evaluation of reactorsystem behaviour beyond design loads, up to thecliff edge threshold resulting in their completedegradation.

The present chapter takes into account thelessons already learnt from the Fukushima

Dedicated researchand development,and pervasive safetyculture, are keyfactors in the

permanent process of improvement ofnuclear installationsand their safety

9 - http://www.wenra.org/media/filer_public/2012/11/05/wenra_statementonsafetyobjectivesfornewnuclearpowerplants_nov2010.pdf


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Safety vision

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http://www.wenra.org/media/filer_public/2012/11/05/wenra_statementonsafetyobjectivesfornewnuclearpowerplants_nov2010.pdf





accident so as to identify the need for newR&D programmes and/or new aspects tocomplement the programmes already ongoing,also accounting for the results of the workalready carried out since publication of thefirst SRA in 2009.

�2. The Fukushima accident and its implications

The accident occurring at the FukushimaDaiichi nuclear power plant on 11March, 2011 has raised public concern

about nuclear energy and has drawn newattention to the safety of nuclear power plants,in particular in the case of extremely severeexternal hazards.

The accident was triggered by a combination oftwo main initiating events:

� An exceptional magnitude earthquake whichcaused the sudden loss of almost all the off-sitepower supply. The reactors 1-2-3 wereautomatically shut down. The residual heatremoval systems were started immediately,relying on electricity supplied by emergency powersources (diesel generators and batteries).

� The associated tsunami caused the flooding of thesite under a wave about twice the size consideredpreviously in the risk evaluation, highlighting aserious underestimation of the risk by theoperator as well as a defect in the supervisoryfunction of the safety authority. The wave led toboth the loss of all the emergency power supplysystems and of the heat sink.

The immediate challenge for the emergencyresponse team was to recover cooling capabilitiesin a situation where the off-site power supplyrequired about 11 days to be effective again. Allthe reactors in operation or loaded with fuelwere affected and experienced core melting ofvarious degrees, hydrogen explosions,radioactivity release and contamination of air,ground and seawater. The spent fuel pools wereaffected as well.

A wide activity to reconstruct the accidentscenario, investigate the phenomenology of theevents and pile-up data has already been carried-out and is presently ongoing. It will continue forseveral years, on the basis of new informationwhich will be made available, and it willcontribute to enhancing knowledge andimproving the reliability of computation

through validation, especially for severe accidentsimulation tools. It will also provide a valuableinput to the upcoming improvement of severeaccident management and emergencypreparedness measures.

The defueling, decommissioning anddecontamination activities on the FukushimaDaiichi site will take many years, likely 30 to 40,to be completed. They will also require manyactions, some of which have already beenidentified by TEPCO, mainly the development of:

� inspection methods and devices for inspection ofleakage points in the containment vessel, and foroperation in high-temperature, high humidityand high-dose environments

� remote sampling and decontamination methods� technologies and methods to repair leakage

points, including underwater repair� systems to prevent the dispersal of radioactive

materials� core defueling and fuel debris removal

technologies

These needs will likely represent an opportunityfor R&D cooperation between Europe andJapan and for the integration of this knowledgeinto European organisations.

Even if a fully detailed analysis of the systemdeficiencies is still difficult, there are alreadylessons learned providing indications for futureR&D and safety improvements. Theinvestigation of the Fukushima accident is infact generating a new scale of priorities withspecific focus on managing extreme externalevents and their combinations, on commonmode failures and human behaviour, and on theassessment of their impact on the robustness ofdefence in depth. Results from this R&D canthen be translated into real safety upgrades.

�3. Outcomes of the European Stress Tests

Anumber of initiatives have beenundertaken in many countries and atinternational level to take into account

the lessons learned from this accident for theimprovement of nuclear reactor design andsafety provisions and for the improvement of theorganisation for managing an accidentalsituation.


Most of the countries operating nuclear reactorshave launched systematic reassessments of thesafety margins of their nuclear fleet under severenatural hazards. The European Council of 24-25 March 2011 requested a comprehensivesafety reassessment to be performed on all EUnuclear power plants, with respect to extremeinitiating events and consequential loss of safetyfunctions. The request of the Council includedsafety reassessments performed at national level,complemented by a European peer review.

This multilateral exercise covered over150 reactors in European countries operatingnuclear power plants. The stress tests focused onthree topics:

1) natural initiating events, including earthquake,flooding and extreme weather

2) loss of electrical power and loss of ultimate heatsink

3) severe accident management

The stress tests consisted of three steps. In thefirst step, following the ENSREGspecifications, the plant operators performed anassessment and made proposals for safetyimprovements. In the second step the nationalregulators performed an independent review ofthe operators’ assessments and issued additionalrequirements. The last step was a European peerreview of the national reports, consisting of adesktop review, followed by a two weekassessment of the report during topical review,completed by additional discussions during thecountry reviews.

As a result of the stress tests, 17 national reportsby the respective safety authorities, a peer reviewreport for each of the seventeen participatingcountries, and a final peer review report(developed by the Stress Test Peer Review Boardand endorsed by ENSREG on 26 April 201210)were prepared. The review focused on theidentification of strong features, weaknesses andpossible ways to increase plant robustness in thelight of the preliminary lessons learned fromFukushima.

Although the stress tests were based oninformation available at the time and were notprimarily intended to specify areas for futureresearch, they nevertheless indicated the needfor future studies and developments.

�4. Priority research items identified by the SNETP Fukushima Task Group

In the framework of this enhanced globaleffort, the SNETP Governing Boardempowered a Task Group to investigate

how the lessons learned from the Fukushimaaccident could impact safety related R&Dorientations and priorities. The Task Groupconcentrated on short and medium term R&D,in particular on the development, updating andvalidation of methods and tools for areas whichare not considered as enough understood orcovered, and has issued a report11 which, even ifit can be considered as a first step of the process,already catches very important features whichare summarised here below.

On a longer timescale– several years – theoutcomes of futureexpertise acquiredfrom the reactors andfuel pools ofFukushima Daiichisite will be very

valuable for the qualification and validation ofthe results of the R&D tasks and for thedefinition of new targets.

According to the conclusions of the Task Group,no really new phenomena were revealed by theFukushima accident. However the TGidentified 13 main research subjects to beconsidered with the appropriate priority, in thefollowing areas:

a) plant design and identification of external hazardsb) analysis and management of severe accidentsc) emergency management and radiological impact

In particular, the issues related to extremelysevere and rare accidents will to be considered ina more global approach to safety in order tobetter understand the design margins and thebehaviour of nuclear reactors under beyonddesign basis scenarios.

The 13 items are:

a) systematic assessment of vulnerabilities todefence-in-depth and safety margins for beyonddesign basis loads

b) human and organisational factors under highstress and harmful conditions

According to theconclusions of the

Task Group, no reallynew phenomena

were revealed by theFukushima accident

10 - Joint statement ofENSREG and the EuropeanCommission on 26 April2012

11 - “Identification ofResearch Areas in Response to theFukushima Accident” 2013,Fukushima Task Force


c) improved methods for external event hazardevaluation

d) use of the probabilistic methods to assess plantsafety in relation to extreme events

e) advanced deterministic methods to assess plantsafety in relation to extreme events

f) advanced safety systemsg) material behaviour during severe accident h) advanced methods for the analysis of severe

accidentsi) improved procedures for management of severe

accidentsj) assessment of the radiological effects of severe

accidentsk) improved modelling of fuel degradation in spent

fuel poolsl) methods for minimisation of contamination in the

NPP surroundings and for treatment of largevolumes of radioactive waste

m) accident management in the framework of theintegrated rescue system

Special attention shall be devoted to how theresearch outcomes will be implemented andtransferred into standard industrial practice.

�5. New directions and challenges in safety research

More inputs from the analysis of theFukushima event will be generated inthe coming years both from the

analysis of the situation on the site and from theapplication of simulation codes to the accident.It can be however already affirmed that the mainchallenges identified from the lessons learnedfrom the accident are the following:

� To better characterise any natural events, likeearthquakes, floods, etc., including methodologiesfor dealing with rare events.

� To extend even more in-depth the safety approachto any type of initiating event, especially severenatural hazards and any combination of them. Itshall be done for current reactors, Generation IIIreactors and future reactors.

� To include beyond design basis accidents moresystematically at the design stage to assure therobustness of defence in-depth and to avoid cliffedge effects. The approach shall include situationswhere all units on the same site are affected by abeyond design event.

� To develop wider and more robust lines of defencewith respect to design basis aggressions andbeyond design basis events to define additionalmeasures to consider in the design and to improveor to develop systems for mitigation ofconsequences.

It is therefore expected that safety analysis of thenuclear plants will evolve in the future, definingmore advanced objectives, like

� evaluation of the best estimate behaviour of theplant systems during beyond design basisaccidents, to assess possible challenges to thefulfilment of safety functions

� evaluation of the ultimate capacity of the systemswith respect to the load applied and to identifywhen the level of damage becomes non-linear orcatastrophic

This will require an extension of the capabilityof physical modelling and computer tools indifferent areas and in particular in the area ofsevere accidents and containment systemsimulation enhanced in order to derive theradioactive source term due to the accident.Both experimental and theoretical researchefforts will be necessary to support the possibleevolution of safety regulations and practices.

Specific emphasis will have to be put also onemergency management, which has been chal-lenged during the Fukushima accident due to:

� the concomitance of many events, the severeenvironmental conditions and the mutualinteraction between the affected units on site

Figure 12: PHEBUS (Source: IRSN)


� the complexity and difficulty of the decisionmaking process which altered the effectivenessand promptness of actions and which generatedboth confusion and delays

� the practical impossibility of recovering an adequateand stable electrical supply source for several days

The improvement of emergency preparednessand response shall include the consideration ofseveral items:

� the availability of more sophisticated tools toprovide the operators with more reliable andquicker indications/measurements on the reactorstatus to help in the implementation of anappropriate recovery strategy

� the availability of redundant intervention meansin the vicinity of the site

� the availability of better and faster environmentalmonitoring systems, better models for predictingcontamination, health effects of low doses, and theeffect of contamination on the environment – inparticular the marine environment

� a broader consideration of social issues andcultural aspects

� better international cooperation/expertise whichcould provide help on plant status diagnostics, onthe forecasting of accident evolution and onmitigation strategies

The 13 items and new directions and challengesidentified by the Fukishima TF are discussed inthe R&D needs and priorities within thefollowing chapters.


12 - The general UNdefinition of sustainabilityis « Meeting the needs ofthe present withoutcompromising the ability offuture generations to meettheir own needs”


�1. Introduction

Alarge number of studies have beencarried out worldwide, and particularlyin Europe but also within the

framework of the Generation IV roadmap, toanalyse the meaning of “sustainability”12 whenapplied to the NFC. From that work, there isclear consensus today that a sustainable NFC ismainly linked to the durability of the solutionsaddressing the three following issues:

� optimum use of natural resources � nuclear waste minimisation� minimum impact on environmentThese objectives must be pursued while at thesame time maintaining or increasing safety,economic competitiveness and protectionagainst diversion or undeclared use of nuclearmaterial or technology.

Present light water reactors are only able to useless than 1 % of the mined uranium. With sucha low efficiency, the presently identifiedworldwide U resources are sufficient for about100 years7, depending inter alia on theacceptable uranium cost and on the nuclearpower growth rate during the coming decades.In order to make nuclear fission energysustainable in the long term, new technologicalsolutions improving the usage of this naturalresource by around 50 times are beingdeveloped.

The new technologyfor waste minimisa-tion and resourceoptimisation is basedon the combinationof fast neutron sys-tems withmulti-recycling of thefuel in advanced fuelcycles. This will beachieved while main-

taining or improving safety and economic com-petitiveness, and minimising risks ofproliferation.

The change to enhanced sustainability will be,most probably, a progressive process that hasalready started. As a matter of fact, some of thetechnologies for recycling fuels are commercial-ly available and industrially operative inparticular in some EU countries, e.g. France,UK. The combination of these and other exist-ing technologies with improvements in thepresent reactor designs allows to progresstowards both optimised use of natural resourcesand economic competitiveness.

This chapter describes the potential andrequired R&D associated with these advancedfuel cycles.

�2. Nuclear Fuel Cycle

In the broadest sense, the Nuclear Fuel Cycle(NFC) encompasses all steps and facilitiesneeded to produce electricity in nuclear

reactors, including uranium mining andpreparation of the fuel which will be used innuclear reactors, that is the “front end” of thefuel cycle, and the “back end” or management ofthe fuel after its use in the reactors (the spentfuel), with two main options (both implementedin Europe):

� direct disposal of spent fuel, called the “opencycle”

� recycling of valuable materials, called the “closedcycle”

More precisely, the nuclear fuel cycle includesthe following steps:

� The “front end” of the fuel cycle, which consists ofuranium (or thorium) prospection, mining andon-site purification, uranium (or thorium)conversion (to obtain pure UF6, UO2 or metal,

SR

IA


The new technologyfor waste

minimisation andresource optimisation

is based on thecombination of fastneutron systems withmulti-recycling of thefuel in advanced fuel

cycles

39

Sustainability of the nuclear Fuel Cycle

depending on its future use), uranium enrichment(if needed), and fuel fabrication.

� Fuel irradiation in nuclear reactors to produceelectricity and heat.

� “The back end” of the fuel cycle, which consists ofinterim storage of spent fuels, recycling (whichincludes reprocessing of the spent fuel to recoverrecyclable materials and fabrication of new fuelswith these materials, if this option isimplemented), transportation of radioactivematerials (spent fuels, conditioned radioactivewaste, etc), final disposal of nuclear waste (spentfuel for “open cycle” option or ultimate waste forthe “closed cycle”).

�3. R&D to improve sustainability of Nuclear Fuel Cycles

� 3.1 Optimum use of naturalresources: from the short to thelong term

There are only two kinds of “natural resources”for nuclear fission:

� Uranium, containing mainly 2 isotopes: onefissile, 235U, which constitutes only 0.71% ofnatural uranium and one fertile, 238U, whichconstitutes 99.29 % of natural uranium.

� Thorium, containing exclusively one isotope,232Th, which is a fertile isotope (producing thefissile isotope 233U). Although technicallypossible, the fuel cycle based on thorium requiresan initial supply of a fissile isotope (235U orplutonium) to be deployed and is notimplemented on an industrial scale today in anyEuropean country.

The optimisation ofnatural resources, to maximise theelectricity obtainedper unit of uraniummined, is progres-sively achieved by theindustry at each stepof the NFC, through operation of the marketand with growing technical knowledge. This isthe case for example in the front end throughthe selection of cut grade of uranium deposits ortail enrichment; by fuel management inside the

reactor; by improving reactor designs; or byspent fuel recycling, in the back end.

Optimisation at each step of the NFC impliesR&D programmes. However, the “front end”steps of the NFC, such as uranium prospectingand mining or enrichment process and fuelfabrication (UO2), are more a matter forindustry, and in the phase of commercialcompetition. Consequently, the SRIA will

rather focus onenhancing the usageof mined uraniumand generatedplutonium in presentand future reactors,and on the NFC backend options.

Nuclear reactors areable to convert a part

of the fertile isotopes which are loaded in thefresh fuel into fissile isotopes, e.g. 238U into239Pu. The ratio between the total amount ofartificial fissile material created inside thereactor core and the total amount of fissileisotopes “consumed” is called “conversion ratio”.A part of the artificial fissile isotopes is burnedin situ contributing to the generation ofelectricity and saving natural fissile isotopes.However, the part of the created artificial fissileisotopes which is not burned in situ remains inthe spent fuel when unloaded. The recycling ofthis part can further contribute to saving naturalfissile isotopes.

Consequently, one of the most efficient routes toreducing natural uranium consumption is toincrease the conversion ratio of present andfuture reactors and to recycle fissile material.

First improvements in the use of naturalresources could be made using advanced lightwater reactor systems with higher conversionratio and improved fuel design, and theassociated back end of the NFC, as well.Attractive opportunities have already beenidentified for Advanced Generation III reactors,such as new core designs and loading strategies,fuels accommodating very high burn-ups (>70 GWd/tHM) for LWR and improvedcapacity for plutonium and reprocessed uraniumrecycling, including 100 % MOX cores,plutonium multi-recycling for LWR and 100%plutonium cores for HTR. The correspondingR&D challenges, included in the objectives ofthe recently created NUGENIA association, arediscussed in the corresponding chapter.


The optimisation of natural resources is progressivelyachieved by the

industry at each stepof the Nuclear Fuel

Cycle

An efficient way ofreducing the naturaluranium consumptionis to increase thereactor conversionratio and to recycle

fissile material

However, fast nuclear reactors can be designed toreach conversion ratios equal or even greater thanone, in such a way that no more natural fissileisotope is needed to sustain nuclear energy, sincethe reactors generate more fissile isotopes thanthey consume to produce energy. These reactors,called “breeders” need to be fed at equilibriumwith fertile isotopes (238U or 232Th) which areavailable in plentiful amounts, both in nature andas leftovers from the present enrichment ofnuclear fuel. In this way, fast reactors will allowincreasing the use of the natural uraniumresources by a factor of around 50.

Therefore it must be underlined that “breeder”reactors, in practice Fast Neutron Reactors(FNR)13, are the only solution which can lead tothe long term sustainable development ofnuclear energy, with regard to the “optimum useof natural uranium resources”. Because of thiscritical role in nuclear energy sustainability, aspecific chapter of this SRIA is devoted todevelopments onFNRs, where theassociated R&D forfeasibility and naturalresource optimisationare addressed.

The efficiency ofthose technologiesdepends on theavailability of other facilities of the fuel cycle likethose for reprocessing discussed later in thischapter, and of deployment strategies. Theefficiency of different deployment strategies andthe appropriate coupling of the differentelements of the nuclear fuel cycle should beoptimised with the help of scenario studies.

� 3.2 Nuclear waste minimisation

Nuclear waste (NW) is classified in various waysin different European countries, but generally,according to its intrinsic risk and managementroute. The main parameters14 are the level ofspecific radioactivity, the decay “half life” and thespecific heat produced by the radioactivity of theunstable isotopes contained in the NW.Industrial solutions to handle Low Level Waste(LLW) and most of the Intermediate Levelwaste (ILW) are already implemented in severalEU countries.

High level waste (HLW), which contains highlyradioactive isotopes, significant quantities oflong lived radio-nuclides, and is strongly heat

emitting, is mainly generated by the operation ofnuclear reactors. HLW can be the spent fuel, orwaste from its reprocessing or from other stepsof the NFC. The present solution for HLW is toproperly condition it inside isolating andprotecting packages that are then disposed of ina Deep Underground Geological Repository(DGR). A number of technological andgeological barriers are set up in this way to avoidany hazard to the population or the biosphere.This solution has been scientifically proven to bereliable and safe, and most of its technologies areready for deployment. The first implementationsin the EU are expected in Finland, Sweden andFrance within the next 7-20 years. Theassociated R&D, technology development andimplementation are the topics of anotherTechnology Platform (ImplementingGeological Disposal, IGD-TP) and will not befurther discussed here.

To optimise HLW management, researchshould focus on minimising several parametersof the HLW:

� the mass and volume of conditioned NW to bedisposed of

� the long term “radiotoxic inventory”, which is thesum of activities of each radioisotope in the NWweighted by the dose factor that indicate the risk ifthis material would be dispersed within thepopulation

� the effective “lifetime” of conditioned NW � the heat generation of conditioned NW as function

of time, due to the radioactivity of its unstableradioisotopes. This parameter strongly affects theDGR capacity

� the “long-term radiological impact”, that is thecalculated biological effect on living species ofpossible radioactive releases into the biosphereonce part of radionuclides (or their radioactivedaughters) has reached the surface

A first way to minimise nuclear waste is toreduce the amount of radio-nuclides producedby nuclear reactors. For fission products theproduction is directly proportional to theelectricity generation, so that the only way toreduce their amounts is to increase the electricalefficiency of nuclear power reactors.Cogeneration with direct utilisation of thenuclear heat, e.g. for industrial process, could beused to reduce the amount of NW per unit ofuseful energy generated. On the other hand,there are several means to influence theproduction of the different actinides, including


13 - In principle breedercould also be designed withthermal neutron energyspectrum using thoriumbased fuels.

14 - The specificradioactivity of one object isthe number ofdisintegrations per unit oftime in a given unit volumeor in a given unit of mass.The half-life on an isotopeis the time interval requiredfor its radioactivity to getreduced by half.Nuclear waste

consists of radioactiveresidues produced byelectricity generationin fission reactors andare considered as not

reusable

the choice of reactor type (neutron spectrum) oreven the choice of fuel cycle (for example,thorium based fuel which could generate muchsmaller amounts of minor actinides in the longterm).

Once the waste has been produced, if the spentfuel is directly disposed of, there is in fact no wayto act on the previously indicated optimisationparameters, except the enhancement ofconfinement and its durability (waste matrix orwaste container) and the time before disposingof the NW. This research could also contributeto reducing the “long-term radiological impact”.These topics fall outside the scope of theSNETP, but are addressed by IGD-TP SRA inits key topic 2 "Waste forms and theirbehaviour".

If the spent fuel isreprocessed, manytechnical options areopen to produceimprovements in thefive NW parametersquoted above.

In this regard,studies, carried out,in particular, underEuropean R&D programmes, such as RED-IMPACT and PATEROS, and the conclusionsof the NEA/OECD expert groups from theWorking Party on scientific issues of AdvancedFuel Cycle (WPFC), have shown that one of themost promising routes is the “Partitioning andTransmutation” of selected radio-nuclides(particularly actinides). The general conclusionis that waste minimisation in advanced fuelcycles should be considered within a globalobjective of sustainability. Furthermore the

implications on the reduction of the number andsize of DGRs and other societal aspects need tobe considered in the fuel cycle optimisation.

In this sense, three types of objectives areidentified:

� integral management of all actinides in a longterm sustainable nuclear fleet

� integral reduction of the transuranic actinideinventories

� specific reduction of some Minor Actinideinventories (Np, Am and possibly Cm)

These objectives can be achieved conceptually intwo generic types of scenarios:

� A fleet of fast neutron spectrum critical reactorsthat simultaneously produce electricity andtransmute all the actinides. The only input into thesystem (reactors and fuel cycle facilities) is naturalor depleted uranium and the output is electricityand residual HLW plus ILW, including the fissionfragments, activation products and actinidereprocessing losses. In this option, the MA could behomogeneously diluted within the whole fuel orseparated in the form of dedicated targets.However the core design of these reactors has tobe optimised from the point of view of neutroneconomy and safety performance and, in addition,the feasibility of the associated fuel cycles shouldalso be addressed.

� A “double strata” reactor fleet. The first stratumconsists of a set of critical reactors dedicated toelectricity production using “clean fuel” containingonly U and Pu. The reactors in this stratum can beeither present or future thermal reactors or fastreactors or an appropriate combination of both.The second stratum, devoted to TRU or MAtransmutation and representing a small fractionof the total installed power, would be based onspecial low conversion ratio fast reactors orsubcritical fast systems, ADS. These reactors wouldbe loaded with homogeneous fuels with high MAcontent, and would have to be optimised from thepoint of view of neutron economy and safetyperformance.

The process of deployment of these advancedfuel cycles with partitioning and transmutationwill necessarily be progressive. In first instance,economic competitiveness will favour the lifeextension of present reactors or theirreplacement with advanced Generation IIILWRs. Later, as U resources become scarcer andwaste inventories grow, the fast nuclear systems(FNR and/or ADS) will appear more attractiveand will eventually be progressively introduced.


The generalconclusion is that

waste minimisation inadvanced fuel cyclesshould be considered

within a globalobjective ofsustainability

Figure 13: The closed nuclear fuel cycle illustrating the recycling and optimisation of energy resources and the minimisation of nuclear waste (Source: CIEMAT)

The evaluation of this type of scenario indicatesthat while maintaining the safety of operation,they should ultimately be able to strongly reducelong term uranium consumption, making thepresent reserves last for several thousand years.At the same time, the long term radiotoxicinventory of HLW could be reduced by morethan a factor of 100 and its heat load by morethan a factor of 10. According to availablestudies, quoted above in this section, the lastfigure will allow the DGR size to be reduced byfactors from 3 to more than 10 (in hard rock,clay and tuff geological formations). In the caseof large nuclear reactor parks, wasteminimisation could help to minimise thenumber of required DGRs. Countries withsmaller fleets might need to participate inregional solutions involving cooperation with acountry with a large nuclear fleet to improve thepartitioning and transmutation efficiency and itseconomic feasibility.

The deployment of these advanced fuel cyclesinvolves large technological challenges on:

� new fuels (targets) and fuel assembly designsbearing significant amounts of MA, and theirfabrication technology

� the technologies of FNR and ADS, including newmaterials, thermal-hydraulics, simulation tools,nuclear data and, in the case of ADS, the couplingof an accelerator with a subcritical core

� new recycling technologies based on advancedaqueous and pyro-metallurgic reprocessingtechnologies, adapted to highly active and hotfuels containing large amounts of Pu and MA, andminimising the production of secondary wastes

The first two points are further developed in theESNII chapter for each of the fast system types.On the other hand the development of thereprocessing of irradiated fuel is discussed in thechapter dedicated to cross cutting activities.

� 3.3 Advanced fuel cycle scenarioresearch

A continuous effort on Scenario Studies ofnuclear material management and the impact ofadvanced fuel cycle technologies on the finalDeep Geological Repository, DGR, ismaintained by several laboratories in differentEU Member States, and as contributions toNEA/OECD and IAEA studies. Regional andglobal considerations as well as transition effectsare important aspects of all studies recently

performed by SNETP members or which areunder discussion.

However, additional efforts are required tocomplete studies on the feasibility of sustainablesolutions for the transition period from thepresent nuclear fleet until the deployment of fastnuclear systems, taking into account presentperspectives for deployment of advanced thermalreactors and future FNRs. Similarly, theevaluation of the impact of these technologies onthe DGR designs, taking into account updatednuclear policies of EU Member States, technologydeployment and different options for fast systemsdeployment, needs still to be completed.

Scenario studies, including industrialimplementation aspects and, possibly, economicevaluations, should take into account thecombination of various reactor types, includingFNRs or ADS, in order to identify potentialsynergies, including with current LWR parks.Furthermore, these scenarios should allowindicators for decision making that include allaspects of the problem to be quantified: overallsafety, consumption of natural resources, nuclearmaterial inventories to be managed,environmental impact, costs, reactor fleetcomposition, time projection to reachequilibrium, industrial capacities required forfuel treatment and fabrication (including MAbearing fuels or targets), technical difficulties,secondary waste generation, occupationalexposures, proliferation concerns, need for (crossborder) transport, public acceptance, etc.

The feasibility of alternative fuel cycles shouldbe investigated also for HTR fuel, which couldbecome the mainstream technology for nuclearcogeneration. These alternative fuel cycles maycomprise transuranic and minor actiniderecycling, use of thorium fuel to stretch theresource base and to reduce minor actinideproduction, plutonium burning and deep-burnconcepts as well as core/fuel management tooptimise the cycle length between fuelreloads/shuffles.

Finally, it should be mentioned that currentlythere are no short or medium term industrialprospects in Europe for the deployment of thethorium cycle. However, thorium could becomean attractive option for the long term due to itslarge European resource base and potential rolein the nuclear waste minimisation.

An interesting strategy for the long term couldbe the combination of Molten Salt Reactors


(MSR) technologies, both with thermal and fastneutrons, with the thorium fuel cycle. MSR, byits intrinsic reutilisation of fuel in the reactor,could allow using all the thorium naturalresources, in an efficient way, whilesimultaneously reducing by large factors theproduction of transuranic elements. R&D onMSR, and its utilisation within the Th cycles, isrequired to clarify the feasibility and potentialbenefits of MSR and of the Th fuel cycle.

The SNETP vision on R&D needs for bothMSR15 and the Thorium cycle16 are unchangedfrom that documented earlier. These annexesdescribing those R&D needs are still valid andsupported by the present SRIA. They show thesignificant long-term potentialities and thesignificant challenges to make industrialimplementation of these systems and theassociated R&D priorities.


15 - SRA Annex: Molten Salt Reactor Systemshttp://www.snetp.eu/www/snetp/images/stories/Docs-SRA2012/sra_annex-MSRS.pdf

16 - SRA Annex: Thoriumcycles and Thorium as anuclear fuel componenthttp://www.snetp.eu/www/snetp/images/stories/Docs-SRA2009/sraannex3final.pdf

http://www.snetp.eu/www/snetp/images/stories/Docs-SRA2009/sraannex3final.pdf



http://www.snetp.eu/www/snetp/images/stories/Docs-SRA2012/sra_annex-MSRS.pdf




NUGENIA - nuclear fission technologies for Generation II and III nuclear plants


IA

�1. Introduction

NUGENIA (“NUclear GENeration II &III Association”), established on 14November 2011, developed the

roadmap which forms the basis for theGeneration II/ III part of the SNETP SRIA.The main mission of NUGENIA is to be theintegrated framework among industry, researchand safety organisations for safe, reliable andcompetitive Generation II & III fission.

Figure 14: Golfech NPP over the Garonne river (Source: EDF)

SNETP mandates NUGENIA to act as thebody in charge of coordinating at EU level theimplementation of the R&D within thistechnical scope. Under this mandate,NUGENIA is in charge of the followingactivities:

� Defining detailed roadmaps and R&D priorities� Facilitating the emergence of projects implement-

ing R&D in the field of Generation II & III� Identifying all relevant funding sources for

Generation II & III R&D� Generally promoting European nuclear

Generation II & III collaborative R&D � Facilitating cooperation with international

counterparts on Generation II & III R&D

In order to gather and share the best availableknowledge, skills, facilities and technologies, thework of NUGENIA is organised in six technicalareas:

1. Plant safety and risk assessment2. Severe accidents 3. Improved reactor operation4. Integrity assessment of systems, structures

and components5. Fuel, waste management and dismantling6. Innovative LWR designplus two cross-cutting areas:

• Harmonisation• In-service inspection and inspection

qualification

The roadmap presented in the followingsubchapters is based on extracts from thedetailed NUGENIA roadmap of the 6 technicalareas above. Harmonisation topics are describedin this introduction and the in-serviceinspection and qualification topics are addressedin technical area 3.

A transverse objective of NUGENIA is theharmonisation, which is aimed at reducing anysubstantial difference within a group ofcountries in design and fabrication of systemsand components, in nuclear safety level andrequirements, as well as safety assessmentprocesses and practices. It involves the search fora long-term convergence towards the agreedWENRA objectives and the shared way toachieve them.

The objectives of the NUGENIAHarmonisation Cross-Cutting Area aretherefore: supporting the deployment of nuclearenergy within the European market setting-upthe basis for an effective standardisation ofreactor component assessments; improving thesafety level of the nuclear installation through


shared design approaches and licensingprocesses.

Three main fields of endeavour are likely tosupport R&D programmes:

� acquisition of data, through pre-normativeresearch PNR for new design and operatingconditions, but also for definition of operationallimits, establishment of practices and safety criteria

� establishment of shared codes and standards� search for strategies providing with smooth and

efficient methods to enlarge progressively the fieldof consensus among stakeholders

In the design of newplant or systems, theadoption of advancedm e t h o d o l o g i e s ,combining defence-in-depth, risk-informed and safetymargin approachesunderlines the needfor new researchefforts.

The objective for development of codes andstandards - while keeping coherence with thealready existing efforts - should be orientedtowards:

� support to the development of EU standardisationand regulatory frameworks for the safe operationof the nuclear installations

� development of handbooks and codes of bestpractice relying upon European StandardOrganisations

Extended sharing of operating experienceamong stakeholders has to favour the adoptionof common best practices.

There process of harmonisation in the nuclearindustry at European - and international - levelis supported by industrial organisations, and theEuropean regulatory authorities have definedsafety objectives that are referred to in the EUNuclear Safety Directive.

The harmonisation strategy is not aimed atissuing new safety directives, but at findingpractical methodologies to reach the abovementioned safety objectives, for instancethrough appropriate safety criteria and practices.It should rely upon a systematic and continuousdialogue between the stakeholders.

NUGENIA gathers those stakeholders thatadopt the regulations and rules for design,

operation, safety-survey and safety-assessment.Thus it appears as a favoured place to createharmonisation through scientifically fundedconsensus. That way it can complement theactivity on standardisation already going on inother organisations.

�TECHNICAL AREA 1 -Safety and risk of NPPs

i - Scope and objectives

Technical Area 1 is devoted to evaluatingthe risk caused by the existing NPPs

during their operation up to situations withcore degradation, therefore developing andoptimising the use of methodologies toevaluate their safety level. This impliesimproving the assessment of numericalsimulation uncertainties and of safety margins.

Due to the general reduction of nuclear riskthrough improved system safety features,reduced parameter uncertainty, and betterevaluation of the nature and intensity ofaggressions and hazards, the causes of residualrisks become comparatively more important.

This residual risk is mainly originated from:

� the increasing heterogeneity among a plant fleet,due to the generic improvements and theintegration of the R&D outcomes, which cannot beperformed at the same time in all the plants of afleet

� the non-compliance of the plants with thereference state, which is increasing with the life,due to the build-up of intervention andmanipulation errors, the non-conformity of systemand material assembling, the unavailability ofspare parts


Extended sharing ofoperating experienceamong stakeholdershas to favour the

adoption of commonbest practices

Figure 15: Phebus reactor pool and the experimental reactor core down 8 meters (Source: IRSN)

� the a priori assumptions in the modelling, such assymmetry and homogeneity, and the errors in thedesign data-set computation

Those randomcomponents of therisk can be neithereasily investigatednor detected, so thatit must be consideredas a residualoccurrence in thesafety demonstration.

In order to overcome the current limitations onaccuracy, other safety evaluation methodologiessuch as those relying upon decision-makingtheory and/or economic models, but also risk-space based methodologies should also beinvestigated and evaluated.

In practice, the following sub-areas have beenidentified to progress upon:

� Contributing to further development of commonunderstanding and usage of risk assessmenttechniques based on probabilistic safetyassessment (PSA). In the field of input data, aspecial attention will be devoted to the evaluationof different kinds of dependency and humanperformance effects, and associated reliabilitydata.

� Improving the deterministic assessment of planttransients with conservative assumptions andextended coverage of validation and extendingconsensus on methodologies for transients’evaluation.

� Improving methodologies to assess the impact ofexternal loads and hazards on barriers and onstructures, systems and components. FollowingFukushima lessons, the effect of both single andmultiple external events on safety functiondegradation need to be considered. Time (andfeasibility) for recovery and the influence of non-safety systems on barrier strength are importantto position.

� Among external events, a special focus will be puton the impact of electrical disturbances from thegrid on plant safety systems and safety functions:the objective is to secure safety systemperformance.

� Integrating the deterministic and probabilisticsafety assessments in order to better evaluatesafety margins with best estimate methods, inparticular determining the data, methods andknowledge needed to assess safety margins incomponents such as pipe/vessel and system(strength and weaknesses of NPPs).

� Designing of reactor safety systems to handleobsolete components and to up-grade them tohandle new safety demands.

ii - State of the art

So far the activities have used inputs frominternational organisations, EC Framework

Programme, and international initiatives; themain reference programmes in the safetyevaluation are:

� for probabilistic methods the main programmesare OECD WG-risk, NPSAG, SAFIR, VGB-PSAworking group, APSA-network, ASAMPSA-2, andMMOTION

� for deterministic assessment of plant transients:OECD WGAMA, OECD LOFC, OECD PKL, OECDROSA, OECD SETH, NORTHNET, SAFIR, VGB,NURESIM, NURISP, NURENEXT, BEMUSE,EUROSAFE, AER, OECD ISPs…

� for impact of external loads and hazards on theSafety functions: NORTHNET, SAFIR, OECDPRISME and OECD PRISME2, NOG, VGB,ASAMPSA2-E, NPSAG

� for impact on the safety functions of externalelectrical disturbances: OECD DIDELSYS, BWR-club, NPSAG, IAEA (NS-G-1.8, D-NG-T-3.8)

� for advanced safety assessment methodologies:OECD WGAMA (PROSIR), NORTHNET, SAFIR, EU-RTD-programme (NURBIM, NURISP), OECDBEMUSE, OECD SM2A, OECD UAM and OECDPREMIUM

iii - Challenges

� 1.1 Challenges in the field of PSA methods

1.1.1 – Quantitative aspects of PSA

For quantitative aspects, the following gapsshould be covered: development ofmethodologies to quantify initiating eventfrequencies for low probability events, includingexternal events and Common Cause Failures(CCF) events, combination of events (includinginternal and external events), methods used forestablishing component failure rates with focuson components with low failure rates and alsofailure rates due to specific loads (such as loadsdue to fire, severe accident conditions…), data


SNETP should play a driving role

in supporting theseapproaches whichcan contributesignificantly to

improving the safetyassessment.

and methods used to assess CCF inside specificsystem and trans- systems interactions atcomponent level and at subcomponent level,development of methods for assessing humanreliability and establishing a database withreference cases for supporting common riskassessments of human performance, methods tohandle time dependent assessments in PSA,methods and data for quantifying the effects ofaging on PSA-outputs, methods and data forassessing failure frequencies of digitalcomponents, methodology and data forperforming fire PSA.

For the PSA dedicated to source term issues(level 2 PSA) recommendations on the beststrategies to couple level 1 and level 2 PSAshould be done, and methodologies to assessshut-down state or external events should bedeveloped.

1.1.2. General aspects of PSA results

The R&D topics providing estimation of overallrisk of plant operation are:

� considering several plants simultaneously affectednotably in case of external events

� benchmarking of existing PSA-studies to supportcomparability of PSA studies and to support use ofsafety goals in plant management

� developing guidance to use safety goals in reactorsafety assessments

� assessing of risk related to spent fuel pool� modelling techniques for functional dependencies

in electrical and safety instrumented systems� administration of PSA models and related

documents, including review, considering recurringupdates and use of special models for separateanalysis in support of various safety relatedassessments due to changes to the licensing basis

� establishing methodologies for level 3-PSA (up tohealth effects) including integration with level 2-PSA

1.1.3. Best practice for PSA application

Even if quite advanced PSA tools are welldeveloped and extensively used, it requires alsoapplying them correctly and in the most usefulmanner in specific Risk Informed DecisionManagement (RIDM) applications. If goodmethodology for development of “basic” PSA isnecessary the need of a large practice of well-

developed and harmonised RIDM methodologyis even more necessary.

� 1-2 Deterministic assessment ofplant transients

In the assessment of plant transients, newchallenges are arising but recurrent studies stillneed large efforts to be performed with effectiveresults. Indeed, plant behaviour is the result ofcomplex multidimensional physical phenomena;moreover, phenomena are tightly coupled:

1.2.1. Improved thermal hydraulicsevaluation for the existing plants

To fulfil these goals, the main challenges inthermal-hydraulics are:

� a better understanding and modelling of themulti-dimensional phenomena, in particular invessels and pools

� a better understanding and modelling of themultiphase (steam/water, non-condensablegases…) phenomena

� the interaction with neutronic (in particular inreactivity transients), mechanic (fluid-structureinteraction in steam generator for example), andthermo-mechanic

� the experimental validation� the uncertainties evaluationSome specific topics are given hereafter:

� stratification in pools and vessels, in particular forBWR- condensation pools when steam flow is low

� mixing in pools and vessels, in particular at lowflow rates, including vessel pressurised thermalshock and boron mixing in reactor vessels

� better predicting of the margins of instability inBWR-cores, in particular coupling 3D thermal-hydraulics with neutronic codes

� 3D flows in the reactor pressure vessel.(BWR/PWR/VVER)

� assessing effects of non-condensable gases inpipes for scenarios with gas intrusion

1.2.2. design and evaluation of passive safety systems

The major challenge to a generalised adoptionof passive systems for safety purposes is theachievement of a convenient and exhaustive full


scale demonstration of their reliability intransient conditions. Specific R&D is to bedevoted to provide evidence of the systemreliability despite the approximations andassumptions in the validation experiments andto clear the way to extrapolation.

1.2.3. Coupled multi-physics codes,

Couplings such as neutronics and thermal-hydraulics have to be developed, for example forre-criticality scenarios in which several controlrods partially scram (BWR).

1.2.4. Containment behaviour

Particular phenomena need to be bettermodelled:

� non condensable gas flows in the containmentwith and without spraying

� heat transfer in the gas phase of the containmentincluding the interaction with walls and pipes

� leak rates through containment up to containmentbreak

� clogging phenomena in strainers and fuel andassociated assessment methodology

� fire and gas explosion simulation methods andapplications to reactor safety

1.2.5. Fluid structure interactions

Special models need progresses:

� turbulent flows and its effects on component aging � fluid-structure interaction in steam-generator� water hammer assessment� coupling between CFD and system codes� heat transfer along piping and vessel walls during

turbulent flows

1.2.6. Fire risk

� comprehensive characterisation of different fireloads

� fire suppression models and suppressiontechnologies

� methods and criteria to assess malfunction ofelectrical equipments considering combined effectsof soot and thermal stress

� 1-3 Impact of external loads andhazards on the safety functions

The external events have to be characterised byloads and frequency as well as by the risk for co-incident occurrences and the effects on non-safety systems on the safety system. Thepotential for successful preventive andmitigating human actions has to be considered.Methods for frequency/magnitude assessmentfor events with short and long return periods(from 100 to more than 1000 years) need to befurther developed in view of the majoruncertainties involved. Estimates of the effectsof climate change also indicate substantialimpacts on the frequency and magnitude ofcertain natural external events even in the nearfuture, which needs to be considered in theanalysis of external events.

Methods and methodologies to identify singleand multiple external events are also necessary toassess effects on a multi-unit plant, as well ashow the effects of external events on non-safetysystems could affect safety systems.

� 1-4 Impact of external electricaldisturbances on the safetyfunctions

Among the external hazards, particular attentionhas to be paid to grid disturbance effects on theplant through the internal electrical buses andother electrical components important to safety.It includes assessment of the effects originatingeither from lightning or from motor magneticfields on modern electronics and/or digitalequipment which are far more sensitive tomagnetic fields than components used in thepast. Other equipments like plant electrical andI&C equipment, or diesel generators foremergency power may be also affected. Thedesign of plant control and protection systemshas to be based on an increased understanding ofthese effects and the sources of these effects haveto be investigated.

� 1-5 Advanced safety assessmentmethodologies

The general challenge in this sub-area is toincrease knowledge about the existing safetymargins of a plant. Several methodologies canbe further developed in order to improve theaccuracy of evaluations:


� Risk informed methodologies, usually developedby operators, based on decision-making theoryand/or economic models can still be improved inorder to optimise the risk accuracy evaluation,

� Understanding the safety margins and bestestimate methods, i. e. integrating thedeterministic and probabilistic safety assessments,is another possible route to improving accuracy.This includes development of methodologies (suchas Dynamic PSA and Monte-Carlo assessments ora combination) are used in parallel with existingmethods for probabilistic and deterministicassessments.

A particular challenge for these methods is tobetter model/predict dynamic behaviour andalso time dependent scenarios while notaffecting the assessment of uncertainties.

Application of these developments shouldaddress better evaluation of safety margins forRPVs, main containment, passive system andpipes in case of LOCA or PTS events, but alsofor beyond design situations or naturalcirculation conditions.

� 1-6 Design of reactor safetysystems

Among the challenges for the design of safetysystems the most important are:

� design of digital system with integration intoexisting plants

� increased diversification and robustness of safetysystems

� use of passive system for safety function� methods for reactivity measurements under

accident conditions� design of level measuring systems to withstand

high temperatures

�TECHNICAL AREA 2 - Severe accidents

i - Scope

The main public safety goal for nuclear poweris to prevent a societal calamity and huge

economic loss. With appropriate site riskevaluations, plant designs and management,current Generation II and future Generation III

nuclear power plants (NPP) show high levels ofrobustness and low probabilities for severeaccidents (SA). But, despite the highly efficientaccident prevention measures adopted for thecurrent Generation II and the still moredemanding ones for the Generation III plants,some accident scenarios may, with a lowprobability, result in SA, as recently emphasisedwith the Fukushima Daiichi accidents in Japan.This SA can result in core melting, plantdamage and dispersal of radioactive materialsoutside of the plant containment, thusthreatening public health and the environment.

This risk can be substantially decreased whenstate-of-the-art devices currently available forprevention and mitigation of severe accidentsare installed. Lessons from the Fukushimaaccident and consequences related to AccidentManagement provisions from the recentlycompleted ENSREG stress tests and othernational activities will lead to furtherenhancement of the safety of NPPs.

Within this technical area, general objectives aredefined and followed by specification of researchand innovation challenges to further reinforceNPP safety provisions.

ii - Objectives

Some predominant phenomena require abetter understanding in particular to improve

Severe Accident Management Guidelines(SAMGs) and to design new prevention devicesor systems for mitigation of SA consequences.

Seven technical sub-areas address the 6objectives listed below, the three first ones beingdirectly linked to mitigation processes:

� in vessel corium/debris coolability � ex-vessel corium interactions and coolability � reducing source term� impact of severe accidents on the environment� severe accident scenarios� improving the emergency preparednessNew experimental efforts will be needed in mostsub-areas accompanied by modellingdevelopment and validation.

The knowledge gained and the modellingimprovements will allow the optimisation ofSAMGs and the improvement of preventionand mitigation systems such as core reflooding


systems, filtering systems, venting systems orrecombiners in the containment.

iii - State of the art

Considerable knowledge has been gainedabout SA phenomenology through studies

carried out during the last 30 years. It is basedon experimentation, mostly out-of-pile, with afew in-pile programmes like Phébus FP, andtheoretical simulations, as the accidents atTMI2 in 1979 and at Chernobyl in 1986 werethe only major NPP reference cases until theFukushima Daiichi accident.

Since 2004, the state of the art is periodicallyupdated in the frame of the SARNET network(Severe Accident Research NETwork ofExcellence), coordinated by IRSN in the 6thand 7th Research Framework Programmes ofthe European Commission (see www.sar-net.eu). In particular, the ranking of R&Dpriorities has been recently reviewed to take intoaccount early feedback from the FukushimaDaiichi accident (and such update will continuein the next years according to the progress of theunderstanding of this accident). The identifiedchallenges account also for the results of all pastand ongoing international programmes(Euratom-FP7, OECD/NEA, ISTP…).

iv - Challenges

The highest priority safety challenges aredescribed in the following sub-areas:

In-vessel corium/debris coolability, Ex-vesselcorium interactions and coolability,Containment behaviour including hydrogenexplosion risk, Source term, SA impact on theenvironment, and emergency and preparednessmanagement. One transversal sub-area concernsthe SA scenarios.

� 2.1 In-vessel corium/debriscoolability

Substantial knowledge exists concerning coolingof intact rod-like core geometry. The mainchallenge for long term R&D will be to addressthe remaining uncertainties concerning theefficiency of cooling a degraded reactor core,

with presence of corium and/or solid debris, bywater addition to limit or terminate the SA in-vessel progression.

The impact of the further analysis of theFukushima accident will be taken into account,and, conversely, R&D will be important for theplants decommissioning.

� The highest priority R&D topics for this challengeare: debris bed formation and cooling; for in-vessel melt retention, corium pool coolability inthe reactor pressure vessel (RPV) lower head,especially for BWRs with presence of control rodand instrumentation guide tubes; critical heat fluxand RPV external cooling conditions.

� 2.2 Ex-vessel corium interactionsand coolability

For ex-vessel corium situations, the major safetychallenge is to preserve containment integrityagainst rapid failure (steam explosions, DirectContainment Heating or DCH) or slowerbasemat melt-through (by Molten-Core-Concrete-Interaction or MCCI) and/orcontainment over-pressurisation.

� The highest priority R&D topics for this challengeare: fuel-water premixing and debris formationand coolability; complementary MCCI research tocover oxide-metal layer interaction and all reactorconcrete compositions; assessment of MCCI topflooding; and finally analytical work to transposeMCCI experiments to reactor scale.

� 2.3 Containment behaviour,including hydrogen explosionrisk

The containment represents the ultimate barrierto prevent or limit the release of fission products(FP) to the environment during a SA. If localconcentrations of combustible gases (hydrogenand carbon monoxide) are present, gascombustion might occur and cause a pressureincrease that could eventually lead tocontainment failure.

Efforts in the short and mid-term should focuson extensive simulations of gas distribution inthe presence of mitigation systems using bothLumped-Parameter and CFD (Computational


Fluid Dynamics) codes in order to interpret awhole set of different experiments withconsistent models. Reliable models ofdeflagration and deflagration-to-detonationtransition should be developed in order toimprove the present modelling mainly based onempirical correlations.

� The highest priority R&D topics for this challengeare containment atmosphere mixing (includingBWR containments with nitrogen atmosphere)and gas combustion, which imply the followingphenomena: gas distribution in the containmentwith the influence of mitigation systems, pressureincrease during hydrogen combustion, anddeflagration to detonation transition. Scaling(qualitative and quantitative) of phenomena fromexperimental facilities to actual containmentsshould also be addressed with priority.

� 2.4 Reducing source term

The source term to the environment refers to theamount, chemical speciation and isotopicspeciation of all radio-elements that can bereleased to the environment. At present, theincreased safety requirements in both existingplants and new designs aim at reducing thesource term by proper measures for limitation ofuncontrolled leaks from the containment and forimprovement of the filtering efficiency ofcontainment venting systems.

The Fukushima accident underlined the needfor studying the impact on the source term ofthe filtered containment venting systems whichare important radionuclide-removal processes.

� The highest priority R&D topics for this challengeare: impact of filtered containment ventingsystems on source term and development ofimproved devices; oxidising environment impacton FP release from fuel, in particular forruthenium, i.e. under oxidation conditions or airingress for high burn-up and MOX fuels; hightemperature chemistry impact on FP behaviour inthe Reactor Cooling System (RCS), i.e. improvingpredictability of iodine species exiting RCS towardsthe containment; containment chemistry impacton source term, i.e. improving the predictability ofiodine chemistry in the containment.

� 2.5 Impact of severe accidents on the environment

The SA impact on the environment in the near-field around the NPP must be assessed as part ofthe Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ofan NPP in accordance with European andnational legislation. Here only the atmosphericdispersion of radio-nuclides is addressed. Thiswill allow an interface between PSA Level 2 andassessment of radiological consequences and itwill improve the emergency planning andzoning and the post-accidental situationmanagement.

Research efforts on atmospheric dispersionmodelling over recent decades have producedseveral models; some of them are already used inthe preoperational or operational framework incase of radiological emergency. Despite thiseffort, some issues still need to be tackled in thepreparedness phase, in the response phase (toanticipate properly the situation in order toprotect the workers and the surroundingpopulation in time), and in the post-accidentphase.

Strong links should be established in the futurewith the NERIS platform (European Platformon Preparedness for Nuclear and RadiologicalEmergency Response and Recovery: seewww.eu-neris.net).

� The highest priority R&D topics for this challengeare: accurate atmospheric dispersion models, inparticular accounting for chemistry of radio-elements (integrating on-site experiments anduse and development of specific CFD models);accurate evaluation of source term to theatmosphere (by using inverse atmosphericmodelling and comparisons with theenvironmental measurements); adaptation anddevelopment of “ensemble computations” (i.e.variations of calculations for different initialweather data) for atmospheric dispersion ofradio-elements from NPP.

� 2.6 Severe accident scenarios

Integral codes (or system codes) are essential forsimulating all SA scenarios including theevaluation of the source term into theenvironment, as well as the evaluation of SAMmeasures and the efficiency of mitigationsystems. The highest priority is to continue to


www.eu-neris.net

capitalise on knowledge gained from using thesecodes, particularly the ASTEC code (IRSN-GRS), and to feedback the interpretation of theFukushima accident in the coming years.Attention should be paid in particular to modelsof BWR core degradation and to theirvalidation.

In addition, the Fukushima accident hasunderlined the importance of the behaviour ofspent fuel pools in case of loss of cooling and theneed of new SA instrumentation for SAdiagnosis and management, as well as for earlysource term predictions and emergencypreparedness outside the NPP site.

Another essential issue is the need to store inreliable and durable databanks the results of thehuge amount of SA experiments that wereperformed over more than 30 years. They shouldremain available for any further analysis of SAphenomena and for validation of simulationcodes.

� The highest priority R&D topics for this challengeconcern the continuous capitalisation ofknowledge in the integral codes, particularlyASTEC, and the improvement of their applicabilityto spent fuel pools. The latter will need furtherR&D on the following phenomena: large-scaleflow convection, impact of partial dewatering offuel assemblies on thermal runaway and fueldegradation, clad and fuel mechanical behaviourin an air-steam atmosphere. Other challenges willbe to investigate on one hand new SAinstrumentation and on the other hand criticallyrisks in case of spent fuel pool dry-out or ofdamage NPP core.

� 2.7 Improving the emergencypreparedness and response

In the emergency preparedness and responsearea, an accident can be roughly broken downinto two phases: the emergency phase (in red onthe diagram) and the post-accidental phase (ingreen). The post-accidental phase is the focus ofanother project integrated in the NERIS SRA,and the scope dealt with in this paragraph is theemergency phase, itself composed of a threatphase and a release phase.

Between the onsite emergency declaration(reactor out of normal operation) and the releaseof a radioactive plume, the main responsibility

lies with the operator who has to take actionswhich may stabilise the plant and/or mitigatethe consequences of the accident. The longerthis phase, the more time there is to implementrecovery action and the better are measures thatcan be taken to protect the population aroundthe plant.

Capabilities to overcome the accident requirethe availability of reliable information, thecapacity to operate correctly under high stressand harmful conditions, and to dispose ofefficient and reliable tools.

Reliable information comes first from the plant,in which the main systems for safety have to bebacked up, including with externally diversifiedsources, but reliable information needs alsoreliable instruments and good interpretation inorder to discard spurious signals. In thatprospect, human and technical redundancy isadvisable.

Operating correctly in high stress conditionsneeds first to know how to behave as a functionof the plant and how to recover from specificsituations. Indeed, the correct operation needs afully developed planning phase (see sketchabove) with severe accident managementstrategies, plans and procedures to cope withshort term reflex actions and accurate diagnosiscapabilities to prepare prognoses correspondingto different worsening hypotheses on futureevolution. This asks for preparedness in terms ofscenarios, information, fast and reliablecomputation, adaptation capacities, and technicalsystems not destroyed by the ongoing accident.

For meeting that objective, redundancies are alsouseful in terms of technical means andevaluation teams in order to secure the diagnosisand prognosis.

Last but not least, reliable tools encompass, wellexercised information systems and emergencyorganisations, instrumentation, fast computersystems to study multiple future scenarios,highly trained and complementary teams withexperts in informatics, reactor physics, reactoroperation, meteorological data, and integrationof all the different aspects.

� In the domain of research several fast runningcomputer systems are already available, butseveral issues still remain open, mainly in the fieldof human behaviour and organisation. Technical


means and trained personal are systematicallydeveloped by the operators with support from thelocal organisation for civil security. The STATICprogramme studies a part of the human andorganisational factors during crisis, butorganisation-dealing aspects still need to beimproved: it appears useful to improveknowledge on human behaviour under stressconditions, to extend redundancy among teamswithout slowing down the engineering capacity;international cooperation, beyond existingreporting systems, it may be useful to share onlinedata and support expertise; this requiresevolution of the existing international conventionsand formatting information to common standards.

Moreover, it should be worth:

� Providing the national Safety Authorities withtechnical support furnished with fully onlineupdated data, developed technical means, andformatted exchanges with the operators, in orderto create redundant expertise contributing torelease threat resolution through advice to thesafety authority,

� Extending general knowledge of SAM andcapitalising it within fast running computing tools;benchmarks could be organised in that field, withrespect to the possible source term evaluation,including the capacity to use environmental datato fit it to reality,

� Dispatching emergency mobile means formonitoring the releases,

� Integrating for each site the multiscale dispersioncalculations with multiscale meteorologicalintegration,

� Developing suitable monitoring in-situ andmobile devices,

� Enhancing the awareness of the socio-economicalcontext (public acceptance, media coverage…),

� Capitalising - in guidelines and suitablecomputation tools - the outcome from theoperating experience feedback, the periodicalcrisis exercises, the studies and R&D programmescarried out within national and internationalframeworks.

�TECHNICAL AREA 3 -Improved reactor operation

i - Objectives and motivation

Safe and efficient operation of the plants is theresult of a blend of human, organisational

and technological aspects, and R&D in all thesefields can play an important role in continuously

improving operationalpractices. Importantissues related tooperation are alsodiscussed in otherNUGENIA areas;here the followingaspects are discussed:

� Human and organisational factors� Integration of digital technologies� Core management� Water chemistry and LLW management� Radiation protection� In service inspection and inspection qualification

The rationale for collecting these issues togetheris to try to integrate them into a commonadvanced vision of the operation, supported bythe implementation of modern digitaltechnologies.


Safe and efficientoperation of the

plants is the result ofa blend of human,organisational and

technological aspects

Figure 16: Emergency management phases (Source: IRSN)

ii - State of the art and challenges

� 3.1 Human and organisational factor

The Human and Organisational Factors (HOF)community is promoting R&D in variousinternational connections e.g. in theOECD/NEA working Group of Organisationaland Human Factors (WGHOF).

A road map in this field was recently developedby the partners of the MMOTION project.They proposed four research programmes:

� “Risk-informed decision-making in design andoperation”

� “Culture and practices for safety”� “Integrated design approaches”� “Technological requirements in nuclear and other

high risk industry”The aspects which are considered as utmostpriority in this field are evaluation of humanreliability analysis, operational culture and workpractices. Important challenges are to strengthenthe objectivity of safety judgments by usingmethods of risk-oriented decision making in thehuman reliability area, to improve theeffectiveness of safety provisions, to harmoniseoperational principles across Europe and tominimise the negative impacts of complexity onoperation and safety.

� To develop advanced and harmonised methods,solutions and tools for evaluation of operatingexperience about human and organisationalfactors.

� To develop tools for risk-informed decisionmaking support and manage socio-technicalsystems complexity at the design level.

Organisational safety culture and operatingpractices influence the safety level. Researchshould define the conditions required forensuring the robustness of the organisations incharge of operating NPPs, based on a deepunderstanding of practices and culture and ofchange impact on the socio-technical system.

It would be particularly important to considerhow individuals, teams and organisationsfunction and interact within the plant within aspecific safety culture, and how they aresupported by tools, artefacts, procedures, rules.

� To develop theoretical models of the socio-technical system as well as effective methods andtools to benchmark operational practices and toassess human performance.

The Fukushima accident revealed significantweaknesses in the on-site and off-site responseto extreme, unforeseen events, in particularwhen the functioning of the emergencyorganisation itself is weakened by the event.

� To understand human and organisationalbehaviour under high stress and harmfulconditions.

� To develop reliable solutions for inter-organisational collaboration (including plant,utility, emergency services, regulator andgovernment agencies), and for taking time-criticaldecisions based on dynamic and partiallyunreliable information.

� 3.2 Integration of digital technologies

Digital technologies are nowadays deployed inall modern power generation plants and also inlarge industrial. The situation in the nuclearpower sector differs from other sectors in thefollowing key aspects:

� the use of analogue systems is being extendedbeyond their initially expected service lifetime

� regulatory uncertainty and associated financialrisk concerns are delaying the deployment ofalready available new technologies

Implementation of digital technologies is a keyissue for the life extension of Generation IIreactors, as well as for the deployment ofGeneration III, because it offers an uniqueopportunity for improving operationalperformance in respect of safety margins.Several European plant operators have gonethrough relevant modernisation programmes,often performed under the constraint of bothminimising the impact on the traditional plantoperating, managing and maintaining modesand practices, and searching of solutions toimmediate needs. Due to the fast evolution ofthese technologies, this approach is notsustainable in the long term.

In USA a huge research programme is being setup, intending to develop standards andguidelines to facilitate the transition to digital


technology and its deployment across the USAnuclear fleet, potentially influencing the R&Dactivity also in Europe.

� To develop a new advanced digital informationand control architecture to integrate all plantapplications, respecting safety constraints, and tocollect and organise data from all types of sourcesof condition-monitoring data.

� To provide technical studies and guidelines for awide implementation of digital technologies.

In parallel to the use of programmable digitalelectronic systems in nuclear safety applications,to overcome the difficulty of maintaininganalogue electronic assemblies and to takeadvantage of functions enabled by digital logic,attention is needed regarding the increase of thepotential for component-level faults due toengineering mistakes.

� To develop methods for analysis of the safetysoftware to ensure the reliability of the softwarefor regulatory assurance and the safety ofinstrumentation and control systems.

To achieve better integration of technical,human and organisational factors, more focus isneeded on the efficient integration of HOF inthe design of control rooms and on assessing thefuture working conditions through the activeparticipation of HOF specialists and end users.

� To develop engineering procedures for integrationof human and organisational factors in to theoverall design process.

� To develop advanced alarm systems capable ofimproving operator performance, permittingbetter recognition and comprehension of alarms.

Several kinds of mobile communication/comput-ing devices may be used to provide continual plantstatus and control capability anywhere in the plant,improving the performance of field workers. Toolsusing virtual reality models and technologies couldbe used to develop computer aided maintenanceprocedures and to train maintenance personnel.

� To develop suitable procedures and advancedtools to support field workers and maintenanceoperators.

� 3.3 Core management

Core optimisation, based on increased fuelutilisation and on a more accurate evaluation ofthe safety core characteristics, is achievablethrough the continuous improvement of thedesign and analysis tools, as well as through theimprovement of the monitoring instrumentation.

This task can be translated into large challengesin basic nuclear data, neutronics, material science,thermo hydraulics, fuel fabrication, reprocessingand partitioning. Coupling all these aspects(multiphysics) and assuring modern qualitysoftware are the drivers to replace the currentsuites of simulation codes. Better accuracy has tobe justified either against experimental data oragainst benchmark calculations.

� To enhance core modelling capability using themodern methods of calculation of powerdistributions and reactivity.

� To collate operational data from the NPPs tovalidate modern method of the calculation.

� To develop method for evaluation of uncertaintiesfor core state in abnormal conditions.

Nuclear instrumen-tation is still mainlybased on safe butconservative tech-nologies. Presentand future competi-tiveness depends alsoon the accurate andpredictive knowl-edge of corebehaviour. Advanced

instrumentation and measurement methods,and efficient signal analysis, can increase relia-bility, performance and competitiveness.

� To explore, develop and define new strategies andapproaches in core monitoring.

� To estimate and reduce measurementuncertainties.

� 3.4 Water chemistry and LLW management

Water chemistry management has the mainscope to optimise the primary, secondary andauxiliary cooling systems chemical parameters.


Advancedinstrumentation and measurementmethods, andefficient signal

analysis, can increasereliability,

performance andcompetitiveness

Water chemistry has been the subject of largebasic and applied research programmes, inparticular in USA under the EPRI coordination.EPRI continues nowadays to update waterchemistry guidelines, as well as to updateoptimisation tools to mitigate corrosion, toachieve and maintain fuel performance standardsand to minimise radiation fields in the plant.

Water chemistry strongly influences theoperational safety of reactors by affectingformation of deposits, which may cause heattransfer degradation and enhance localisedcorrosion. A good control of water chemistrycan significantly reduce various operationalproblems, including corrosion, erosion,deposition of corrosion products, henceincreasing the life of systems and components.This mainly consists of two essential parts:

� chemicals added to adjust the pH to minimise thecorrosion rate of structural materials

� mitigation of the concentration of chemicalimpurities, which catalyse the degradation ofmaterials, coolant and protective oxide coatings

� Development of cost-effective chemistryoptimisation tools and techniques to improveplant availability and safety.

� Development of dedicated software tools toimprove chemistry control and diagnosticcapabilities.

The pressure to reduce the radiation exposure ofthe workers as well as the radioactive release intothe environment requires constant improvementof processes and technologies for LLWtreatment and for conditioning of liquid waste,potentially able also to reduce the costs.

Priorities in the treatment of liquid radioactivewaste are to obtain higher decontamination andvolume reduction factors, lower on-siteprocessing costs, reducing solid radioactivewaste generation rates and minimise corrosion.

� To develop advanced filtration and innovativeremoval processes to monitor, control and limitactivated corrosion product transport.

� To look for materials with lower content of cobalt,and with lower cationic release rates under LWRwater chemistry conditions.

� To study updated procedures for the chemicaldecontamination of surfaces.

� To develop updated systems for tritium, carbon 14Cand boron management.

� 3.5 Radiation protection

The strong attention for radiation protection hasrecently led to the establishment of theMultidisciplinary European Low DoseInitiative (MELODI) platform, with the aim ofbetter understanding the health effects ofexposure to low dose ionising radiation. In 2011this platform issued a Strategic ResearchAgenda, which defines a series of topics suitableto be considered in a long-term perspective.

There are however several topics in the radiationprotection area which can be appropriatelyconsidered in the framework of NUGENIA,since they are very tightly related to the everydayplant management activities.

� To develop new technologies and tools formanaging information related to the radiologicaldose to plant workers.

� To develop improved tools for radionuclide releaseminimisation and for the analysis of theconsequences on the environment.

� 3.6 In service inspection and inspection qualification

In-service inspection (ISI) of nuclear powerplants (NPP) by non-destructive testing (NDT)is a very important part of the NPP ageingmanagement or predictive maintenance. R&Dtopics in this field are mainly focused onqualification of NDT systems and risk-informed in-service inspection (RI-ISI)methodologies, with the objective increase theireffectiveness and efficiency and to respond thenew challenges resulting from NPP’s long termoperation and new build.

The European Network for Inspection andQualification (ENIQ) is recognised as one ofthe main contributors to today’s global qualifica-tion situation along with other initiatives likethe PDI on the United States of America. Theinspection qualification methodology developedby ENIQ is also accepted by the IAEA as rec-ommended practice to be followed for nuclearinspection qualification all over the world.

The main challenges for NDT qualification areon the new procedures based on phased array


ultrasonic testing,time of flightdiffraction ultrasonictesting, computedradiography, as wellas the extension ofapplicability to othermethods.

Qualification ofNDT systems shouldenable efficient structures and componentscondition monitoring by NDT in order toimprove maintenance of plants.

� Support extended use of computer modelling andsimulations.

� Develop a recommended practice for computedradiography qualification and Phased Arrayqualification under ENIQ type Methodologies.

The present challenges on the RI-ISI field areon pre-service inspection (PSI) for new build,risk reduction quantification and optimising ISIfrequency.

� Analysis of the role of RI-ISI in defence-in depthand development of procedures to determine theachievable level of risk reduction.

� Development of RI-ISI and qualification guidancefor a new build, for non-pressure boundary itemsand for the use of expert judgement.

� Development of alternative methods andguidance (to ISI) for managing risk.

� Produce specifications for quantification ofProbability of Detection (PoD), including Monte-Carlo approach, and define the role of quantifiedPoD in risk reduction.

�TECHNICAL AREA 4 -Systems, Structures and Components

i - Scope + Objectives

Structural assessments are an important partof NPP management programmes (e.g.

ageing management, maintenance and design

changes). These assessments are required for theeffectiveness of periodic safety reviews. Aspectsthat need to be considered include definition ofintegrity assessment over the whole life cycle,the various degradation mechanisms, ageingissues, safety margins and harmonisation issues.

The Structures, Systems and Components (SSC)that need to be considered are those importantfor safety and availability, those that require highcosts to replace and those that cannot be replacedwithout a significant long term refurbishmentprogramme. Components like Instrumentationand Control (I&C) which are of high safetysignificance also need to be addressed.

While the assessment principles relating toSSCs are generally comparable in Europe, theactual methodologies and codes are different inthe various European countries. With the longerterm objective of European harmonisation inmind, it is necessary for the differences to befully understood and for the lessons learnedfrom Generation II nuclear power plants(NPPs) to be taken into account whendeveloping and/or revising best practiceguidance for the safe operation of SSCs withsatisfactory, but not over-conservative safetymargins. This is required in order to ensure highintegrity and high performance in the case ofinternal and external loads. Post-Fukushimalessons imply that investigations of beyonddesign loads are also required to be considered.

This technical area roadmap comprises integrityassessment, description of loads, materialsperformance and ageing, ageing monitoring,prevention and mitigation, functionality andqualification.


Integrity Assessment of SSCs takes intoaccount material properties, component

geometry, loading and degradation mechanismsand effects, using essentially fracture mechanicsmethods. The assessment of for example RPVintegrity assessment under Pressurised ThermalShock (PTS) loading and in leak before break(LBB) analysis in piping is of critical importanceto the safe operation of a nuclear power plant.Codes, standards and procedures are commonlyused for integrity assessment. These aregenerally well founded and validated but inmany cases they can have inherent levels ofconservatism, particularly when consideringplant life extension.


Qualification of NDTsystems shouldenable efficientstructures andcomponents

condition monitoringby NDT in order to

improve maintenanceof plants.

iii - Challenges

� 4.1 Integrity Assessment

There is a need toproperly understandthe levels ofconservatism in thecurrent integrityassessment methodswith a view torevising the guidanceand procedures. Suchaspects as effects ofload history, crackarrest, treatment of thermal and weld residualstresses and warm pre-stressing effects need tobe considered with regards to this aim. Lessonslearnt from Generation II NPPs in terms ofintegrity assessment validation should beconsidered and implemented.

The modelling of integrity assessment isimportant in order to be able to translate themechanistic understanding to simulation toolsand assessment procedures to predict theoreticalmargins for the safe operation of NPPs, takinginto account structural features, real orpostulated flaws, loading conditions and relevantmaterial characteristics including ageing effects.

� Development of best practice procedures forassessing structural performance of multi-metalcomponents, including cladded components.

� Development of a probabilistic approach on safetycritical systems integrity assessment for long termoperation and harmonisation of probabilisticsafety assessment (in close link with Area 1).

� Treatment of non-crack like defects (Corrosion,thinning, pitting, erosion, flow induced corrosion,crevices).

� Integrity of RPV internals for long term operationconsidering also load effects like the dynamicresponse of reactor internals to Loss of CoolantAccidents (LOCAs); develop validated models forthe assessment of structural integrity of in-vesselcomponents under high doses of irradiation.

� Gain understanding of modelling approachesadopted in different European countries on lifetime evaluation of civil structures including creepbehaviour and the influence of cracks.

� Develop probabilistic and deterministicmethodologies to evaluate the impact of internalevents (hydrogen explosion, pipe whip impact)

and external hazards (seismic event, aircraftimpact, explosion) on civil structures.

� 4.2 Description of Loads

Accurate knowledge of applied loads andresulting stresses (and strains) is needed forreliable SCCs. Increased computing power overrecent years, coupled with advanced modellingcapabilities, has resulted in enabling the accuracyto be evaluated in greater detail. Examples of thisinclude piping system loads and stresses, stressesresulting from pressurised thermal shock loadingand residual stresses resulting from fabricationprocesses such as welding.

� Development of guidance in order to moreaccurately predict fluid to component wall heattransfer (CFD, Computational Fluid Dynamics) forthermal fatigue analysis and fluid structureinteraction under turbulent flow conditions.

� Establishment of the methodologies to rankexternal loads for deterministic and probabilisticassessments.

� Treatment of secondary and residual stresses. � Investigation of combined fatigue and tearing

fracture resistance under high asymmetry cyclesand random high cyclic loads.

� Containment phenomena in dry-well likestratification and heat transfer into thecondensation pool and load assessment fromsource to loads on walls under different voidingconditions in the condensation pool with the aimof reducing uncertainties.

� Increase the understanding of hydrogenproduction and hydrogen venting during serviceaccident conditions and of hydrogen fromzirconium oxidation and from radiolysis in waterand hydrogen transport and absorption in water,gas phase and on civil structure walls.

� 4.3 Materials Performance and Ageing

The major challenge is to justify properly that allcomponents affected by an ageing mechanismremain within the design and safety criteria.Indeed, properly understanding theperformance of materials relevant to structuralcomponents and the effect of ageingmechanisms on their performance are key issuesfrom the start to the end of life of each NPP.


There is a need toproperly understand

the levels ofconservatism in thecurrent integrity

assessment methodswith a view to

revising the guidanceand procedures

Basically, ageing management should follow awell-defined procedure that consists of i)identification of the SSCs that are subject toageing, ii) analysis, understanding andmodelling of the main relevant ageingmechanisms concerning each SSC (potential orencountered) and finally iii) setting up ofmeasures to justify the integrity of each SSCbased on codes & standards, regulations,specifications & guidelines and scientificknowledge of the ageing mechanisms.

Figure 17: Reactor in Cadarache in French Provence(Source: EDF)

� An in-depth understanding of ageingmechanisms, determination of ageing.

� Close definition of damage rate and fitnessanalysis.

� Implementation of monitoring, surveillance andin-service inspection.

� Mitigation and repair measures taking intoaccount the industrial capacity and obsolescence.

4.3.1. Ageing and Degradation Mechanisms

Ageing management addresses physical ageingthat could result in degradation of systems,structures and components such that safetyfunctionality could be impaired. Thus,degradation modes, including fatigue, irradiationembrittlement, stress corrosion cracking,irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking,thermal ageing, general corrosion, erosion-corrosion, strain ageing, environmental fatigue,creep, creep-fatigue and thermal fatigue, need tobe fully understood to ensure a good SSC status.It is therefore very important to be able toproperly evaluate their positive or negative effecton “start of life” properties as they may becomelimiting factors for the safe and reliable operation

of NPPs. Important as well is that the effects ofthe ageing and degradation mechanisms shouldbe considered for the specific type of SSCmaterial being assessed. Guidance and/or dataare generally available for the projected lifetimebut very scarce for allowing beyond design longterm operation. Moreover, ageing managementfor long term operation has to take into accountnot only the physical ageing of materials but alsothe technological aspects (obsolescence). There istherefore clearly a need for further R&D to beundertaken in several of the areas referred to inorder for a better fundamental understanding ofthe ageing and degradation mechanism to berealised and to lead to realistic assessmentguidance.

� Investigation of microstructural and mechanicaleffects in RPV steels caused by long termirradiation leading to the improvement of RPVsafety assessment of existing European LWRsunder long-term operation and Generation IIIreactors under construction (supporting RPVageing management and plant life extensions).

� Investigation of crack initiation by irradiationassisted stress corrosion cracking (IASCC).

� Investigation of growth (swelling) and creepunder irradiation in internal structures bynumerical methods for microstructure evolutionand in situ verification of swelling macroscopiceffects by in-plant measurements.

� Investigation of thermal ageing effect on theperformance of the materials for long termoperation.

� Investigation of galvanic corrosion on concretereinforcement in the vicinity of the main coolingwater pumps.

� Evaluation of chloride initiated corrosion ofconcrete reinforcements.

� Evaluation of polymeric material in concreteconstructions and sealing applications.

� Investigation of polymer ageing mechanism,specifically irradiation ageing (influence of doserate, synergy with vibrations, synergistic effects ofirradiation, heat, moisture) and ageing affectedby manufacturing.

4.3.2. Modelling of Ageing

The high variability of ageing and degradationmechanisms necessitates predictive tools toallow transferability and interoperability of the knowledge gained from limited


experimental/empirical data (surveillance, in-field monitoring…). In this regard, one longterm aim is to develop fully validated multiscalebased models that link the nano scale through tothe macro (i.e. structural) scale based on a multi-disciplinary approach. Better understanding ofthe physical mechanisms affecting the ageing ofmetallic materialscombining advancede x p e r i m e n t a linvestigations withthe use of up-to-datemodelling methods,such as thosedeveloped throughthe multiscaleapproach. Importantis to investigate indepth the localphenomena and their interaction by usingpowerful numerical tools allowing an accurateprediction of ageing, not only of the componentsthat are accessible for inspection, monitoringand repair but of all others. This extrapolationneeds to be based on experimentally validatedmodels using data from both in-pile and out ofpile experiments.

� Development/improvement of models to predictcrack initiation and growth under various ageingconditions (environment, temperature,irradiation, loads …).

� Simulation of welding, manufacturing processesand thermal ageing of critical components (pipes …).

� Investigation of radiation induced loss of ductilityand embrittlement, of reactor components bymultiscale modelling taking into account themetallurgical variability of materials and theirusage conditions.

� Development of computational fluid dynamics(CFD) based methodology for more accuratepredictions of the operating conditions of eachcomponent.

� Investigation of the mechanisms influencing thedimensional stability of components (such asswelling, creep, fretting …).

� Development of models to represent the effect ofRAG ISA and other pathologies on concretemechanical properties and civil work structurethermo-mechanical behaviour.

� Development of simulation methods to predictageing in safety critical components and buildings.

� 4.4 Ageing Monitoring, Prevention and Mitigation

Component ageing needs to be monitored overthe nominal and extended service life of SSCs inorder to be able to correctly determine or antic-ipate the relevant ageing mechanisms and toevaluate the extent of degradation that mayoccur. The overall goal is to monitor and under-stand environmental conditions in the NPPs aswell as their impact on the functionality of safe-ty relevant components and structures in orderto determine/predict/mitigate the effects limit-

ing the lifetime of thesafety relevant com-ponents. One way isto correlate the evo-lution ofmicrostructure andmaterial damage withapplied loadings andenvironmental condi-tions. This will beparticularly useful inthe case of infrequent

transients and will enable the operator to verifythe suitability of maintenance programmes andin-service inspection, thus ensuring that opera-tion remains within allowable limits.

4.4.1. Ageing Monitoring

The monitoring of ageing is largely in its infancyand much work is needed to satisfactorily meetthe overall needs.

� Development of online monitoring tools foradvanced water chemistries in BWRs and PWRs.

� Investigation of ultrasonic on-line monitoring inNPPs to improve methods for risk-informedinspection of piping and internals.

� Development of modelling capabilities to ensurethe reliability of in-service monitoring tools.

� Development and provision of effectiveoperational methodologies for inspection andtools for extended operation by consideration ofsuch aspects as tightness of reactor containment,serviceability of waterways and the integrity ofcooling towers.

� Development of methods for assessing the currentpermeability of concrete structures by sensing andmonitoring the quality of the concrete.


One long term aim isto develop fully

validated multiscalebased models thatlink the nano scale

through to the macro(i.e. structural) scalebased on a multi-

disciplinary approach

The overall goal is tomonitor andunderstand

environmentalconditions in NPPs aswell as their impacton the functionalityof safety relevantcomponents and

structures

� Development of non-destructive examination(NDE) methods for concrete (e.g. ultrasonictechniques).

� Detection of local and global degradation ofcables and establishing a correlation for residuallife estimation by using in-situ non-destructiveelectrical techniques for in-service full lengthmeasurements (for medium and low voltagecables).

� Development of monitoring techniques from theMotor Control Centre (MCC) providing remoteassessment of the complete supply loop ofelectrical appliances.

� Sharing of best practices and the development ofnew techniques to detect ageing and to limit thedegradation of I&C components and theevaluation of new technology and methods to beused for the purpose of I&C modernisation.

� Determination of a lifetime criterion for non-LOCAcables that are important for safety and also fornon-safety critical cables.

� Determination of ageing monitoring methods forcables under the fire protection layer.

4.4.2. Prevention and Mitigation of Ageing

Prevention andmitigation of bothageing mechanismsthemselves and theirresulting damage andfailure has been along term challengefor engineers andscientists in manyindustries. However,this is an area wherefurther studies anddevelopments arerequired. The issue isassociated withcomponents that are usually very difficult andexpensive to replace and may not be readilyobservable.

Many components are usually very difficult andexpensive to replace, which requires theimplementation of management and mitigationplanning at the level of each NPP. However,collaborative R&D is badly needed both tomaximise the efficiency of the different plansand to increase the reliability of systemcomponents.

� Reduction of radiation effects on an RPV includingby fuel management and annealing.

� Optimisation of the secondary side waterchemistry to minimise oxide deposition.

� Implementation of a condition information systemsupporting condition based maintenance (CBM)supported by worldwide experience and relevantdata.

� Development of improved mitigation techniquesto limit the occurrence of stress corrosion cracking:development of mitigation measures to be appliedin the field including overlay welding, crackrepair…

� Development of advanced primary waterchemistry for VVER and PWR systems based oncoolant treatment for radioactive waste reductionand lifetime extension of primary systemcomponents.

� Development of a corrosion protection of concretereinforcements.

� 4.5 Functionality

4.5.1. Equipment Reliability

The reliability of each equipment is of criticalimportance even if it has no direct impact on thesystem safety as almost no component isoperating in a stand-alone manner. Thus, theincremental development of each NPP toimplement the improvement of the safetyapproaches necessitates a great R&D effort toestablish if the systems are able to perform theirintended function in a reliable and safe mannerthroughout the lifetime of their required use.

� Investigation of the reliability of relevantequipment for long term operation.

4.5.2. Industrial Obsolescence

NPPs are per definition designed to operate for along time period during which a substantialtechnological and societal changes occur.Obsolescence essentially refers tocomponents/systems that are no longermanufactured or maintained properly during thelifetime of an NPP. A common Europeanapproach should be developed with the help ofNUGENIA either to create versatile technologies,


Prevention andmitigation of bothageing mechanismsthemselves and theirresulting damage andfailure has been along-term challengefor engineers andscientists in many

industries

possibly with other industries, or to adapt nuclearprocedures to even faster evolving domains.

� Development of unified EU technical obsolescencemanagement methods and procedures forcomponents such as cables, electronics andfeedthroughs.

4.5.2. Maintenance

� Justification of the monitoring systems supportingcondition based maintenance (CBM).

� Integration of operational feedback (experience)provided by the monitoring systems into theplanning of maintenance activities (CBM).

� Modernisation of pre-stressing control units toensure fluent control of stress.

� Implementation of fleet wide monitoring dataexchange systems in order to provide moreaccurate input data to maintenance teams.

� 4.6 Qualification

The qualification of methods used for theintegrity assessment of SCCs is mandatorywhich necessitates the establishment ofverification and validation of structural integrityassessment and lifetime procedures for SSCsand the development of specific materials orcomponent tests. Often an overall qualificationapproach for structural integrity assessment andlifetime procedures requires a combination ofadvanced analytical and experimentalqualification to comply with the functionalityrequirements for each component and system.

Qualification is inherent in performing R&Dstudies on the various issues relating to SSCs

� Development of specific and well controlledstandard tests for specific material properties.

� Development of tests for the transferability ofresults from tests involving small specimen tostructural components.

� Development of tests to assess material behaviourunder specific degradation mechanisms which mayrequire accelerated or modified experiments e.g.long term creep, irradiation effect, effect oftransient (abnormal operation conditions).

�TECHNICAL AREA 5 - Fuel Development, Waste and Spent Fuel Managementand Decommissioning

i - Scope

Technical area 5 (TA5) covers developmentof nuclear fuel for existing, advanced and

innovative core designs, aspects of fuel use inreactors (nuclear fuel behaviour mechanisms)and the fuel management steps – manipulation,transport and interim wet and dry storage. It

also includes factorsrelating to thegeneration andmanagement ofradioactive waste, andthe dismantling anddecommissioning ofnuclear power plants.It includes the safetyissues linked with: fuelbehaviour in normaloperation andaccident conditions,

and the safety of the fuel cycle, in particular theinvestigation of criticality accidents andradioactive material dispersion.

TA5 has connections mainly with TA3 in partsof core optimisation and chemistry and to alesser extent with TA6 regarding fuels forinnovative LWRs and with TA1 for NPP safetyand risk, in particular regarding criticality.

Outside of the scope of TA5 is radioactive wastedisposal since IGD-TP is in charge of theresearch agenda and deployment plan for thistopic.

The scope also takes account of emerginglessons from the Fukushima accident andproposes research, development and innovationto improve the safety and resilience of theexisting and new build LWR reactor fleet.

ii - Objectives

The rationale of TA5 is to improve the safe,reliable and economic operation of

Generation II and III NPPs (specifically in-reactor and out-of-reactor nuclear fuelmanagement and radioactive wastemanagement) and to maintain the sufficient


Fuel behaviour inboth normaloperation and

accident conditionscurrently is, and willcontinue to be, amajor issue for thesafe, secure and

economic operationof nuclear power

plants

level of safety defined by the regulatory bodiesand reflecting the recommendations of therelevant international organisations.

Nuclear fuel production and use have reached arelatively mature state; nevertheless there ismotivation to improve existing fuel types and todevelop innovative fuel:

� to increase fuel safety margins and improvebehaviour under operation and accidentconditions

� to reduce reactor operating costs (including fuelcosts)

� to reduce the amount and/or radio-toxicity ofspent fuel

� to recycle existing waste (uranium, plutonium andminor actinides from prior reprocessingoperations)

� to increase sustainability� to improve the safety of fuel management and

decommissioning/dismantling and moregenerally to the fuel cycle (such as criticality andre-suspension and transfer of radioactivematerials)

� to improve proliferation resistance

The general R&D needs for all fuel types are:

� development of manufacturing techniques� data on fuel and material properties� post-irradiation examination (PIE) and collection

of in-pile data on fuel performance (fuel thermo-mechanical and thermo-chemical behaviourunder irradiation) and fuel resilience duringaccident conditions

� understanding and modelling of fuel performanceand behaviour in accident conditions

� providing data for evaluating criticality risk in thefuel cycle, including the burn-up credit;

� source term and mitigation strategies in case ofaccidental dispersion of radioactive materials (re-suspension, filtering, …)

Despite the large knowledge base, there are stillunknowns, necessitating dedicated fuel andmaterial property, separate effect and semi-integral and integral testing to provideexperimental data on fuel performancebehaviour. These data can then be used toinform fuel development and to improveunderstanding and simulation of fuelperformance.

An understanding of fuel behaviour in normaland abnormal conditions is underpinned by fuelR&D, which must address new design andsafety requirements, increases in uraniumenrichment, uranium and plutonium recycling(and potentially in the future minor actiniderecycling), power up-ratings, and increased cyclelength and burn-up. It must also addressdifferences in behaviour engendered byincremental changes in the fuel components:that is, of the fuel pellets, cladding and assemblystructural components.

Both spent nuclear fuel management andradioactive waste management have reached arelatively mature state, but there is still potentialto be realised from the optimisation ofmanagement steps and the introduction of moreefficient and reliable technologies leading to areduction in cost and lower environmentalimpacts and also to improve the safety ofprocesses.

The number and variety of nuclear facilities inthe decommissioning stage will increase greatlyin future years and therefore development ofremote dismantling techniques and doseminimisation approaches are needed along withmore reliable methods for the reuse and recycleof valuable materials and the release of othermaterials to the environment.

iii - State of the art

UO2 enriched up to 5% in the form of solidor annular pellets in zirconium alloy

cladding remains the most used fuel inEuropean reactors. The main nuclear fuelsuppliers in Europe are currently Areva,Westinghouse, GNF and TVEL (LWR fuels).MOX fuel is used in limited quantities mainly inFrance where processing is available. Theexisting expert and experimental base consists ofvendors own R&D, and operational experiencefrom utilities, research entities and internationalorganisations (mainly IAEA, OECD NEA).

Burnable absorbers integrated into the fuelmatrix (Gd and Er) are routinely used to controlexcess reactivity. Modifications to fuelmicrostructures have been recently introducedby incorporation of additives or by use ofadvanced manufacturing techniques. Fuelbehaviour mechanisms are currently well known


for UO2 fuel in Zr cladding and AGR fuel forburn-ups up to 60 000 MWd/t. The fuelperformance codes have been developed andvalidated (utilising data from operation anddedicated experimental programmes) and areroutinely used for simulation of normaloperation and accident scenarios.

Experimental facilities (research reactors, hotcells and laboratories) are available for researchand testing.

Spent fuel management (with various nuclearfuel types for both commercial and researchreactors) is undertaken and has benefited fromthe accumulated knowledge and experience ofthe past decades. Nevertheless, there issignificant room for improvement andoptimisation in various areas which would resultin improved safety, security (proliferationresistance), and economic and environmentalcharacteristics. The spent fuel managementchain is carefully regulated by rules establishedby national regulators usually reflecting therecommendations of international organisations(IAEA). Within the EU a range of spent fuelstorage arrangementsare employed, insome countries fuel isstored primarily atthe reactorstations/site where itis generated, whereasin other countriescentralised storage isused for interim/longterm storage after aninitial cooling period at the reactor site.Transport of spent fuel is a well-established andregulated operation.

A number of decontamination, waste treatmentand conditioning methods and technologies havebeen developed and are used. The management ofspecial categories of waste has also been developed(tritium and C-14 waste, Be, graphite, mixedradioactive and chemically toxic waste, etc.).Nevertheless, the potential for improvement toreduce costs, risks and impacts is still far fromexhausted. Methods of reuse and recycling ofvarious materials (metals, concrete) have also beenintroduced. Experience from decommissioningand dismantling of nuclear facilities is beingcontinually accumulated allowing drafting ofguidelines and the use of best practices.

This knowledge is shared under the umbrella ofinternational organisations (IAEA, OECD

NEA – Working Party on Decommissioningand Dismantling).

iv - Challenges

� improving nuclear fuel allowing higher burn-upsand increased safety margins

� developing accident resistant fuels, innovativefuels and fuels allowing the burning of Pu andminor actinides (including non-UO2 fuels)

� improving nuclear fuel reliability � improving the quality of experimental data on

fuel behaviour at high burn-ups and in accidentconditions (through reduction of uncertainties)and extending data bases

� improving fuel performance simulation andcomputer codes, through an improved mechanisticscience-based modelling and experimentalvalidation

� maintaining of key experimental facilities(research reactors for irradiation, transient testingand safety-related experiments, hot cells andlaboratories) and expanding their capabilities tomeet future requirements

� handling and storage of leaking fuel assemblies(spent fuel pool and interim wet and dry storage)and handling of fuel and casks after longer termstorage including the interface with a deepgeological repository

� addressing the burn-up credit challenges (codevalidation and licensing issues)

� optimisation of spent nuclear fuel cycle andreprocessing and recycling of high burn-up andadvanced fuels

� improving the safety of fuel management, ofdismantling operations and of fuel cycle processes,regarding the risk of re-criticality and ofdispersion and release of nuclear materials

� use of advanced IC tools for development ofintegrated waste management strategies

� minimisation of waste production due to designand material selection and operational measuresand development of advanced waste treatmentand conditioning technologies

� development of efficient dismantling technologiesfor structures and components, including remotedismantling techniques

� waste minimisation strategies fordecommissioning, including safe release ofmaterial to the environment, recycle/reuse,disposal to VLLW repositories along with reliableand cost-effective activity measurement techniques


Fuel recycling of UO2and metallic fuels is

generally wellestablished within the

EU, neverthelessdevelopment ofknowledge is stillrequired at process

level

�TECHNICAL AREA 6 -Innovative LWR design & technology

i - Scope & Objectives

The development of advanced Light WaterReactors (LWR) using innovative

technology will allow assessing their possible keyrole for electricity production. These reactorscould valuably make the bridge, throughout the21st century, between the ageing nuclearinstallations currently in operation and/or theAdvanced Generation III ones, now underconstruction, and the fourth generation reactorsproposed by ESNII.

Figure 18: Phebus experience during operation (Cerenkov radiations) (Source: IRSN)

Technical Area 6 (TA6) provides guidance forsetting up R&D projects on innovativetechnology to support the development of suchinnovative LWR designs.

Both existing and new LWR designs will profitfrom the expected R&D programmes in TA6through the progress in the fields of safety &commissioning, operability, sustainability,economics and public acceptance.

The R&D proposed in TA6 - aimed atachieving long term operation, enhanced

economics and safety by design for LWRs inoperation and advanced ones, as well - will:

� contribute to improved sustainability with a betteruse of uranium resources and multirecyclingcapabilities of fissile materials

� be sized for smaller generated thermal power andmodular construction techniques

� develop innovative component for reducedmaintenance

Knowing that new technology deployment atthe industrial scale could be a long time durationprocess, the following time lines will beconsidered:

� proposing evolutionary technology for mid-termapplication

� developing new LWR designs such as with higherconversion ratio or small modular reactors,expected to be ready for commercial operation by15 to 20 years

� preparing breakthrough technology for a longerterm future

Finally, the R&D proposed in TA6 should helpto contribute to improve the public awarenessand acceptance, which are mandatory to anynew construction, especially after theFukushima’s events.


Synergies with all the other NUGENIA areaswill be exploited for taking benefit from

operating experience feedback from the currentreactor fleet, prior to develop innovativetechnology that will result in LWR withimproved performance.

That will include requirements for safety andperformance, reduced maintenance and longterm operation, material ageing related issues,control and repair, and plant power upgrade, aswell.

The concept of a high conversion light waterreactor has went-on being studied over the 80sin the aim at combining the advantages of LWRtechnology with the use of uranium – plutoniumfuel, the achievement of high burn-up andoptimised nuclear fuel consumption.

Small modular reactors are expected to havegreater simplicity of design and reduced sittingcost compared to a current LWR. This results ina revival of interest worldwide.


iii - Challenges

The collaboration between industry, researchorganisations and universities should be

fostered through the definition, implementationand launching of R&D projects. It is proposedto address the R&D needed work to supportexisting and new LWRs concepts, for achieving:

� Long Term Operation by design� safety by design� innovative component for reduced maintenance� enhanced economics

Innovation, which should address basictechnology, methods, testing and computationcapacities, will be developed along with atransverse approach between all reactor concepts.

Indeed, screening new reactor models will fosterand provide guidance for the development ofnew components and fabrication process,updated methods and calculation tool forassessing the design and safety performance.Conversely, having innovative solutions onshelves could make it possible to prepare thenext generation of light water reactors.

All the necessary stages for reactor componentdesign and fabrication should be addressed.Safety issues will be considered at the early stageof the design. Finally, the overall performance ofthe component for the related reactor conceptwill be assessed using new methods.

Those challenges will be addressed through thework done in the 5 sub-areas addressing:

� materials & innovative technology for reactorcomponent design & construction

� innovative light water reactor concepts� specific safety issues & approach� key success factors for innovative LWR deployment � public acceptance drivers for new build

� 6.1 Materials & innovativetechnology for reactorcomponent design &construction

As a common theme for all LWR reactor con-cepts, advanced and breakthrough technologiesfor reactor component design and fabricationwill be investigated. Synergies will be exploitedto benefitting from the more demanding

requirements and the progress made in basictechnologies while anticipating new solutionsfor nuclear applications. Safety issues will beconsidered at the early stage of the design.Moreover, the overall performance of the com-ponent will be assessed adopting new methods.

� Investigation into innovative materials processingareas, surface engineering, nano-materials,composite materials and hybrids, to achieveproperties suitable for high-performance nuclearcomponents. Multiscale modelling will provideguidance for the evaluation of new alloyedmaterials.

� Investigation into component fabrication andwelding processes, in line with the development ofnew materials including multi material assembly,complex geometry, near net shape fabrication,powder metallurgy processing. Specificdevelopment of non-destructive examinationtechniques is to be considered too.

� Analysis of specific issues related to innovativeLWR design and performance assessment. It isworth achieving in-depth knowledge of localphenomena leading to component degradationmechanisms: corrosion, wear, fluid structureinteraction, irradiation damage… Developmentof new testing capacities with high technologyinstrumentation, and computational methods willbe two pillars for supporting this analysis.

� Contribution to the development of engineeringsimulator tools to assess the overall reactor systemperformance, including the environmental impact.

� Analysis of modular construction techniques.

� 6.2 Advanced LWR conceptssuch as: High Conversion ratio,Small modular reactor

Undertaking necessary R&D work is mandatoryto the deployment of new LWR concepts withinthe next 15 to 20 years Fore exampleadvancedLWR with higher conversion ratio, longer fuelcycle, and capable of U-Pu multirecycling couldhelp to identify potential improvements in theoverall cycle sustainability.

Small modular reactors offer a flexible andprogressive approach to nuclear capacityoptimisation with limited infrastructure. Thesenew concepts will foster and provide guidancefor the development of innovative technologyfor reactor component design and fabrication, asdescribed previously in sub-area1.


� Concept screening.� Specific R&D topics derived from the previous

screening: reactor physics, core cooling, compactcomponent.

� Assessment of overall reactor system performance,in operating and accidental conditions.

� 6.3 Innovative LWR-specificsafety issues & approach

The development of innovative materials,component fabrication processes, as well as theevaluation of new reactor concepts, could requirespecific safety approaches which should beintegrated at the early stage of design.Harmonisation with EU Directives establishinga common framework for the nuclear safety ofnuclear installations, likewise to WENRAstatements and to IAEA safety publications is tobe achieved.

� Exploitation of pre-normative research results toimplement the safety requirements, including siteselection and evaluation.

� Development of more sophisticated instrumenta-tion and control systems for safety applications.

� Integration of the safety issues highlighted afterthe Fukushima Daiichi accident and by the EUstress tests specifications.

� 6.4 Key success factors forinnovative LWR deployment

Key success factors for the deployment ofinnovative LWR reactors must be investigatedvs. the deployment strategy of Generation IVsystems and to the growing contribution fromthe renewable energy sources.

� Evaluation of flexible fuel cycle scenarios relyingon a wide range of combinations of electricitysources for a postulated transition period, such ascurrent and innovative LWR technologies, thoriumcycle, Sodium fast reactors, and renewable energysources. The outcome from ENEF analysis will beused as an input.

� Search for the enhanced operability of LWRs,including potential benefit for either loadfollowing or combined mode, and innovativetechnology for plant operation simplification.

� Evaluation of innovative solutions for minimisingthe environmental impact of LWRs.

� 6.5 Public acceptance drivers for new builds

In this sub area, it is proposed to address therationales behind nuclear energy acceptance bythe public, notably for new builds deployment.European policy is to provide with key elementsfor guidance.

R&D topics:

� Identification of the main drivers towards publicacceptance for new build.

� Harmonisation of the communication policies,taking into account the differences in the publicawareness and acceptance, which exist among theEuropean countries.

� Organisation of the information dissemination.



IA

�1. Introduction

One of the major concerns of society withregard to the implementation of nuclearenergy is the high-level nuclear waste.

Fast spectrum reactors with closed fuel cycle willallow a significant reduction of high-levelnuclear waste radiotoxicity and volume. Fastreactors will also enable reduction in the use ofnatural fuel resources by a factor of around 50. Inthis way, it is clear that the use of fast reactors ina closed fuel cycle approach will allow a moresustainable implementation of nuclear energy.

For the developmentof these fast reactorswithin ESNII, it is ofparamount impor-tance to excel insafety, reliability,radiological protec-tion and security:

� ESNII-systems shall be designed to reach at leastthe standards of safety, radiological protectionand security put forward by WENRA for newreactors also targeting the Generation IV safetygoals.

� ESNII-systems shall implement a safety approachbased on the most recent standards and bestinternational practices, using the experiencegained from past and present nuclear science andengineering.

� ESNII-systems shall endeavour to reduceradioactive releases to the environment and dosesto workers in normal and accidental situations toas low as reasonably achievable.

� Societal concerns in relation to nuclear safety andsecurity shall be duly taken into account in theESNII-systems design process.

� ESNII-systems shall be designed to have a highlevel of implementation of the concept of Defence-in-Depth.

� ESNII-systems shall be designed to use as much as

possible passive safety systems and inherent safetycharacteristics.

� ESNII-systems will aim to practically eliminate thelikelihood of severe accidents.

� ESNII-systems will be designed to be robustagainst the Fukushima accident initiators.

� Security shall form an integral part of the ESNII-systems design.

� ESNII-systems shall aim at further improving theeconomic competiveness and operability ofnuclear energy in a future European energy mix.

The main objective of ESNII is to keepEuropean leadership in fast spectrum reactortechnologies that will excel in safety and willpermit a more sustainable development ofnuclear energy. With respect to the 2010evaluation of technologies, sodium is stillconsidered as the reference technology, since ithas broader technological and reactor operationsfeed-back. The lead-bismuth fast reactortechnology has significantly extended itstechnological base and can be considered as theshorter-term alternative technology, whereas thegas fast reactor technology has to be consideredas a longer-term alternative option. The maingoal of ESNII is to design, license, construct,

commission and putinto operation before2025 the sodium fastreactor prototypereactor, calledASTRID and theflexible fast spectrumirradiation facilityMYRRHA.

ASTRID will allow Europe to demonstrate itscapability to master the mature sodiumtechnology with improved safety characteristicsresponding to society's concern of having thehighest level of safety possible. Therefore, thedesign of ASTRID focuses on meeting thechallenges in terms of industrial performance


ESNII fast reactor systems for sustainable fuel cycles

The use of fastreactors in a closedfuel cycle approachwill allow a more

sustainableimplementation ofnuclear energy

The main goal ofESNII is to design,license, construct,commission and putinto operation, before2025, ASTRID and

MYRRHA

and availability, improved waste managementand resource utilisation and a safety levelcompatible with WENRA objectives for newnuclear builds and aiming at achieving theGeneration IV goals. An associated R&Dprogramme will continue to accompany andsupport the development of ASTRID toincrease the lines of defence and robustness ofthe safety demonstration of this technology, andallow the goals of the Generation IV to bereached, not only on safety and proliferationresistance, but also on economy andsustainability.

With MYRRHA, Europe will again possess aflexible fast spectrum irradiation facility that is aprerequisite for further innovations in fuels,materials and components for fast spectrumreactors. It will further diversify Europe’sexpertise in fast reactor technology and allowmajor innovations towards even more economic,sustainable and safe reactor concepts. SinceMYRRHA will be conceived as an AcceleratorDriven System, it will be able to demonstratethis technology, thereby allowing the technicalfeasibility of one of the key components in thedouble strata strategy for high-level wastetransmutation to be evaluated. Due to the factthat MYRRHA will be based on heavy liquidmetal technology (namely lead-bismutheutectic), it can serve the role of Lead FastReactor European Technology Pilot Plant(ETPP) as identified in the LFR roadmap. Anassociated R&D programme will accompanyand support the development of MYRRHA.

For the financing of the total investment cost ofthese facilities, it will be of paramountimportance to establish the appropriateconsortium structure and legal basis, allowingcandidate consortium members to identify theadded value of the facility for their own interest.

In parallel to the realisation of ASTRID andMYRRHA, activities directed towards the LeadFast Reactor technology and the Gas FastReactor technology should be continued takinginto account their specific needs.

For the development of the Lead-cooled FastReactor, maximum synergy of activities will besought with the MYRRHA development tooptimise resources and planning. For the LFRdemonstrator ALFRED, the main focus shouldbe on design activities typical for a critical powerreactor connected to the grid, as well as on R&Dactivities on the lead coolant, addressing thespecific characteristics that differ from lead

bismuth. Design activities and support R&Dshall be performed in the coming years to themaximum extent compatible with availableresources and taking full advantage fromfeedback, where applicable, from the ongoingdesign of MYRRHA and related R&Dprogrammes. These activities will allow the LFRconsortium to reach the level of maturity neededto start the licensing phase and then theconstruction of ALFRED, provided thatadequate financial resources are made available.

In addition to theclosure of the nuclearfuel cycle in asustainable manner,the Gas Fast Reactorhas the potential todeliver hightemperature heat at800°C for chemicalprocess, production ofhydrogen, synthetic

fuels, etc. The Helium-cooled Fast Reactor is aninnovative nuclear system having attractivefeatures: helium is transparent to neutrons and isnot chemically reactive. Its viability is howeveressentially based on two main challenges. First,the development and qualification of aninnovative fuel type that can withstand theirradiation, temperature and pressure conditionsput forward for the GFR concept. Secondly, ahigh intrinsic safety level will need to bedemonstrated for this GFR concept. This willimply dedicated design activities followedprobably by out-of-pile demonstrationexperiments. These high priority R&D activitiesshould be embedded into an overall R&Droadmap in support of the development of theGas Fast Reactor concept. For the development,guidance and implementation of this R&Deffort, a GFR centre of excellence will becreated. It might open up the technicalcapability to launch the ALLEGRO gas cooleddemonstrator.

Based on the ADRIANA project, a number ofsupporting facilities for the different systemsand technologies have been identified, inaddition to experimental reactors like JHR andPALLAS. The realisation and operation of thesesupporting facilities, in particular a fast reactorMOX production line, will be of primaryimportance to reach the aforementionedobjectives. Maximum synergies between thedifferent Liquid Metal Reactor technologies will


For the developmentof ALFRED, the Lead

Fast Reactordemonstrator,

maximum synergy of activities will besought with the

MYRRHAdevelopment

be exploited, for instance in the field ofinstrumentation and thermal-hydraulics.

Raising the financial resources to deliver theESNII projects and build the different facilitieswill be a key factor of success. In this respect,international collaboration through GIF andbilateral or multi-lateral frameworks will belooked for to optimise resources.

�The ASTRID Project (Advanced Sodium Technological Reactor for Industrial Demonstration)

Objectives

The objective of the integrated technologydemonstrator ASTRID is to ensure

industrial-scale demonstration of a GenerationIV Sodium Fast Reactor, meeting the highestlevel of safety and security standards, andproviding significant improvements in terms ofindustrial operation. The reactor is expected tooperate around 2020.

The ASTRID programme encompasses theASTRID reactor itself, the realisation of sodiumtechnological loops and the validation ofcomponents, as well as the construction of a fuelmanufacturing workshop.

Benefiting from the accumulated operation ofmore than 400 reactor-years in SFR technology,the key objective of ASTRID is to demonstrate atindustrial scale significant improvements to meetGeneration IV standards, qualifying innovativeoptions in well-defined areas (safety andoperability), while providing a test bench foradvanced in-service inspection and repairtechniques. ASTRID will also have provisions forexperiments on transmutation of minor actinides(mainly americium) in significant quantities toallow optimised management of wastes.

The ASTRID safety options will be compliantwith the highest safety standards, includinglessons learnt from the 9/11 events and theFukushima accident.

Though future fast reactor plants intend to bebreeders, ASTRID will be an iso-generatorkeeping in mind the current nuclear materialsituation.

With the associated closed fuel cycle, ASTRIDwill meet the preservation of resources priority,allowing the optimisation of uranium resourcesas well as the multirecycling of plutonium, andthe reduction of the quantity, the half-life andthe toxicity of ultimate waste (minor actinides),while providing a low-carbon, intensive energysource.

It will be equipped for experiments. Its designmust therefore be flexible enough to be able totest innovative options that were not chosen forthe initial design. Novel instrumentationtechnologies, new fuels and even new systemcomponents will be tested in ASTRID.

ASTRID will be available for irradiationexperiments like those conducted in Phénix inthe past. These experiments will help to improvethe performance of the core and absorbers, aswell as to test new fuels and structural materials,such as carbide fuel and oxide dispersion steel

(ODS) cladding.ASTRID will beequipped with a hotcell for examiningirradiation objects,built either in theplant or nearby.

The ASTRIDindustrial prototype, with the main objective ofconfirming long term innovative options atlarger scale, both for the development of theGeneration IV Sodium Fast Reactor, but also forthe fuel cycle and waste management, willrepresent a key component in the developmentof future Generation IV nuclear systems.

State of the art

Following French Government orientationsgiven on the sustainable management

programme for radioactive materials, stipulatingthe commissioning of a Generation IV reactorby 2020, the ASTRID programme has beenlaunched by the CEA, gathering European andinternational public and private partnerships. Itis based on decades of continuous R&D work onsodium reactor technology, some of which hasbeen performed through European cooperationin projects such as CP-ESFR and EISOFAR(realisation of a sound scientific and technicalbasis for the European sodium fast reactor),THINS (Thermal-hydraulics of InnovativeNuclear Systems), FREYA (Fast ReactorExperiments for hYbrid Applications),SARGEN IV (Safety Assessment for Reactors


ASTRID aims atensuring theindustrial

demonstration of aGeneration IV Sodium

Fast Reactor

of GENeration IV), MATTER (MATerialsTEsting and Rules), GETMAT (Generation IVand transmutation materials) ANDES(Accurate Nuclear Data for Nuclear EnergySustainability), and HELIMNET (HEavyLiquid Metal NETwork).

The ASTRID project management comprises aproject team responsible for the industrialarchitecture, managing most of the design workof ASTRID that is performed by severalindustrial partners. These industrial partnershave entered collaboration with CEA onASTRID design studies and are currentlycontributing on their own budget through a costsharing scheme. The ASTRID project team issupported by CEA R&D departments througha dedicated set of projects delivering R&Dresults following expression of needs by theASTRID project.

Since September 2012, the following partnershave been involved in the conceptual designphase:

� AREVA NP: nuclear island (core and fuel stays withCEA)

� EDF: support to the owner and contribution toR&D

� ALSTOM: turbine island � BOUYGUES for civil engineering� COMEX NUCLEAIRE: innovative studies in robotics

and mechanics� TOSHIBA for development of large

electromagnetic pumps� JACOBS for infrastructures � ROLLS-ROYCE for research and technology

development on sodium gas exchangers and fuelhandling

� ASTRIUM for reliability, maintainability andavailability analysis

And other partnerships under discussions.

The conceptual design phase will result from theassessment of technical options and safetyorientations, focusing on innovationsconcerning the design of the core, the decay heatremoval systems, the core-catcher andelimination of sodium-water reactions.

ASTRID will be a pool type, sodium cooled fastreactor of 1500 MWth, generating about 600MWe. That level of power is required toguarantee representativeness in terms of design,operation and safety demonstration, of thereactor core and main components, and will

compensate for the operational costs bygenerating a significant amount of electricity.

The ASTRID design benefits from theadvantages of pool-type, sodium-cooled fastneutron reactors, which provide very favourableinherent safety margins with regard toFukushima-like events:

� The main vessel contains the whole primarysystem including the core, the intermediate heatexchangers and the primary pumps, giving pool-type SFR a high level resistance to loss of coolantaccidents (LOCA), since it is possible to install aguard vessel around the main vessel.Furthermore, the primary system is notpressurised.

� The intermediate system (or secondary system)uses sodium loops to transfer the energy from theprimary circuit to the main heat exchangers andprovides an additional barrier.

� The size and mass of the primary system, alongwith the quantity of primary coolant and itsphysical properties provides for a very largethermal inertia of the reactor, the thermal inertiaallowing larger grace times in order to put inoperation the DHR systems.

Design and construction rules for mechanicalcomponents such as vessel, piping, supportstructures, are already provided for by availablecodes and standards. ASTRID uses mainly theRCC-MRx code developed especially forSodium Fast Reactors, Research Reactors (likeJHR) and Fusion Devices (like ITER), whichtake into account the past experience on RCC-MR and operational feedback from Phénix andSuperPhénix.

For structures, materials with good feedbackoperation on Rapsodie, Phénix andSuperPhénix have been selected. After Phénix’sdefinitive shutdown in 2009, a dedicatedprogramme of structural material examinationhas been set up for the coming years in order toimprove current material databases.

The ASTRID core is an heterogeneous MOXcore called CFV (“Cœur à Faible effet de Videsodium” or “Low sodium Void Worth Core”),that is characterised by a sodium void coefficientclose to 0. This is a major difference fromclassical fast neutron reactor designs, andprovides the ASTRID core with improvedinherent behaviour in terms of safety.

ASTRID technology benefits also from thelarge fuel qualification database obtained fromformer reactors. The ASTRID start-up core will


be based on MOX fuel with 15/15Ti AIM1alloy cladding that was irradiated in the Phénixreactor and showed good performance. AfterPhénix’s definitive shutdown in 2009, adedicated programme of post-irradiationexamination has been developed for the comingyears so that the most up-to-date knowledge onAIM1 cladding will be available. Thisexamination programme will also give feedbackon the heterogeneous core concept. The materialfor the hexagonaltubes will be EM10,used in the lastPhénix core batchesand well qualified.

To ensure wastereduction capability,ASTRID willcontinue the demonstration at higher scales ofminor actinide transmutation (mainlyamericium) that was started at experimentalscale with Phénix.

As the prototype of Sodium Fast Reactortechnology, ASTRID has the main objective ofdemonstrating advances on an industrial scale,by qualifying innovative options in order to meetthe requirements of future electricity-producingreactors in the following areas:

� core meltdown probability at the lowestachievable, including the fulfilment of 2010WENRA18 objectives for new nuclear power plants

� minimisation of potential mechanical energyrelease in case of core degradation

� improvement of the means for inspecting thestructures in sodium

� reduction of risks associated with the affinitybetween sodium and oxygen

� reduction in the duration of programmed outages(fuel handling & maintenance) and unforeseenshutdowns

Challenges

� Meeting Generation IV standardsfor SFR

Core meltdown probability at the lowest achievable

With the objective of reducing the probability ofcore meltdown and/or limiting energy releaseaccidents potential, core options are beingstudied: the CFV (Cœur à Faible effet de Vide

sodium) core concept based on a low sodiumvoid effect involves a heterogeneous axialUPuO2 fuel with a thick fertile plate in theinner core and characterised by an asymmetrical,crucible-shaped core with a sodium plenumabove the fissile area.

Initially conceived with the intention ofsignificantly reducing the sodium void effect incase of sodium boiling compared with the SFRv2concept, the CFV core concept focuses onoptimising the core neutron feedback parameters(reactivity coefficients) so as to obtain improvednatural core behaviour during accidentalconditions leading to overall core heating. Morespecifically, the reactivity effect associated withsodium expansion achieved by design (sodiumplenum and heterogeneous fertile plate) isnegative in the event of a total loss of primarycoolant, and can result in an overall negative voideffect if a boiling phase is reached.

This innovative specificity in comparison tostandard Superphénix or EFR cores can beextrapolated and remains valid for high-powerCFV cores. The preliminary studies onunprotected-loss-of-flow (ULOF) transients orunprotected-loss-of-heat-sink (ULOHS)transients show potential for an acceptablenatural behaviour of the CFV core.

The CFV concept also shows a low reactivityloss per cycle thanks to the large diameter fuelpins. This geometry leads also to longer cyclesand fuel residence times, as well as improvedbehaviour during an accidental control rodejection transient (no ejection in SFR butinadvertent control rod withdrawal) with respectto conventional core designs.

These characteristics of the CFV core conceptwill remain to be confirmed by future simulationand experimental validation.

Figure 19: CFV Core (Source: ASTRID Consortium)


18 - Western EuropeanNuclear Regulators’Association - Statement on« Safety objectives for newnuclear power plants »(November 2010)

To ensure wastereduction capability,ASTRID will continuethe demonstration athigher scales of minor

actinidetransmutation

ASTRID will be equipped with additionalsafety device to enhance the robustness of somesafety margins. One example is a passive-typeemergency shutdown system patented by theCEA, which is called SEPIA. However furtherR&D will be devoted to analyse alternativesystems, including some ideas proposed duringthe EFR project.

Significant R&D effort is ongoing and will beincreased to improve instrumentation andmeasurement systems to reinforce core andreactor monitoring.

Prevention will be consolidated by making sure allcomponents important for safety can be inspected,as well as components capable of impacting thesesafety-important components. This first andforemost concerns the internal structures of thereactor block, particularly the core support and corecover plug for which efficient inspection methodsmust be qualified. The choice between the differentreactor block internal structures described furthertakes into account this inspection criterion.

Decay heat removal(DHR) systems willbe sufficiently redun-dant and diversified sothat the practical elim-ination of their totalfailure during a given duration can be demonstrat-ed. Development of dedicated DHR systems usingstructures for degraded situations is to be strength-ened in order to have a diversified DHR system, asusual systems pass through the roof slab; such adesign option needs to be studied in relation to theconcept of a core catcher external to the primaryvessel (see following picture).

� Resistance to a potentialmechanical energy releaseaccident

For the safety demonstration, in particularprevention, a core catcher will be installed inASTRID and will be designed to recover theentire core, maintain the corium in a sub-criticalstate while ensuring its long-term cooling, aswell as being inspectable. Several options needto be investigated as to possible core-catchertechnologies, locations (in-vessel or outside thevessel) and performances.

In compliance with the WENRA approach onthe independence of lines of defence, thecontainment will be designed to resistmechanical energy release with the objective that

no countermeasures are necessary outside the siteboundary in the event of an accident. R&D willbe needed to support the demonstration.

� Inspecting structures in sodium

Contrary to the Phénix and Superphénix reac-tors, periodic inspection of the reactor blockinternal structures has been integrated into thedesign. Although some technologies now existthat enable this inspection either from outside orinside the vessel, further R&D on optical andultrasonic systems will be necessary to developand select the most suitable technology to be usedin the primary system.

After a comparison of innovative pool designs, areference design has been selected from theresults of a multi-criteria analysis: assessment ofrobustness (life expectancy, thermo mechanicalbehaviour…), global In-Service Inspection andrepair possibilities, and economic factors. Theselected pool type is with a conical redan, animprovement on the EFR project.


ASTRID will beequipped with a third

passive-typeemergency shutdown

system

Figure 21: Design primary system (Source: ASTRID Consortium)

Figure 20: Example of a intervessel core catcher with innovative DHR by structures (CEA patent) (Source: ASTRID Consortium)

� Reduction of risks associatedwith the affinity between sodium and oxygen

To improve the safety and acceptability of thereactor with the de facto elimination of risks asso-ciated with sodium-water reactions, an innovativeenergy conversion system is being considered thatuses gas for the thermodynamic transformations(Brayton cycle). This type of system has beenstudied by CEA in the past and has been adaptedto the pressure and power ranges required inASTRID. Further work is needed to couple thisconcept to the reactor through an intermediatesodium system, in order to exclude any risk of gasentrainment into the core.

Figure 22: Example of layout with a gas energy conversion system (Source: ASTRID Consortium)

In case the water-steam cycle is to be retained,further improvements through R&D are to beconsidered on:

� Modular steam generators, whose size guaranteesthe integrity of the intermediate heat exchanger,and thus protects the primary system, thesecondary system and the steam generator casing,even in the event of the sudden and simultaneousfailure of all the steam generator module tubes.

� Steam generator concepts that ensure betterprotection against propagation of tube failure incase of sodium-water reaction.

The redundancy and performance of the leakdetection systems will also be reinforced.

Complementary studies are needed for theimprovement of the efficiency and reliability ofthe systems designed to detect sodium leaks andfires, as well as the possibility of installing double-envelope pipes, inerting the rooms or usingconfinement measures to stifle sodium fires.

� Reduction in the duration ofprogrammed outages (fuelhandling & maintenance) andunforeseen shutdowns

Innovative options have been identified toimprove fuel handling system performance and

reliability; taking into account transmutationfuels and their cooling times, fuel loading andunloading will continue to be performed insodium since this provides greater operatingflexibility in normal and accident conditions.

A specific methodology will be applied to theoverall reactor design to reduce the causes ofunavailability by focusing on the following designaspects: reliability of equipment tested usingproven technologies, simple and robust equipmentdesigns, and preventive detection of failures.

In order to reduce unavailability times, researchon removability of equipment, with in situmaintenance and handling studies to optimiseall handling, cleaning, repair and requalificationoperations from the design phase, need to beperformed.

For the protection of investments, the projectwill focus on making as many reactor structuresas possible reparable (or replaceable); althoughdesigned for 60 years, the core cover plug – acomponent sensitive to thermo mechanical loadand mechanical hazards – will have to bepotentially replaceable.

�The MYRRHA Project (Multipurpose Hybrid Research Reactor for High-tech Applications)

Objectives

The first objective of MYRRHA is toestablish a multipurpose research facility

serving as a flexible fast spectrum irradiationtool in support of technology development (inparticular for materials, components and fuelirradiation tests) of the three fast reactor systems(SFR, LFR and GFR). Also, MYRRHA willoffer a wide range of interesting irradiationconditions for fusion material research. As amultipurpose research facility MYRRHA wasincluded in the high priority list of ESFRI.MYRRHA will be conceived as an AcceleratorDriven System, able to work in critical andsubcritical mode.

The combination of Partitioning andTransmutation (P&T) and dedicated burnertechnologies such as ADS is proposed in orderto relax constraints on geological disposal.


Hence, since ADS represents a possible majorcomponent in the P&T framework, thedemonstration of the sub-critical dedicatedburner option is needed. The MYRRHA projectproposed by SCK•CEN responds to this need.The main objectives of MYRRHA are thedemonstration of the ADS concept at areasonable powerlevel on the one handand, on the otherhand, the proof oftechnical feasibilityof transmutation ofminor actinides…

As an ADS, MYRRHA contains a protonaccelerator of 600 MeV, 4 mA, a spallationtarget and a multiplying core with MOX fuel,cooled by liquid Lead-Bismuth Eutectic (LBE).

Figure 24: MYRRHA building vertical cut with beam line entrance picture to be added (Source: MYRRHA Consortium)

Since MYRRHA is based on heavy liquid metaltechnology, it will strongly contribute to thedevelopment of lead fast reactor (LFR)technology. MYRRHA will play the role ofEuropean technology pilot plant (ETPP) in theroadmap for LFR.

State of the art

Following the decision of the BelgianGovernment to support the MYRRHA-

project, SCK-CEN has set up a project structureand team integrating the design and R&D effortsexpended in several Seventh FrameworkProgramme (FP7) projects like the CDT(Central Design Team), SEARCH (SafeExploitAtion Related CHemistry for HLMreactors), MAX (MYRRHA Accelerator

eXperiment), MAXSIMA (Methodology,Analysis and eXperiments for the "Safety InMYRRHA Assessment), THINS (Thermal-hydraulics of Innovative Nuclear Systems),FREYA (Fast Reactor Experiments for hYbridApplications), LEADER (Lead-cooledEuropean Advanced DEmonstration Reactor),SARGEN IV (Safety Assessment for Reactors ofGENeration IV), SILER (Seismic-Initiatedevents risk mitigation in LEad-cooled Reactors),MATTER (MATerials TEsting and Rules),GETMAT (Generation IV and transmutationmaterials), ANDES (Accurate Nuclear Data forNuclear Energy Sustainability), andHELIMNET (HEavy Liquid Metal NETwork).

During the 2010-2014 FEED (Front-EndEngineering Design) period the following itemswill be accomplished:

� primary system and plant design and theassociated R&D programme

� pre-licensing process� set-up of the international consortium

SCK-CEN will be responsible for the primarysystem, but all other systems, structures andcomponents together with the plant layout willbe subcontracted to an international industrialconsortium (called FEED-engineer) by publictendering.

For the design of MYRRHA, as much aspossible benefit has been taken from previousfast reactor programmes to relax the licensingprocess. The objective of MYRRHA is also toexcel in safety by practically eliminatingFukushima-accident initiators by means ofredundant and diversified fully passive decayheat removal systems. Special attention will alsobe given to design choices and measures forprevention and hence practical elimination ofsevere accident scenarios.


MYRRHA will play therole of European

technology pilot plant(ETPP) in the roadmap

for LFR

Figure 25: MYRRHA reactor (Source: MYRRHA Consortium)

Figure 23: MYRRHA Layout picture (Source: MYRRHA Consortium)

MYRRHA is a pool-type ADS having itsprimary andsecondary systemsdesigned to evacuatea maximum corepower of 100 MWth.All the MYRRHAcomponents areoptimised for the extensive use of the remotehandling system during componentreplacements, inspection and handling.Figure 25 shows a section of the MYRRHAreactor revealing its main internal components.

The accelerator is the driver of MYRRHA sinceit provides the high energy protons that are usedin the spallation target to create neutrons whichin turn feed the subcritical core. The acceleratorwill provide a proton beam with an energy of600 MeV and an average beam current of 4 mA.High availability is expressed by a long MeanTime Between Failure (MTBF) and iscommonly obtained by a combination of over-design and redundancy. On top of these twostrategies, a fault tolerance scheme will beimplemented to allow the accelerator to recoverthe beam after failure within a beam tripduration tolerance of 3 s.

Figure 26: Cut in the MYRRHA/FASTEF core, showing the central target, the different types of fuel assembliesand dummy components.(Source: MYRRHA Consortium)

The reactor core (previous figure) consists ofmixed oxide (MOX) fuel pins, typical for fastreactors. The requested high fast flux has beenobtained by optimising the core configurationgeometry (fuel rod diameter and pitch) andmaximising the power density. The use of lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) as coolant permitslowering of the core inlet operating temperature(down to 270°C) decreasing the risk of corrosionand allowing the increase core ΔT.

In subcritical mode the spallation targetassembly, located in the central position of the

core, brings the proton beam via the beam tubeinto the central core region. The assemblyevacuates the spallation heat deposited there,presents a barrier between the LBE and thereactor hall and assures optimal conditions forthe spallation reaction. The assembly isconceived as an In-Pile-Section (IPS) and iseasily removable and replaceable.

The encumbrance of the core with the protonbeam, the fact that the space situated directlyabove the core will be occupied by lots ofinstrumentation and IPS penetrations and thecore compactness result in insufficient space forfuel handling to load/unload the core fromabove. Since the very first design of MYRRHA,fuel handling is thus performed fromunderneath the core.

The major technological issues for theMYRRHA demonstrator are:

� lead-bismuth chemistry control and conditioning � lead-bismuth component testing and thermo-

hydraulics � lead-bismuth instrumentation � material qualification � driver fuel qualification� coupling technology of accelerator with subcritical

core� high intensity proton accelerator performances

and reliability

Challenges

� Lead-Bismuth chemistry controland conditioning

For long-term operation of a LBE cooled ADS,chemistry monitoring and control are crucial forthe reactor. A LBE chemistry control andconditioning R&D programme involves thetechnology related to chemical control of thecoolant and purification of the evaporatedelements that have low retention in LBE such asHg. Several issues have been identified for thisprogramme: the development of oxygen sensorsto measure the dissolved oxygen concentrationin the coolant, the conditioning of the LBE tominimise dissolution of structural materials andcore internals and to prevent formation andprecipitation of oxides, filtration and trapping ofimpurities in the LBE, the evaporation andcapture of volatile and/or highly radiotoxicelements (e.g. Po-210) from the cover gas and


MYRRHA is a pool-type ADS having its

primary andsecondary systems

designed to evacuatea maximum core

power of 100 MWth

finally the removal of LBE or dissolvedconstituents from among other components andtest samples.

� Lead-bismuth component testingand thermal-hydraulics

In order to secure safe and reliable operations ofMYRRHA, an extensive R&D programme isset up to develop and test reactor components.Since MYRRHA is an experimental reactor, fuelhandling is a rather frequently occurring task.Two fuel handling machines will be used, basedon the rotating plug concept. A high level ofreliability of these machines is crucial. Further(thermal-hydraulic) analysis of the fuelassemblies, the MYRRHA core (includingcontrol and safety rods), the spallation targetand reactor pool is needed to assure long-termoperation of the liquid metal cooled MYRRHAreactor. Within the research and qualificationprogramme of the LBE components, the properworking of the primary heat exchangers and theprimary pumps must be confirmed.

� In-service inspection in Lead-bismuth

The use of LBE as coolant in MYRRHA has alsosome known disadvantages: its opacity complicatesmaintenance and fuel handling operations.Developments regarding ultrasonic techniquesmust be made to improve these operations.

� Material qualification

Based on available data on mechanical andthermal properties, irradiation performance,manufacturing and availability, the followingsteels have been selected as the candidatematerials for the components:

� titanium stabilised austenitic stainless steel 15-15Ti for e.g. the fuel cladding of the first cores

� ferritic-martensitic steel T91 for e.g. the spallationtarget window

� austenitic stainless steel type 316L solutionannealed for the majority of other componentsincluding the reactor vessel, the heat exchangers,the diaphragm and the core barrel

The austenitic stainless steels including 316Land 15-15Ti have been extensively used inconstruction of fast sodium cooled reactors inEurope, US and Japan and are therefore

relatively well characterised for nuclearapplications. However, the innovative nature ofthe MYRRHA installation poses new challengesfor material performance, particularly because ofthe lead-bismuth eutectic coolant which could bequite corrosive under certain conditions and alsomight affect the mechanical properties.

The efforts are distributed over the followingfive overlapping activities:

� identification of key material issues for design andlicensing of MYRRHA

� development of test and evaluation guidelines forcharacterisation of structural materials

� assessment of material properties � development of testing infrastructure� qualification of the chosen materials for the

MYRRHA conditions

� Fuel qualification

At present stage of definition of the fuel R&Dprogramme, attention is mainly paid to the driverfuel and cladding material. MYRRHA will relyon conventional fast reactor MOX fueltechnology developed and demonstrated inprevious sodium programmes like SNR-300,(fuel licensing process only) RAPSODIE,Phénix and Superphénix. The feedback fromthese programmes covers in many aspects theoperating conditions of MYRRHA fuel. Returnof experience is maximised and licensing needsare minimised further by choosing the Phénixfuel pin design and cladding material (15-15 Ti)as the preferred option. However, sinceMYRRHA will have LBE as coolant the topicsof clad-coolant interaction and fuel-coolantcompatibility have not been dealt with in sodiumprogrammes and are embedded more extensivelyin the MYRRHA R&D programme.

Innovative MA bearing fuels will be loaded inMYRRHA to allow for a further screening anddown-selection of these new types of fuels andto finally allow qualification of these innovativefuel types.

� Coupling technology of theaccelerator with subcritical core

In an Accelerator Driven System the coupling ofthe accelerator, the target and the subcriticalcore deserves special attention. The reactorphysics of such a coupled system is significantlydifferent from a critical system and dedicated


experiments are needed. More specifically, theaccurate on-line monitoring of the subcriticalitylevel needs to be validated. To respond to thisquestion, the accelerator-coupledGUINEVERE (Generator of UninterruptedIntense NEutrons at the lead VEnus REactor)experiment was conceived and validationexperiments will need to be carried out.

For the coupling of the accelerator and thesubcritical core, the beam window serves as abarrier. A dedicated programme on thequalification of the beam window under differentMYRRHA conditions is being carried out.Based on the feedback from the MEGAPIE-experiment and the MYRRHA operatingcharacteristics for the beam window, thelicensing approach will be based on a maximumsupposed lifetime of the beam window of onecycle (3 months operation). In the beginning, thewindow will be replaced after every cycle while aqualification programme will run in parallelduring the first cycles to demonstrate the longerlifetime of the beam window.

� High intensity proton acceleratorperformances and reliability

For MYRRHA a 600 MeV linear protonaccelerator with a nominal design current of 4 mA is envisaged. Linear accelerators of thistype have been constructed in the past.However, the reliability requirement for theMYRRHA Linear Accelerator is more than oneorder of magnitude more stringent than what iscommonly achieved in research accelerators.Preliminary analyses have shown that inprinciple the required reliability level should befeasible. However, the realisation of the goalmakes a research programme on the acceleratorindispensable.

The accelerator R&D programme is focussing on:

� injector developments @ UCL� main Linac component developments� global accelerator design� system optimisation

In collaboration with UCL (UniversitéCatholique de Louvain), the first part of theMYRRHA accelerator will be built and tested:injector developments @UCL. This first part,consisting of an ion source, low energy beamtransfer line, a 4-rod based Radio-FrequencyQuadrupole (RFQ) and a diagnostic section,will deliver protons of 1.5 MeV. The aim is to

test first the MYRRHA injector section toanalyse and if needed improve its reliability inview of the overall reliability targets.

To allow the implementation of a fault-tolerancecapability, which is of crucial importance forreliability enhancement, prototypes of thedifferent Linac components will need to beconstructed. It is planned to carry out reliabilitytests by means of prototypes of each cryomodule‘family’:

� the SuperConducting Cross-bar H-type (SC-CH)cryomodule

� the spoke cryomodule� the long elliptical cryomodule

Besides the cryomodules themselves, criticalcomponents to be developed are:

� the superconducting Radio Frequency (RF) powercouplers

� the Low Level RF (LLRF) required for the faulttolerant scheme

The Linac design will be consolidated by meansespecially of advanced beam simulations basedon start-to-end simulations and associated erroranalyses together with assessments on newR&D results, new reliability studies, definitionof preliminary infrastructures and revised costestimates. Recommendations will beformulated, including a roadmap towards theactual construction of the MYRRHAaccelerator. Links between the activities of theFP7 project MAX, the results of the FP7 projectCDT, and the related R&D ongoing in theaccelerator community will be set-up.

During the FP6 EUROTRANS project(European Research Programme for theTransmutation of High Level Nuclear Waste inan Accelerator Driven System), a preliminaryreliability study of the ADS reference acceleratorhas been conducted in order to assess thenumber of beam trips. Such beam trips threatenthe core materials and can affect dramaticallythe plant availability. It is intended to pursuethese reliability-oriented studies and to developa more accurate reliability model of theMYRRHA accelerator. A model of the fullMYRRHA Linac will be built taking intoaccount all support systems and, as far aspossible, smart control strategies, fast beamshutdown systems and accelerator/reactorinterface aspects.


�The ALFRED Project(Advanced Lead Fast ReactorEuropean Demonstrator)

ALFRED is the Advanced Lead FastReactor European Demonstrator whoseconceptual design has been carried out as

part of the 7th FP LEADER project. The workcapitalises on achievements of previous FWPprojects on heavy liquid metal cooled fast reactortechnologies, such as ELSY, GETMAT, andEUROTRANS. Moreover, synergies betweenthe ITER programme and the LFR R&D needson coolant chemistry and material compatibilityare under consideration. In addition, within theframe of the Generation IV InternationalForum (GIF), international contacts have beenestablished with the developers of the RussianBREST-300 demonstrator and of the USSSTAR concept in order to investigate furthersynergies and wider cooperation.

Figure 27: ALFRED reactor (Source: ALFRED Consortium)

Objectives

The Lead Fast Reactor technology is a verypromising candidate among the Generation

IV Fast Reactors concepts, strictly fulfilling allthe main goals as defined by the Generation IVInternational Forum (GIF). LFR is based on aclosed fuel cycle (Sustainability), the inert natureof the coolant provides important designsimplification (Economics) and allows fordesigning decay heat removal systems based onwell-known light water technology and passivefeatures (Safety). Moreover, the LFR fuel19 taken

as a reference in the European developmentprogramme constitutes a very unattractive routefor diversion or theft of weapons-gradematerials and provides increased physicalprotection against acts of terrorism (Non-proliferation and Physical Protection).

In the last decades, the unavailability of qualifiedmaterials in a heavy liquid metal environment atrelatively high temperatures (above 500 - 550°C)has forced the selection of Lead-BismuthEutectic (LBE) as primary coolant for the ADStechnology, leading to the MYRRHA project, asthe European Technology Pilot Plant (ETPP)among the ESNII initiatives.

However, theobjectives of largescale, sustainable andcompetitive nuclearenergy production areonly achievablethrough a pure leadcooled fast reactor

with higher operational temperatures and higherefficiency. Long-term European LFRdevelopment will benefit from the safetyfeatures already developed for both theMYRRHA and ALFRED projects where theinertness and intrinsic characteristics of theheavy liquid metal coolants have been and willbe duly taken into account through specificdesign provisions. ALFRED represents the firststep of the LFR initiative, the EuropeanTechnology Demonstrator Reactor (ETDR) ofthe LFR technology, the first plant connected tothe grid and fulfilling the Generation IV goals.This would be the first time that a critical heavyliquid metal cooled reactor would provideelectricity to the grid.

Besides the different objectives of MYRRHA andALFRED, it is important to stress the obviousstrong synergies characterised by the basic similar-ities of coolant technologies and further enhancedby the strong collaboration already existing amongresearch centres and industries widely involved inboth the ADS and LFR activities as well as infusion technology. Indeed, the LFR roadmap isbased on a number of European experimentalfacilities dedicated to Lead and Lead-Bismuthtechnology, and takes advantage of the nucleardata collection and operational experience gainedat the Guinevere facility.

As fully described below, the high level offlexibility reached in the design phase ofALFRED, will allow for a short-term


19 - MA-bearing MOX(equilibrium concentrationof about 17.5 wt.% of Puand 1 wt.% of MAs)envisaged for homogeneousreprocessing of all actinidesfor actual closure of the fuelcycle.

ALFRED will representthe first time that acritical heavy liquidmetal cooled reactor

would provideelectricity to the grid

deployment strategy as soon as financialinstruments are available. In the LFR long termdeployment strategy, the ALFRED operationwill take full advantage of the gained experienceand of the data made available by the abovementioned facilities, including MYRRHA.

State of the Art

Starting from April 2010 the LEADERproject carried out an important set of

activities with two main goals: the advancementof the conceptual design of the industrial sizeplant to the present European LFRconfiguration (ELFR), rated at 600 MWe, andthe development of the design of the LFRdemonstrator ALFRED, a fundamental step onthe LFR roadmap.

The present configuration of ALFRED isillustrated in the following picture:

Figure 28: ALFRED Reactor Configuration (Source: ALFRED Consortium)

Main features of the ALFRED design are:

� pool type configuration characterised by a reactorvessel and the cavity liner safety vessel

� hexagonal wrapped fuel assemblies extended tocover gas to simplify fuel handling (FAs weighteddown by tungsten ballast for refueling and kept inposition by upper grid springs during operation)

� mechanical pumps� double-walled straight SG tubes with continuous

monitoring of tube leakages� reference thermal power of 300 MWth

The thermal cycle is completely consistent withthe ELFR thermal cycle: primary leadtemperature being between 400-480°C, secondary

side pressure 180 bar, once-through SGs withwater/steam temperature range from 335 to450°C in superheated conditions, the overallefficiency has been evaluated higher than 42%.

ALFRED will also allow for testing theconnection to the electrical grid, with agenerated power of about 120 MWe.

The safety of ALFRED is extensively based onthe use of the defence in depth criteria,enhanced by the use of passive safety systems(actively actuated through locally stored energysource, always available, and fully passivelyoperated). Safety features of the LFR systemhave been designed since the beginning of theactivities to face challenging conditions andevents, thanks to the very forgiving and benigncharacteristics of the coolant. As an example,there is no need for off-site or emergency ACelectrical power supply to manage the designbasis accident conditions, the only action neededis the addition of water to maintain the level inthe decay heat removal (DHR) pools which arealready sized to guarantee at least three days ofunassisted fully passive operation and can beeasily refilled in the following days.

ALFRED design is conceived in order tomaximise flexibility during the operationalphase and take full advantage of the experienceand data made available in the meanwhile. Theoperation will take place in two main steps: thefirst one will be carried out with the availablefuel at the time of plant start-up (present choiceis MOX), the second one will exploit results ofinvestigations carried out by MYRRHA toimplement innovative fuel for the LFRdemonstrator reactor. The almost paralleldevelopment of the LBE and pure-leadtechnologies, combined with the two-stepapproach foreseen for the operation ofALFRED, will allow for a more efficientexploitation of the synergies between ADSs andLFRs, as well as for a broad cooperation andrelated technologies spin-off.

Such a target is considered technically feasiblebut obviously needs the allocation of appropriatefinancial and technical (man-power) resources.

First efforts have been carried out in the pastyears to provide the necessary basic steps forALFRED development, namely:

� The activities carried out by the LEADER projectrelated to ALFRED conceptual design.

� The 2011 Romanian proposal to include ALFREDin the country’s energy strategy.


� The signature of a Memorandum ofUnderstanding in 2012 by major Italian industry(ANSALDO) and research organisation (ENEA)and the Romanian Research Institute (INR)dedicated to the development of an organisationalframework for the ALFRED consortium.

The next step is the formation of anInternational consortium to advance bothALFRED design and licensing activities.

Besides the coordination activities for ALFREDsome technological development to reach ahigher level of maturity of the LFRdevelopment is still needed. The relatedactivities are summarised below, on the basis ofthe categorisation developed by the GenerationIV LFR System Steering Committee:

� system design and component development � qualification of materials and development of

lead technology � innovative fuels and fuel cycle

Challenges

� System design and componentdevelopment

The main goals of the LFR system design andcomponent development are:

� approach to control corrosion and erosion ofstructural materials

� seismic isolators to cope with the large mass of lead� in-service inspection techniques� refuelling operations at high temperature (400°C)� management of Steam Generator Tube Rupture

inside the primary system� prevention of freezing of coolant during all

operational states

Research on phenomena of corrosion anderosion by molten lead and their prevention forcandidate structural steels for the primarysystem is essential. For near term deployment,the use of existing, qualified industrial materialsfor most parts of the reactor equipment ispossible, by limiting the core outlet temperature,whereas new materials or specific coatings arebeing developed for special components,especially claddings. For longer termdeployment, approaches beyond the usual“oxygen control strategy” may be explored toextend the operability conditions in terms oftemperature range.

The mass of lead is minimised by designfeatures; developments are ongoing through adedicated FP7 project (SILER) to developsuitable 2-D seismic isolators for the reactorbuilding.

The fuel assemblies are fitted with an extendedstem which allows the fuel handling machine tooperate in the cover gas under full visibilityconditions. This completely eliminates in-vesselfuel transfer equipment.

Steam Generator Tube Rupture is beinginvestigated by experimental tests aimed todemonstrate that such events do notcompromise safety, i.e. they can be adequatelyprevented or mitigated, and will not represent achallenge to the investment protection.

� Materials qualification and leadtechnology development

The strategy consists of two tracks, for short-and medium-term deployment:

� use of existing qualified materials (short term)� development of the coolant oxygen control for

very large pools (short term),� development of innovative materials and coolant

technology (medium term)� assessment of the possibility for application of

material surface coating (medium term)

Due to the large database available, austeniticsteels, and especially those of low-carbon grade,are candidates for components operating atrelatively low temperatures and low irradiationfluence, e.g. the reactor vessel. Advancedaustenitic stainless steel (such as the 15-15 Tistrengthened and its evolutions) in the short andmedium term appear to be the most suitablesolution for fuel cladding because already provenin SFRs, even if the corrosion resistance in leadstill needs to be addressed. The possibility toadopt a coating for this aim is underinvestigation even if its performance has to beproven by irradiation tests in a lead environment.

For long term deployment, ferritic-martensiticsteels appear to be among the best candidatematerials for fuel cladding and structuresbecause of their higher resistance againstswelling under high fast neutron fluence.Nevertheless several characteristics of ferritic-martensitic steels such as the fatigue softening,DBTT shift under irradiation, type IV weldcracking, creep resistance and thermal ageingstill have to be properly addressed.


The resulting R&D needs consist of thequalification of:

� an austenitic steel for the reactor vessel� lead corrosion resistant material for the steam

generators tubing� protective coating for fuel cladding and fuel

element structural parts� special materials or coatings for the impeller of

the mechanical pumpsThe use of lead coolant implies also:

� development and validation of a technique forlead purification (prior to use and online duringoperation to recover activated corrosion productsor e.g. volatile Hg)

� development and calibration of instrumentationoperating in lead and under irradiation (fuelcladding detection instrumentation, coolantchemistry control, thermal-hydraulics monitoring,ultrasonic instrumentation under liquid metal…)

� development of techniques and instrumentationfor in-service inspection

� development of a waste management strategy forused lead

Thus, the strategy for material qualification andlead technology development consists of a two-step approach based on the need to achievedemonstration in the short term and optimisethe system for long-term industrial deployment.Consequently, as mentioned for MYRRHA,ALFRED will use already available technology(e.g. 15-15Ti for the cladding without or withsurface coating) while the ELFR can fullyexploit the advantages of innovative materials(innovative austenitic steels, T91, or ODS -which however still needs irradiationqualification) and of possible innovativebreakthroughs regarding lead coolant chemistryand its purification. Special attention ispresently dedicated, for this purpose, to theaustenitic and ferritic-martensitic steelscontaining Al and/or Si as alloying elements,due to their high resistance to lead corrosion,even though special attention will be given toirradiation embrittlement.

Innovative fuels and fuel cycle

Fuel development from the demonstrationphase to industrial deployment:

� ready-to-use technical solutions for demonstrationin the near term

� mid-term goal to confirm the use of MA bearingfuels

� development of innovative fuel solutions forindustrial deployment

In the near term, an essential step of the LFRdevelopment is the availability of ready-to-usetechnical solutions, so that fuel can be providedon time tested, and qualified, with the paralleldevelopment of suitable performance codes...

In the mid term, it isnecessary to confirmthe possibility of usingadvanced MA (MinorAct in ide)-bear ingfuels and the possibil-ity of achieving highfuel burn-up.

In the long term, it is important to confirm thepotential for industrial deployment of advancedMA-bearing fuels and the possibility of usinginnovative fuels having higher conductivity andlower swelling that can withstand hightemperatures thus increasing fuel safety margin.

The R&D programme presents strong synergieswith the SFR fuel development activities, asrecognised by both communities. Due to the largenumber of similarities and common activities, theidentification of a common line of developmentfor both systems is of mutual interest and,consequently, strongly suggested. Qualification ofthe cladding material, being a very long andexpensive task, may also take advantage of theresearch programmes carried out for both SFRand LBE systems resulting in very importantsavings in terms of overall cost and efficiency.Other cross-cutting research activities have beenidentified in the fields of core safety, fuel safety,seismic studies as well as instrumentation,inspection and repair techniques.

�The ALLEGRO Project

ALLEGRO is the Gas cooled FastReactor (GFR) demonstrator asidentified in the roadmap for the

development of the Gas Fast Reactortechnology.

Objectives

The GFR cooled by helium is proposed as alonger term alternative to sodium cooled

fast reactors (SFR). As well as offering theadvantages of improved inspection, simplified


The LFR R&Dprogramme presentsstrong synergies with the SFR fueldevelopmentactivities, as

recognised by bothcommunities

coolant handling and low void reactivity, theGFR offers the unique advantage of fulfillingtwo missions:

1) closure of the nuclear fuel cycle andsimultaneously providing a sustainablenuclear energy source as with other ESNII-concepts

2) delivery of high temperature heat at~800°C (process heat, production ofhydrogen, synthetic fuels…)

The helium cooled Fast Reactor is an innovativenuclear system having attractive features: heliumis transparent to neutrons and is not chemicallyreactive. Its viability is essentially based on:

� the development of a refractory and dense fuel� robust management of accidental transients,

especially after the Fukushima accident

For GFR to becomean industrial reality,an intermediateobjective is the designand construction of asmall demonstrationreactor. This reactorhas been namedALLEGRO and its role, apart from being theworld’s first gas cooled fast reactor, consists ofthe following:

� pilot scale demonstration of GFR-specific safetysystems taking benefit from simpler in-serviceinspection and repair and coolant management

� final qualification of the innovative high-temperature (ceramic) fuel at the full core levelrequired for GFR

� testing of the GFR-related technologies such ase.g. refuelling, spent fuel reprocessing andrefabricating, helium purification & regeneration,high-temperature materials, GFR-relatedcomponents

� potential test capacity of high temperaturecomponents or heat processes

State of the art

Acarefully planned and extensive R&D ofGFRs started after 2001 in France at CEA

and continued on the GFR 2400 MWt andALLEGRO 75 MWt concepts until 2009,when the GFR programme was reduced.International collaboration of CEA with otherEuropean institutions took place (or is still

underway) mainly within the EURATOMFramework Programmes (FP6 GCFR STREP,FP7 GoFastR).

In 2010, three research institutes from theCzech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia, steppedinto the ALLEGRO development, with the aimof creating an ALLEGRO Consortium andhosting the demonstrator in one of thesecountries. A Memorandum of Understandingwas signed on 20 May, 2010 between ÚJV Řež,a.s. (Czech Republic), MTA-EK Budapest(Hungary) and VUJE, a.s. (Slovakia). TheNational Centre of Nuclear Research (NCBJ)Warsaw (Poland) signed the Memorandum ofUnderstanding in 2012 as associated member.The CEA contributes to the preliminary phaseof the project. Consecutively the formation ofthe international Consortium is underway.

The Consortium members agree to use theirown financial resources in combination with theexpected governmental support in theircountries and international support from the EUFramework. The Consortium assumes theestablishment of a GFR Research Centre ofExcellence. It is worth mentioning that theCzech and Slovak republic (formerCzechoslovakia) built and operated a gas (CO2)cooled heavy-water moderated nuclear reactorKS-150 in the period 1972-1977.

The demonstration of the GFR technologyassumes that the basic features of the 2400MWt GFR reactor can be tested in the 75 MWtALLEGRO. Therefore, most of the mainparameters of both reactors are similar to eachother (power density, etc.).

The current CEA Concept of ALLEGRO ischaracterised by a metallic reactor pressurevessel (RPV), upward core cooling, control rodmechanism through the RPV bottom entry, twoprimary loops (realised as a coaxial cross-duct)and two circuits (the primary helium and thesecondary water). Three decay heat removal(DHR) loops containing water-cooled heatexchangers located well above the core representanother important feature of the Concept. Theprimary circuit of the CEA Concept is shown inthe following figure 29.

As the production of electricity is not theprimary goal, the CEA Concept has no powerconversion system.

The primary circuit is filled with heliumpressurised to 7 MPa. The whole primary circuitis integrated, including the DHR loops, in a


The GFR cooled byhelium is proposed as

a longer termalternative to sodiumcooled fast reactors

cylindrical close containment call the guardvessel, which is filled with atmospheric nitrogen.The water in the secondary circuit (not shown inthe Figure) is pressurised to 6.5 MPa. The redgas/gas heat exchanger in the Figure 29 isplanned for extraction of process heat.

Since ALLEGRO will be a demonstrator of theGFR2400 concept, the development, testing,and qualification of the advanced fuel(applicable in the GFR2400) is of primaryimportance.

Two successive core configurations are,therefore, expected. The starting core will bebased on MOX fuel containing ~25% Pu instainless steel cladding. This fuel will be derivedfrom the SFR programme and will serve as adriving core (Tinlet/Toutlet He 260/530 °C) forsix experimental fuel assemblies containing theadvanced ceramic fuel (pin-type mixed carbidefuel in SiCf/SiC claddings resistant in accidentconditions up to 1600 °C for few hours), Figure30 Flow reduction in these assemblies willenable to reach ~850 °C at the outlet from theseassemblies. The pressure drop in the core isdesigned to be below 0.15 MPa to ease the gascirculation. The final core of ALLEGRO willconsist solely of the ceramic fuel and will enablethe operation of ALLEGRO at the high targettemperature (Tinlet/Toutlet He 400/850 °C).

Figure 30: The 75 MWt ALLEGRO MOX core(Source: ALLEGRO Consortium)

To maximise the similarity with the GFR2400and to increase safety, the Consortium proposedan intermediate gas circuit filled with He+N2mixture to insert into the scheme of the CEAConcept. The second reason was to minimisethe risk of a massive water leakage into theprimary circuit filled with hot helium (corrosion,criticality). A gas expansion turbine wasproposed for this circuit by CEA as a safetyfeature just to produce power for the blowers incase of a blackout. The third circuit, conductingthe heat to the cooling tower containsalternatively a gas/water heat exchanger or asteam generator for a power conversion systemrepresented by a small steam turbine, operated ina Rankine cycle. The use of both the steamturbine as well as the gas expansion turbine forALLEGRO is still under discussion.

To support the theoretical R&D, severalexperimental facilities were designed at CEA.Some of them were constructed and started togenerate data already before 2009. An integralhigh-temperature helium loop for testing of theDHR system, components and code validation,however, has not yet been built. The existingexperimental facilities for GFR-related researchwere summarised within the FP7 projectADRIANA in 2011.

Challenges

The challenges are mainly related to thedemonstration of safety, the fuel technology

able to withstand high temperatures, thematerial issues, and the helium-relatedtechnology.

� Optimisation of the design for ensuring cooling of the core in accident conditions

During a loss of external power for blowers in thegas circuits (especially during loss-of-primary-coolant accidents associated with significantdepressurisation), forced convection is required forsuccessful removal of the decay heat. CEAproposed to take advantage of the abovementioned gas turbine in the intermediateHe+N2 circuit driven by the decay heattransferred from the primary circuit through thegas/gas heat exchanger into the intermediatecircuit. This turbine is expected to drive theblowers in both gas circuits in accident conditions.Analyses of this option as well as the assessment oftechnological feasibility have to be performed.


Figure 29: CEA Concept of the ALLEGRO reactor(Source: ALLEGRO Consortium)

� Qualification of the GFR-related DHR approach

The behaviour of the GFR-specific DHR system,i.e. additional water-cooled heat exchangerslocated in loops well above the core, was simulatednumerically but not yet experimentally. Anintegral loop for a complex test of the DHRapproach is planned at CV Řež (Czech Republic)to test the following phenomena:

� qualification of the GFR-related DHR approach� validation of system codes (e.g. CATHARE or those

under development in HTR projects)� capability to switch the core cooling from the main

loops to the DHR loops and their capability tooperate in natural circulation in expectedconditions

� capability to avoid core by-pass in LOCA conditionsespecially under interaction of several main &DHR loops

� Development of the carbide (U,Pu)C fuel in SiCf/SiC cladding for the second core

CEA evaluated this type of fuel as a promisingoption for the high-temperature GFR core andachieved a significant progress in itsdevelopment. Priority was given to pin-typefuel. The plate-fuel, originally considered as avery promising option, was abandoned. Thefollowing R&D is expected:

� further optimisation of the SiCf/SiC design,properties, performance, cost, and technology(component production route, plug technology,hermetic sealing using a suitable liner material,irradiation-enhanced creep, oxidation byimpurities in the helium coolant, embrittlement byirradiation at low temperatures)

� out-of pile and in-pile testing of the mixed carbidefuel & SiCf/SiC segments (optimisation &assessment of porosity, thermal conductivity, etc.)

� minimisation of the fuel-cladding mechanical &chemical interaction

� assessment of the SiCf/SiC abrasion/erosion inflowing helium containing impurities.

� development & validation of the models forswelling and fission gas release from the mixedcarbide fuel in operational conditions

� implementation of mechanical & physicalproperties into fuel behaviour codes and theirvalidation for the planned operating domain withrespect to temperatures, burn-up, etc.

� Mitigation of severe accidents (SA)

Efficient design features for mitigation of SAare expected to be proposed and implementedinto the ALLEGRO concept. Thoroughanalyses using suitable severe accident codesshould prove that WENRA requirements wouldbe fulfilled for both the MOX and the ceramiccores. This concerns at present e.g. theassessment of so called unprotected accidents.

The behaviour of the molten fuel and itscoolability, have to be studied.

� Development & qualification ofthe wire-wrapped MOX fuel forthe first core

The MOX fuel from the SFR programme needsto be fabricated and qualified for its use inhelium coolant with prototypical GFRparameters. This includes also the optimisationof both the cladding material and the hexagonalwrapper tube as well as the extension of the fuelperformance codes to the ALLEGRO fuel(validation of the fission gas release model,assessment of temperature non-uniformities inthe MOX bundle, heat exchanges, pressuredrop, provision of various physical properties e.g.heat transfer into helium, material properties ofboth MOX and cladding).

� Development of thermal barriersand insulation materials

Thermal barriers are needed in the GFR designto protect structural metallic materials fromexcessive temperature load:

� thermal barrier (panels) protecting the innersurface of the reactor pressure vessel (goal towithstand short term 1250°C in accidentconditions)

� thermal shield of the experimental (U,Pu)Cassemblies in MOX core (wrapper tube)

� insulation of the hot duct in the coaxial piping

Other GFR-related technologies

� helium purification system for gas circuits to limitactivated impurities and corrosion

� tritium management� Regeneration of filters� helium recovery from the nitrogen guard vessel

gas (helium economy)


� sealing technology (goal to reduce the leakagerate to 10% of He inventory per year)

� wear resistance of materials, especially ceramicthermal shields and insulation

� management of helium leaks to containment

� Qualification of GFR-specificcomponents including materialissues, especially

� gas/gas heat exchangers - design and heattransfer coefficients

� active and passive valves (reliability and ageing)� fuel handling system� control rods - absorber & cladding material, drive

mechanism

� reflector around the core – qualification of thematerial, mechanical & thermal properties

� instrumentation (e.g. optical measurements oftemperature)

The above list is indicative only; there are otherissues that need further attention such as e.g.core physics (voiding reactivity effect,qualification of neutron leakage through axialgas channels, neutronics/thermal hydrauliccoupling).

Some phenomena are still not modelled today:

� sub-assembly, core and collector thermal-hydraulics

� core mechanics (equilibrium and seismicresponse)

� transport of contamination


20 - Advanced Applicationsof Water-Cooled NuclearPower Plants, IAEA-TECDOC-1584, July 2007.

21 - Advances in NuclearPower Process HeatApplications, IAEA-TECDOC-1682, May 2012.

22 - Bredimas, Marketstudy: Energy usage inEuropean heat intensiveindustries, Executivesummary, LGI Consulting reportET_1103, May 2011.

23 - Survey of HTGR ProcessEnergy Applications, MPR report MPR-3181, May 2008.


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Nuclear cogeneration relates to the co-production of heat and electricity usinga nuclear reactor. Fossil fuels are today

by far the main source of heat for Europeanindustry, transport and households. Theproduction of heat with nuclear technology is amajor innovation that can open a new andsignificant market potential for nuclear systems,whilst providing a significant contribution toEuropean strategic energy policy in terms ofcurbing CO2 emissions and increasing securityof energy supply.

� Introduction

� Rationale

Although European industry has achievedimpressive emission reductions in recent years,fossil fuel combustion to provide heat to theprocesses of European energy intensiveindustries corresponds to an annual emission of720 MtCO2. This represents around 20% ofEurope’s CO2 emissions. This is more than the470 MtCO2 emitted every year to generate theelectricity consumed by these industries.

Energy is vital to EU industries and accounts fora significant share of the production costs of EUenergy intensive industries, with for instance 8%for chemicals production or 22% for pulp &papermaking. European industry represents alarge contribution to the European economyand generates essential products for oureveryday lives. To maintain and strengthen thisposition in Europe, a low-carbon, competitiveenergy technology is needed. Nuclearcogeneration can be the feasible innovation tomeet that requirement.

Additionally, short-term opportunities forhouseholds such as district heating, anddesalination to solve fresh water shortages, andlong-term opportunities for reducing fossil

resource usage in transport by generatingsynthetic transport fuels via nuclear poweredhydrogen production, add a significant marketand carbon emission reduction potential.

The EUROPAIRS project has analysed indepth the European industrial heat market. Thevast market potential for nuclear cogenerationwas highlighted, most recently in Europe(EUROPAIRS project) and in the USA (MPRAssociates), cf. Table 1.

Table 1: Heat market by region 22 23

Various nuclear reactor technologies could eachmeet a part of the market demand as shown inTable 2.

� State of the Art

Nuclear cogeneration is already a reality. In2006, 1700 reactor years of experience has beenaccumulated worldwide, mainly for waste heatvalorisation from water reactors20 21. In Europe,more than 1000 GWh of low-temperaturenuclear heat was produced in 2006 in Bulgaria,Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Slovakiaand Switzerland.

Water reactors have an extensive operationalexperience, including in low-temperaturecogeneration. Low temperature cogenerationfrom a fast neutron reactor was proven in oneKazakh plant (BN-350) for desalination20.Significant development is however needed


NC2I - Nuclear CogenerationIndustrial Initiative


24 - Heat Loads andPolygeneration Applications- Chemical, food, paper and refinery sectors, D-Ploy Workpackage 2 deliverable, August 2008.

before cogeneration application can beconsidered for medium level temperatureapplications. As time progresses and fast reactorsare further developed, the obstacles for fastreactor cogeneration applications will diminish.

High temperature reactors provide significantperspectives for medium and high temperaturecogeneration applications. The HTRtechnology builds on the developments inGermany in the 1980s, as well as previousresearch in UK and USA, re-established andrevived in several national and EuropeanFramework Programme projects from the year2000 onwards, of which the ARCHER project(2011-2014) is currently ongoing.

The coupling with end-users of HTR for hightemperature cogeneration has still to bedeveloped21. The EUROPAIRS project hasestablished direct contacts between theconventional process industry and the nuclearcommunity and has developed key performanceindicators. It has also identified operationalenvelopes for the coupling and assessed thegeneral licensing aspects on dedicated case

studies (hydrogen, refining). Additionally, theestablishment of an HTR demonstrator coupledto industry has been regarded as essential by theindustry in EUROPAIRS, to enable marketbreakthrough by risk reduction and the morereasonable deployment horizon of demonstratorfollow-ups.

The ARCHER project provides technologyR&D in support of demonstration, in whichboth fundamental research and directapplications are combined. This basis should befurther extended in strategic directions, tominimise demonstrator risks, by securing thelicensing framework especially.

National projects are supporting the EuropeanR&D. For instance, Polish project HTRPL waslaunched in September 2012 to strengthen thenational scientific and technical capacities forthe HTR programme in Poland. It gathersuniversities, research institutes (coveringnuclear, fertilizers and coal processing R&Dfields), an engineering company, a power plantoperator and an energy intensive company. TheGerman project SYNKOPE was launched in

Table 2: Heat market per type of nuclear reactor technologies 21 22 24


25- Advances in HighTemperature Gas CooledReactor Fuel Technology,IAEA-TECDOC-1674, June 2012.

August 2012 and elaborates nuclear-assistedcoal-to-liquid process scenarios. Additionally,the German project STAUB-II launched inAugust 2012 is to work on HTR safety,including experiments in a newly built heliumtest facility.

� Main Design Options for HTR

Two HTR design concepts use the same highsafety standard TRISO fuel particles eitherembedded in graphite spheres for the pebble bedcore or in compacts inserted in graphite blocksin the block-type core. The present majorrepresentatives of the design are the test reactorsHTR10 (pebble bed) in China and the HTTR(block-type) in Japan. The power rating for themodular HTR has been evaluated between 200 and 600 MWth with an average steamtemperature of about 550°C, in line with thecurrent conventional steam cycle technology.

The HTR design allows high flexibility in termsof power rating and temperature. In addition, itsinherent safety characteristics includinglimitation of fuel temperature in case ofaccidents and the threefold containment ofradioactivity in the TRISO fuel particlescomplemented by the inert helium coolantdemonstrate the high safety standard of HTR25.

The design options can be classified into:

1. Short term: indirect cycle, steamproduction 550-600 °C (current coal firedpower plant conditions as reference), powersplit depending on demand

2. Mid term: follow materials developmenttowards higher temperature applications infossil-fired plants, possibly switch to heatcarrier other than steam

3. Long term: 950°C or beyond (primaryside) requires change and thus developmentof structural materials for applications suchas thermo-chemical H2 production and otherhigh temperature processes

Taking into account the favourable safetycharacteristics of HTR, the coupling of an HTRto a conventional process has to take intoaccount the different licensing procedures andthe avoidance of negative impact of the nuclearenergy source and the industrial process side,and vice versa.

An example as proposed by AREVA for the USdemonstrator project NGNP is shown in figure 31:

Figure 31: Commercial Process Heat Cogeneration Facility Basic Configuration (AREVA proposal for NGNP)

�Challenges: Research,Development and Innovation

In this chapter the R&D efforts are sum-marised that would stimulate and facilitatenuclear cogeneration implementation. First,

generic items are named that are of importancefor all nuclear systems in cogeneration mode.Secondly, the most relevant R&D towardsdemonstration of nuclear cogeneration usinghigh temperature reactor (HTR) technology,with its favourable characteristics for cogenera-tion applications, is listed. Thirdly, R&D isoutlined that would further broaden the poten-tial of HTR technology. This is at this stageconsidered more long term, but should be initi-ated in the short term to enable thestrengthening of specific long-term deploymentscenarios and applications.

� Generic R&D

The following nuclear cogeneration R&Dsubjects are generic, as they are relevant for allnuclear systems operating in cogenerationmode. However, their importance and relevancedepend strongly on the nuclear systemenvisaged, and the process it is connected to.These mainly relate to safety and licensing butalso to the exploitation of existing LWR forpurposes of growing importance (e.g. seawaterdesalination):

� tritium transport reduction to secondary andtertiary systems:- tritium permeation barriers- coolant chemistry and purification technology

� impact of process transients on cogenerationsupply unit, and vice versa:- coupled system code development and validation

� coupling technology including energy buffering:- coupling component development and qualification- coupling material selection and performance

qualification� adaptation of existing LWR and future SMR to

meet strongly growing demand for district coolingand seawater desalination in arid countries

Non-cogeneration specific R&D for largewater-cooled reactors, water-cooled small andmedium-sized reactors (SMR) and for fastneutron reactors is referred to in the SRIAchapters associated with these technologies.

� High Temperature Reactorrelated R&D towardsdemonstration

The HTR features high efficiency potential dueto elevated primary coolant temperatures and avery high level of inherent safety. These featuresmake the system particularly appropriate for theprocess industry (e.g. chemistry) or other hightemperature applications, for which a veryefficient and CO2-free energy source is afavourable alternative2.

Demonstration isrequired for HTRtechnology marketbreakthrough. Thefollowing topics areessential fordemonstration tosucceed withinreasonable timescales

and with minimised risks, and the R&D effortsassociated are listed for each topic specifically:

Safety demonstration

� accident modelling (air and/or water ingress)- thermal-hydraulic and fuel performance code

development and experimental validation foraccidents and transients

- integral safety testing: water and air ingressexperiments such as NACOK and safety tests underirradiation

� HTR earthquake response (graphite core andcomponent vibration analysis), identification ofsuitable countermeasures, e.g. design innovationto minimise loads on supports, flanges andconnectors

� response of nuclear heat source to transients fromheat sink and vice versa (coupling impact)

Licensing support

� renewal and adjustment of the past German HTRlicensing process to current standards

� support the development of HTR orientedEuropean design codes and standards

� fuel and graphite back end: compatibility of HTRwaste with final repository conditions

� source term determination (fission producttransport)


The HTR features highefficiency potentialdue to elevatedprimary coolant

temperatures and avery high level ofinherent safety

� develop probabilistic licensing approach withregards to HTR fuel and core components

� develop a system integration approach for theHTR system, and of the coupled system, and applythis to actual application cases

� develop, prepare and perform the material andfuel characterisation and qualification process.

Technology innovation

To maintain and strengthen the HTRknowledge base, support demonstration,possibly as international collaboration:

� helium technology (purification, primary systemsealing, pumps, circulator)

� material behaviour in a helium environment(tribology tests, helium loop, helium flowerosion/corrosion)

� hot duct design� (digital) high temperature Instrumentation and

Control for online system performance andbehaviour monitoring and analysis

� fuel and graphite hardening against air and wateringress

� heat exchanger and system design to minimise airand water ingress

� fundamental understanding of HTR fuelperformance and behaviour by appropriate(separate effect) irradiation tests and modellingefforts, to determine:- material properties and behaviour under

irradiation- fission product transport and diffusion- manufacturing impact on fuel performance

� adopt the fundamental knowledge regarding HTRfuel behaviour, develop and validate amechanistic fuel performance code, includingtransient behaviour and severe accidents

R&D towards deployment

Beyond demonstration, the potential of nuclearheat sources can be further broadened byappropriate R&D. Of particular relevance is theresearch in the following areas:

� For HTR: increased primary coolant temperature(950ºC) for enhanced efficiency and broaderapplication perspectives:- development and qualification of suitable

structural materials

- fuel behaviour and performance, and potentialimprovement to maintain HTR safety margins

- coordination with non-nuclear projects onhydrogen production technologies

� For LWR (incl. SMR): maximise the short-termusefulness of low temperature cogenerationapplications such as heating/cooling and seawaterdesalination:- Design, test and qualify passive heat removal

systems and minimise external coolingrequirements.

- Develop components and scale up technologies touse LWR or SMR for district cooling and drinkingwater supply in arid areas.

� Alternative fuel cycles, including thorium, tostretch fuel resources, to minimise waste and tooptimise cycle length: cf. related SRA section onFuel Cycles.

�R&D infrastructure: the bridge to deployment

Besides the essential competences andexperience of experts involved in HTRdevelopment (a critical asset for the

whole nuclear sector), major investments areneeded in modern experimental infrastructureand facilities to enable the above R&D to beperformed adequately. The following facilitiesare essential:

� New irradiation facilities for the investigation,characterisation, development and, ultimately,validation and qualification of HTR fuels andmaterials. Accident testing requires developmentof novel and specific irradiation test facilities andequipment. Additionally an in-pile helium loop isneeded to assess material behaviour underrepresentative primary coolant flow andirradiation conditions.

� Out-of-pile testing facilities such as accident tests(NACOK, KORA), helium loops (HELOKA, HEFUS).

� Modern hot cells with heating tests (KÜFA) andstate-of-the-art PIE possibilities to enable thegeneration of the appropriate data for codedevelopment and validation, and to increase thefundamental understanding of material and fuelbehaviour.

� Fuel manufacturing laboratory, also able tohandle transuranics.

These facilities serve two purposes: on the onehand they are essential for appropriate R&D to


be performed, on the other, they form the basisfor the design, licensing and operation of ademonstration project.

The steps towards demonstrator construction gopartly beyond R&D and are thereforeconsidered beyond the scope of the SNETPStrategic Research Agenda, but they are closelytied, and therefore shortly mentioned here. Asthe EUROPAIRS roadmap has shown, thefollowing critical items have been identified fora demonstrator to be established:

� HTR fuel pilot plant, or qualified fuel deliveryfrom external supplier

� manufacturers and suppliers, and the appropriatequalification and quality assurance fitting HTRtechnology and licensing requirements for:- reactor pressure vessel (most critical)- other components, such as heat exchanger,

graphite, circulator, hot duct, core structure, steamgenerator, civil works

�R&D to bring innovationto the market

Nuclear cogeneration is a technologicallyinnovation with a potentially majorpositive impact on European energy

policy, supporting curbing, increasing security ofenergy supply and strengthening the position of

European industry, which represents a keyeconomic asset in Europe.

The R&D presented in this chapter is directedtowards bringing this innovation to the marketvia the shortest routes.

Low temperature cogeneration requires minorR&D, which revolves around licensing andcoupling technology and safety.

Medium to high temperature cogenerationfocuses on high temperature reactor technologygiven its favourable characteristics and very largedeployment potential. Demonstration isworthwhile to achieve this goal, and the R&Dcan therefore be summarised by the topics:licensing support, safety demonstration and(evolutionary) technology advancement.

Very important is the support which R&D canprovide by maintaining and strengthening thenuclear fission knowledge base, by developingand establishing the R&D infrastructure thatcan bridge the transition from technologyinnovation to implementation.

Very high temperature reactor technology is amajor innovation with a longer term developmentrequired, together with alternative fuel cycles.

Demonstration is a prerogative, but thedevelopment would span such a long time that,assuming that the perspective can besubstantiated, these developments should beinitiated in the short term.



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In the present SRIA, the R&D topics havebeen organised according to the relatedreactor technologies, however some topics

have an intrinsic cross-cutting nature. This is thecase for fuel cycle technologies bridgingdifferent reactor generations, in particular fuelreprocessing. Education & Training andKnowledge Management are also topicsaffecting all nuclear technologies. Knowledgemanagement is essential as it allows the storageand dissemination of the results of research

Technical topics addressed as cross-cutting inthe SRA 2009, like materials, pre-normativeresearch, simulation tools and infrastructureshave been integrated into the three maintechnological chapters.

� Fuel reprocessing

As has been described in the Fuel Cyclechapter, many opportunities to improvethe optimal utilisation of natural

resources and nuclear waste minimisation areopened up by the reprocessing of the nuclear fuelafter its use in nuclear reactors. Fuel reprocessingallows the separation of materials that can bereused in thermal or fast nuclear reactors, eitherto produce additional energy or to minimise thefinal waste to be sent to the geological repository.Indeed, the reprocessing of used nuclear fuel is acritical component of all the strategies for long-term sustainability of nuclear energy.

Reprocessing of thefuel used in thepresent LWRs iscommon industrialpractice in France,and similartechnologies are alsoavailable in the UK.The plutonium and

uranium recovered are partially recycled in thesame LWRs in the form of MOX and the rest issaved for use in future FNR.

The challenges for R&D in fuel reprocessing,include the industrialisation of laboratorytechnologies for separation of minor actinidesfrom the high level waste from the reprocessingof the fuel used in present reactors; thedevelopment of reprocessing of advanced fuelsforeseen for future reactors (FNR, ADS,advanced thermal reactors and HTR);technologies able to perform joint extraction ofseveral actinides; and the minimisation ofsecondary wastes in all these strategies. Thesedevelopments should be performed coherentlywith the technologies for advanced fuelfabrication and characterisation.

National and international initiatives withstrong participation of SNETP members,including the EURATOM ACSEPT project,have been working on reprocessing andconditioning of LWR and advanced fuels forMA separation. In particular that project hasprovided progress on the definition of extractionmolecules and the concept for hydro-metallurgical process with MA separation. Anew project has already been approved byEURATOM to study the stability of thesemolecules under realistic radiological andchemical conditions and to assess theindustrialisation of the process. The involvedorganisations continue undertaking morefundamental R&D on pyro-metallurgicalprocesses. In parallel, some national studies andothers involving several EU countries continuedeveloping the processes for dissolution of MA-bearing MOX and MA targets using a differentbasic matrix.

In the short term, the required R&D for nuclearwaste reprocessing can be performed in severalexisting basic science and validation facilities,but in the medium term demonstration plantsfor the reactors, fuel fabrication and advanced


Cross-cutting R&D topics

The reprocessing ofused nuclear fuel is acritical component ofall the strategies for

long-termsustainability ofnuclear energy

reprocessing technologies will be needed, bothat national and European (joint) levels.

The priorities for short-term R&D in fuelreprocessing are:

� advanced reprocessing of LWR and advanced fuelsfor MA separation, using either hydro- or pyro-metallurgical processes

� dissolution of MA-bearing MOX and carbide fuelsfor FNRs and of MA bearing targets (U-free orUO2 matrix)

� conversion processes after the separation stepsand prior to the re-fabrication of fuels/targets

� processes for HTR fuel recycling and wastereduction, integration of fuel cycle with LWR andFNR

� synthesis of new fuels and their performanceassessment, oriented to their reprocessing

� irradiation behaviour of MA-bearing MOX andcarbide fuels, and MA bearing targets anddedicated PIE programmes

In the medium term the R&D will needdemonstration facilities. The decision to developor not demonstration facilities for fuelfabrication and reprocessing should be taken inabout 2017 depending on the results of theprevious steps and of the availability ofequivalent facilities in Europe.

Within itsprogramme tooperate a sodiumcooled fast reactorprototype by 2020,France is consideringthe construction of afacility devoted to themanufacturing of the core fuel for the ASTRIDFR prototype. This facility, called AFC, couldalso provide fuel fabrication services for thetesting and demonstration of alternative reactortechnologies at the European level.

For recycling ASTRID fuel, several options areunder consideration: either a dedicated pilot-scale facility (ATC), or adaptation usingcomplementary steps in a LWR fuelreprocessing plant.

Meanwhile an investigation is under way inorder to evaluate the possibilities of increasingthe capacities of existing facilities such asATALANTE (CEA/Marcoule). Demonstrativetransmutation experiments, at sub-assemblyscale, would call for new facilities, able tomanufacture MA-bearing targets or MA-bearing fuels, at kg scale. A reflexion should be

encouraged within the EU for the design of suchfacility.

The objectives of these facilities should be toprepare the next generation reprocessing plants,which will be needed for the fast reactor cycle.They should address issues such as multi-recycling of plutonium and minor actinideseparation.

In the long term, the R&D should focus on theindustrial implementation of partitioning andtransmutation: The implementation of thisphase will depend on the results of the previousphases and will be mainly carried out under thecontrol of the nuclear industry.

Non MOX fuel still needs some reprocessingdevelopment.

� Education, training and knowledge management

� i - Scope and Objectives

Qualified human resources for both the nuclearindustry and nuclear regulation are a crucialprerequisite for the safe and economic use ofnuclear fission energy. Due to the stagnation ofnew build NPPs observed in many areas of theworld after the Chernobyl accident, theavailability of those resources became an issue,and the low attractiveness of nuclear professions,particularly for the best brains, developed into akey concern in many countries. The impact ofthe Fukushima accident could aggravate thesituation.

However training programmes are needed tomaintain European expertise in safety and arealready of paramount importance, especiallyknowing that increased safety precautions arebeing included in the daily operation of ournuclear power plants and for new build projects.

Nuclear education and training (E&T) istherefore, since many years, a high priority topicon the agenda of many initiatives addressing theuse of nuclear fission energy for a sustainableenergy supply. Of particular relevance in thatrespect is the relationship between nucleareducation and training and nuclear research:first, the quality of nuclear research directlydepends on the interest and engagement ofhighly qualified scientists and engineers in those


In the long term, theR&D should focus on

the industrialimplementation ofpartitioning andtransmutation

activities. Second, research plays a crucial rolefor the qualification of young scientists andengineers by providing know-why and otherimportant competences required to solverelevant technological and safety issues and toensure the capability for leadership inorganisations involved with nuclear energyissues.

This section of the SRA discusses the recentachievements in nuclear education and trainingwith special regard to the links with nuclearfission research. It further addresses thechallenges of the present situation which is, afterthe Fukushima accident, marked by increaseduncertainties about the future development ofthe nuclear sector in some countries. Last butnot least the section will indicate priorities forfurther actions.

� ii - Progress to date

There have been many important actions in theEU member states and at the European level toimprove the situation of nuclear E&T. Since themid-1990s initiatives were started, for instance,to maintain infrastructure and personnel fornuclear education at universities as well as tostrengthen the role of nuclear fission research asa tool for nuclear education and training.Particular initiatives worth mentioning are:

� Efforts of the European Commission, both throughEuratom supported projects and direct actionscarried out by the JRC, and some Europeanmember states to maintain research in nuclearfission technology and nuclear fission safety withclose links between research and educationalorganisations.

� Support by the industry, regulators, and researchcentres for universities in maintaining academiceducation in nuclear technology, when the numberof students was not sufficient to warrant financialsupport from government and/or educationauthorities.

� Building of national and international networkswith the objective of strengthening thecooperation between different universities,promoting cooperation between universities,research centres and other nuclear stakeholders,facilitating the exchange of information,collaboration and the sharing of best practices innuclear education and training, and makingstudies in nuclear energy more attractive forstudents.

� Establishment of European and national data

bases providing information about E&Topportunities and employment offers.

� Creation of new national and internationaltraining programmes - some of them withsubstantial engagement of employers - devoted toan effective preparation of engineers andscientists for new jobs and/or new positions in thenuclear industry.

� Creation of bodies investigating the structure ofand the future demand for nuclear professionalson a regular basis thus providing better data forthe planning and optimisation of E&Tprogrammes.

� Initiatives devoted to improving access to existingresearch infrastructures for the purpose ofeducation and training.

� Development of new approaches devoted toimproving the European mobility of nuclearprofessionals.

� Strengthening international cooperation withnon-EU countries in nuclear E&T and nuclearresearch.

These developments are described in more detailin the report “Nuclear Education and Training -Key Elements of a Sustainable EuropeanStrategy” published by the SNETP in 2010 aswell in other, more recent reports published bythe OED/NEA and the IAEA .

� iii - Challenges

Raising the attractiveness for qualified youngpeople of studies and professions related to theuse of nuclear energy remains a key challenge forall stakeholders in nuclear energy.

Irrespective of thesubstantial progressachieved by recentinitiatives, thereremain significantchallenges for nucleareducation andtraining. They need tobe addressed in orderto ensure that lack ofqualified humanresources will not be alimiting factor for

nuclear safety and the continued use of nuclearfission energy.

Not all the priorities recognised during therecent years have, for instance, been sufficientlyaddressed until now. Some initiatives still need


Raising theattractiveness forqualified young

people of studies andprofessions related tothe use of nuclear

energy remains a keychallenge for allstakeholders innuclear energy

to be completed, and there are also successfulpast initiatives which are now at risk in adifferent situation. Thus continued attention isrequired, for instance, for:

� Cooperation between the different stakeholders innuclear education and training and continuedengagement of nuclear employers in the supportof national and international trainingprogrammes.

� International information exchange about recentexperiences in nuclear education and training inview of identifying best practices and sharing theminternationally.

� Regular updating and improving the quality ofdata providing information about the structure ofand the future demand for nuclear professionalsin view of supporting anticipated planning andoptimisation of nuclear E&T programmes.

� Ensuring easy access to existing researchinfrastructure for the purpose of education andtraining.

� Implementation of approaches devoted toachieving Europe-wide recognition of nationaltraining achievements in view of increasing themobility of nuclear professionals.

New challenges derive from the combined impactof the Fukushima accident, the financial crisis andthe delays in some new build projects. Thiscombined impact degrades the political andfinancial perspectives for the use of nuclearenergy and thus changes the near- and mid-termperspectives for both the human resources neededand the attractiveness of nuclear professions incompetition with other industries for attractingthe best young scientists and engineers.

At present, not all potential changes arerecognised. Many available data about thestanding of education at the European level andthe human resources needed still reflect aprevious situation where the perspectives of anuclear renaissance seemed to be obvious. Thepotential changes may be less relevant for thelong-term perspectives, as these generally derivefrom global conditions such as the need forbalanced use of different technologies options inorder to ensure the sustainability of energysupply. For the short and medium term,however, changes may by quite significant andneed to be addressed by strategies and planning.The relevant data need to be updated and theE&T strategies need to consider them and toreflect increased uncertainties of predictions.

� iv - Priorities for the near term

There are a various principles and approachesfor nuclear education and training which canhelp to deal with those changes and to bridge apossible interim with increased uncertainties.The relationship between research on the onehand and education and training on the otherhand plays a key role in that respect. Thefollowing near-term priorities have beenidentified:

� Strengthening the links between nuclear fissionresearch and nuclear education and training.

� Continued engagement of the industry and othernuclear employers in the optimisation of researchand educational programmes.

� Continued engagement of the EuropeanCommission in extending internationalcooperation with non-EU countries including thoseengaged in major nuclear programmes.

� Improving the opportunities for young scientistsand engineers to work on challenging researchtopics, e.g. by extending the scope of thoseprogrammes.

� Providing opportunities for education andtraining programmes to include direct experienceand experimental work on actualradioactive/irradiated fuel and materials, insynergy with available and future hot labinfrastructure.

� Strengthening the European and internationaldimension of nuclear education and trainingprogrammes thus responding to the increasinglyinternational character of the nuclear industry andto the need to mobilise from differentgeographical areas qualified human resources fornuclear energy.

� Extending the range of European E&T initiativesfrom their past focus on higher education to abroader scope covering (vocational) training oftechnicians and other specialised nuclear workers.

All these actions will contribute to thepreservation and dissemination of the acquiredknowledge.

To some extent these near-term priorities arealready being addressed by recent initiatives26.More systematic approaches are underdiscussion in view of developing solutions moreprecisely tailored to meet the challenges nucleareducation and training is facing in the nearfuture.


26 - The GENTLE projectaddresses, for instance,some of the priorities listedabove.


The preparation of this revision of theSNETP Strategic Research andInnovation Agenda, has shown that

SNETP’s long-term vision is still valid,confirming the very important role of nuclearenergy for the achievement of SET Planobjectives, and the role of the three R&D pillarsto maintain and enhance in the future thesustainability of nuclear energy.

The European electricity generation mixincludes a significant share of nuclear energy(about 30%) today and could also in the future:the 2050 Energy Roadmap for example presentsas the most efficient, the scenarios with a highershare of nuclear energy. This SRIA develops along term vision of nuclear fission R&D needs,describing the roadmaps to make nuclear energymore sustainable in the long term, by achievingbetter usage of natural resources and at the sametime reducing the amount and toxicity of finalnuclear waste.

Safety being alwaysthe first guidingprinciple for nuclearresearch, this updateof the SRA hasemphasised itsimportance and hasmade more evident its role for research andinnovation. In addition, new challenges forsafety have been identified to fully incorporatethe first lessons learnt from the Fukushimaaccident.

The new SRIA is consistent with the 2020objectives of the SET Plan, including inNUGENIA the R&D required to maintain thecompetitiveness of fission technologies togetherwith long term waste management solutions.The SRIA also supports the 2050 vision of theSET Plan, by including in the ESNII prioritiesthe R&D needed to complete the preparationfor the demonstration of a new generation offission reactors with increased sustainability.

SNETP is now mature with its organisation intothree technical working groups:

� R&D needs for generation II and III reactors aredeveloped through the NUGENIA roadmaps.NUGENIA with the legal structure of anassociation is able to organise calls on prioritytopics in the framework of Private-Private as wellas Private-Public Partnerships.

� ESNII is now an official European IndustrialInitiative, devoted to developing the fast reactortechnologies required for long term sustainability.ESNII has prioritised its demonstration projects:confirming the sodium cooled reactor (ASTRID) asthe reference technology, lead cooled systems(MYRRHA and ALFRED) as an alternativetechnology and a longer term technology with thegas cooled fast reactor (ALLEGRO).

� NC2I is the technical working group reflecting theincreased interest of the European energyintensive industry in nuclear cogeneration. NC2I ispreparing a concept paper for the development ofcogeneration using nuclear energy in order tolaunch, in the near future, an Industrial Initiative.

The activities of these three main pillars arecomplemented by dedicated activities andworking groups. One example is theidentification of the R&D on fuel reprocessingrequired to obtain the full benefit of closedcycles with fast neutron systems. Anotherimportant example is the working group forEducation, Training & KnowledgeManagement, preparing strategies for attractingthe most talented people and preservingcompetence and know-how for futuregenerations.

The next step will consist of the appropriationby the technical working groups of this SRIA inorder to define shorter term priorities for itsimplementation.

Depending on the funding mechanisms put inplace in the Horizon 2020 framework, the

SR

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Conclusions and way forward

The three R&D pillarsmantain and enhancethe sustainability ofnuclear energy

99

Platform will adapt its internal organisation toensure efficient implementation of the SRIAand in particular to coordinate more widely theR&D programmes of its members, includingwith the programmes of the corresponding EUMember States.

Funding will remain a major challenge. Asignificant increase in funding level, comparedto the private and public funds at national orEuropean level made available during the pastyears, will be required to cover properly all theneeds identified in the SRIA.



� ADRIANA ADvanced Reactor Initiative And Network Arrangement

� ADS Accelerator Driven System� ALLEGRO GFR demonstration plant� ALFRED LFR demonstration plant� ASTRID SFR prototype plant� BWR Boiling Water reactor� CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics� CFV Coeur à Faible effet de Vide de sodium� DBTT Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature� DHR Decay Heat Removal� DGR Deep underground Geological Repository� EFIT European Facility for Industrial Transmutation� EIA Environmental Impact Assessment� ELFR European LFR� ENEF European Nuclear Energy Forum� ENSREG European Nuclear Safety Regulators Group� ESFRI European Strategy Forum

of Research Infrastructures� ESNII European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial

Initiative� ETDR European Technology Demonstrator Reactor� ETP European Technology Platform� ETPP European Technology Pilot Plant� FEED Front-End Engineering Design� FNR Fast Neutron Reactor� FP Fission Products� GFR Gas-cooled Fast Reactor� GIF Generation IV International Forum� GUINEVERE Generator of Uninterrupted Intense

NEutrons at the lead VEnus REactor� HLW High Level Waste� HTR High Temperature Reactor � HTTR High Temperature Test Reactor� IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency� IASCC Irradiation Assisted Stress Corrosion Cracking� IEA International Energy Agency� IGD-TP Implementing Geological Disposal Technology

Platform� ILW Intermediate level waste� I&C Instrumentation and Control� JHR Jules Horowitz Reactor� LBB Leak Before Break� LBE Lead Bismuth eutectic� LFR Lead-cooled Fast Reactor� LLRF Low Level RF� LLW Low level waste

� LOCA Loss of Coolant Accidents� LWR Light Water Reactor� MA Minor Actinide � MCCI Molten Core Concrete Interaction� MOX Mixed Oxide fuel� MSR Molten Salt Reactor� MTBF Mean time between failures� MYRRHA Multi-purpose hybrid Research

Reactor for High-tech Applications� NC2I Nuclear Cogeneration Industrial Initiative� NEA Nuclear Energy Agency� NFC Nuclear Fuel Cycle� NPP Nuclear Power Plant� NUGENIA NUclear GENeration II & III Association� NULIFE Nuclear Plant Life Prediction� NW Nuclear Waste � OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation

and Development� PIE Past Irradiation Examination� PSA Probabilistic safety assessment� PTS Pressurised Thermal stock� PWR Pressurised Water Reactor� RCS Reactor cooling system� RF Radio Frequency� RFQ RF Quadrupole� RPV Reactor pressure vessel� R&D Research and Development� SA Severe Accident� SAMGs Severe Accident Management Guidelines� SARNET Severe Accident Research Network� SET Strategic Energy Technology� SFR Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor� SNETP Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology

Platform� SRIA Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda� SSC Structures, systems and components� TRISO Tristructural-isotropic� TRU Transuranic � VVER Vodo-Vodyanoi Energetichesky Reactor:

Water-Water Power Reactor� WENRA Western European Nuclear Regulators

Association� WGHOF Working Group of Human

and organisational factors� WPFC Working Party on Scientific Issues

of the Fuel Cycle

SR

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Glossary

101

Contributors


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The Chairman of the SRIA Editorial Board2013, Dr. Enrique Gonzalez (CIEMAT)wishes to acknowledge the contribution of thefollowing members of the Platform:

SRIA Editorial Board

� Peter Baeten (SCK•CEN)� Eva Boo (LGI)� Giovanni Bruna (IRSN)� Noel Camarcat (EDF)� Concetta Fazio (KIT)� Sander de Groot (NRG)� Richard Ivens (FORATOM)� Peter Kadecka (REZ)� Yves Kaluzny (CEA)� Gaudenzio Mariotti (ENEL)� Olivier Marchand (EDF)� Ludwik Pienkowski (AGH)� Edouard Scott de Martinville (IRSN)� Anselm Schaefer (ENEN)

Other main contributors

� Alessadro Alemberti (ANSALDO) � Alexandre Bredimas (LGI)� Edgar Bogusch (AREVA)� Marylise Caron-Charles (AREVA)� Leon Cizelj (JSI)

� Alain Chevalier (AMEC)� Andreas Ehlert (E.ON)� Michael Fütterer (JRC-IET)� François Gauché (CEA)� Branislav Hatala (VUJE)� Akos Horvath (MTA-EK)� Göran Hultqvist (Vattenfall)� Elisabeth Keim (AREVA)� Giuliano Locatelli (ANSALDO)� Martin Lustfeld (TUD)� Etienne Martin (EDF)� Steve Napier (NNL)� Ignacio Real Rubio (Iberdrola)� Milan Patrik (ÚJV Řež)� Richard Stainsby (AMEC)� Jean-Pierre Van Dorsselaere (IRSN)� Carole Wahide (CEA)� Lubor Zezula (ÚJV Řež)� Martin Pecanka (LGI)� John Sharples (AMEC)� Ales Laciok (CEZ)� Karim Ben Ouaghrem (IRSN)� Abderrahim Al-Mazouzi (EDF)� Oliver Martin (JRC)� Liisa Heikinheimo (TVO)

We would also like to express our gratitude tothe many other people who contributed to thisdocument directly and in fruitful discussionswith those listed above, and more particularly tothe EURATOM projects coordinators


Editors : SRIA Editorial Board and SNETP Secretariat | Design: LGI Consulting with Noème

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ISBN 978-2-919313-04-4

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