Stony ValleyPurposeStatement of the purpose of the stream study

To evaluate the stream’s ph levels and draw attention to the coal mine’s run off.

The study would also be able to identify if the limestone diversion well is affective

enough to balance the acidic water. If the limestone diversion well does prove to

be affective than this method can be used for other bodies of water affected by

acid mine drainage. The study may also be able to decipher how much limestone is

needed, and at what rate should the limestone be applied to the stream. Another

important purpose would be to determine the how badly are the wild life being

affected, studies should include comparisons of before the pollution and after the

pollution. Are non-tolerant organisms still habiting the stream? Are any organisms

habiting the stream? Are there any decreases in wild life populations? The source

of the pollution must be identified directly and it must be stopped in order to

decrease the ph levels and restore the natural wildlife of the stream. This local

study may be beneficial to the entire country possibly the entire world, if in fact

the study proves the limestone diversion well is working, then in other places with

acidic water may use this technique to restore the polluted ecosystem.

1

Specific details about AMD in Stony Valley

Stony Valley has been nicknamed “Yellow Boy” due to acid mine drainage. Acid

mine drainage occurred due to the coal mines fracturing the rock layers, which

allowed run off from the mine to merge with Stony Valley Creek, creating

yellowish-orange water that kind of smells like sulpher. The water gets this color

because it mixes with the rocks in the coal mine, the rocks in the coal mine contain

high concentrations of various metals. And the metals which are exposed to water

and air go through chemical reactions

History

Cold Springs-

Cold Spring emerged as a resort town with the building of the Dauphin &

Susquehanna Railroad through Stony Valley in 1850-1851. The summer resort,

containing just one hotel, would be rejuvenated in the 1880s with the construction of a

second hotel and the expansion of the ground’s other features to include a bath house,

bowling alley, dancing pavilion, restaurant and likely even a bar. The hotels lives were

short-lived however. The advent of the automobile sent the rich from neighboring cities

such as Harrisburg and Pottsville elsewhere, and by 1900, the hotels’ allure was fading. A

mysterious fire burned down the small town ending its life as a resort. As a result of the

fire two hotels were burned down as well as other resort buildings. By the Great

Depression, Cold Spring had once again remade itself into Camp Shand, a boys-only

summer camp for the Lancaster Y.M.C.A. The camp would continue to allow boys to

2

experience nature with a nature lodge, boating on the lake, and hikes throughout Stony

Valley, and build friendships until some mortars from the new Fort Indiantown Gap

Military Reservation flew too far, lodging themselves in the trees behind camp during

training exercises for World War Two. An era had ended, and the grounds quickly

became the Cold Spring Military Reservation, a federal installation to assist in training

exercises for the advancing Cold War. In 1956 the land was returned to the

Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and became a part of State Game lands No. 211.

Rausch Gap

In 1945, the tracks were torn up and

the whole town, along with the rest of

Stony Valley, was deserted. Rausch

Gap and Cold Spring were both used

as training grounds for Fort

Indiantown Gap in the 1940’s and

1950’s. The Pennsylvania State Game

Commission purchased the land

around this time period, and turned the area into State Game Lands 211, with the old

railroad bed becoming a rail-trail. From 1972 to 1974, an archaeological dig was done by

a group of Northern Lebanon High School students at the site of the former town. In

1973, the Blue Mountain Eagle Climbing Club also built the Rausch Gap Shelter for the

Appalachian Trail. In 2012, the "Hilton of the AT" was rebuilt by the Blue Mountain

3

Eagle Climbing Club. The Susquehanna Appalachian Trail Club currently maintains the

Rausch Gap section of the Appalachian Trail. The creeks remained polluted until 1986

when students of Penn State installed a limestone diversion well. The stream can now

support all life. Hurricane Ivan knocked both of the neutralization systems out.

One was restored for a brief amount of time with duct tape, until they were both knocked

out again by another rainstorm.

Trail of Ties

After the abandonment of the Schuylkill & Susquehanna Branch of the Reading Railroad,

starting in 1944 in Stony Valley, a Pine Grove company came in to start tearing up the

tracks. Still being in the midst of World War II, most of the metal - rails, tie plates and

railroad spikes - would likely have been salvaged for either reuse on another railroad, or

to be used in the war effort. The wooden ties, however, would not of had much use.

Locals took some to construct "Tie Town" - cabins made out of railroad ties - in the

community of Ellendale. Once the railroad caught wind of the use of their property, it

seems construction stopped, and the remaining ties were piled on a long abandoned

wagon road. Piled four or more high for several hundred yards, they were left to rot by

the Reading Company.

Stoney Valley Literature ReviewAcid Mine Drainage/Abandoned Mine Drainage

A.) Acid mine drainage, acid and metalliferous drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD) refers to the outflow of acidic water

4

from metal mines or coal mines. Acid rock drainage occurs naturally within some environments as part of the rock weathering process but is exacerbated by large-scale earth disturbances characteristic of mining and other large construction activities, usually within rocks containing an abundance of sulfide minerals. Areas where the earth has been disturbed may create acid rock drainage. In many localities, the liquid that drains from coal stocks, coal handling facilities, coal washeries, and coal waste tips can be highly acidic, and in such cases it is treated as acid rock drainage. The same type of chemical reactions and processes may occur through the disturbance of acid sulfate soils formed under coastal or estuarine conditions after the last major sea level rise, and constitutes a similar environmental hazard.

B.) Mine drainage is formed first in the coal mines. After all the coal has been removed from the mines, the mining companies remove the last supports that hold up the roof of the mines. Eventually, the mine fills up with water and the roof collapses. In the roof material, there is a mineral called pyrite. Pyrite is also called Fool’s Gold because it looks very much like gold. Pyrite though is made of iron and sulfide. The pyrite breaks up into small pieces when the mine caves in. These pieces are surrounded by water. Slowly, the iron and the sulfide dissolve into the water. The water in the mines is part of the groundwater system. Groundwater is the water that seeps slowly into the ground and fills spaces between pieces of rock and soil. Groundwater moves very slowly from the places it seeps in to places where the groundwater flows out of the ground. You may have seen a flowing spring or a wetland where groundwater flows out of the ground. If groundwater has been in a mine, it is now mine drainage. It has in it particles of iron and sulfide. These particles are so small that you can’t see them, so the mine drainage might look clear when it first

5

comes out of the ground. But, often it smells like rotten eggs from the sulfide.

C.) Acid Generation Potential - In comparison with Neutralization Potential, the determination of acid generation potential is less fraught with difficulties. When no organic material containing sulphur is present in samples, potential for acid generation is attributed to the potential oxidation of sulphide minerals to sulphate (sulphuric acid). Sulphide minerals include the common iron minerals pyrite, FeS2 and pyrrhotite, Fe1-XS, and metallic sulphides such as chalcopyrite, CuFeS2, sphalerite, ZnS, galena, PbS, etc. The sulphide sulphur content is taken to react stoichiometrically with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid which has an equivalence in calcium carbonate, and hence acid generation potential in kg CaCO3/tonne or tonne CaCO3/1000 tonne is calculated.

Neutral Potential - the complexity and difficulty of translating detailed mineralogical data into Neutralizing Potential values for the large number of samples evaluated in a typical ABA screening program, chemical procedures have been developed as a substitute for mineralogical procedures. Net Acid Generation - The net acid generation (NAG) pH method is an important analytical tool that supplements static and kinetic tests for assessment of the acid generation risk of rock samples. This method is useful because it is simple, rapid and cost-effective; it combines features of the static and kinetic tests; and it can be conducted at mine assay labs. The NAG pH test is particularly effective for operational testing programs used to classify, selectively handle, and route potentially acid-generating waste rock. The NAG pH procedure is based on a 24 hour oxidation of a pulverized rock sample with hydrogen peroxide and subsequent

6

measurement of the sample's pH. If the NAG pH is below a critical value, determined empirically, then the sample has the potential to generate acid in the field. The critical NAG pH value is typically within the range of 3 to 4.5, but the exact relationship between NAG pH and potential acid generation should be determined individually for each mine site, based on comparison with results of acid base accounting, humidity cell tests, and mineralogical analyses. Calibration and use of the NAG test for predicting ARD risk at several mines are described in this paper.

Heavy Metals Analysis - The Metalyser Range of products has been designed specifically to allow easier, cost-effective analysing of heavy metals, most commonly associated with public health and environmental problems. Developed and manufactured solely in the UK, the Metalyser Range offers a breakthrough in terms of simple-to-use field and laboratory instruments that offers high levels of accuracy at significantly lower cost to other alternatives such as ICP-MS and Atomic Absorption.

Meteoric Water Mobility - The Meteoric Water Mobility Procedure (MWMP) was developed in the State of Nevada during the 1980’s as part of their mine waste characterization programs. During the 1990’s the Waste Subcommittee of the Nevada Mining Association (NvMA) contacted ASTM Subcommittee E01.02 on Ores, Concentrates and Related Metallurgical Materials to undertake a standardization program for the method. A cooperative program was developed in conjunction with the Acid Drainage Technology Metal Mining Sector (ADTI-MMS)Prediction Committee, which involved eight of the NvMA labs performing duplicate leaching tests on two test materials: a coarse fraction of the USGS Hard Rock Mine Waste standard and a typical spoils sample from a heap leach operation undergoing closure in Nevada.

7

Solutions for metals analysis were preserved and sent to the USGS Laboratories in Denver to determine the reproducibility and repeatability of the leaching. The history of the method and reference material and the results of the inter-laboratory testing and statistical analyses will be presented.

Humidity Cell Testing - Humidity cell testing (also referred to as Kinetic Cell testing) is designed to mimic weathering of samples in a controlled fashion at the bench scale. The test determines the rate of acid generation and the variation over time in leachate water quality. Samples are subjected to weekly cycles that alternate between the circulation of dry air and moist air over the samples to simulate precipitation cycles. The weekly leachates produced during the humidity cell procedure are typically analyzed for a number of parameters. Humidity cell design can be customized to meet a variety of client or site specific needs. All ALS humidity cell sampling and laboratory analyses are performed based on recognized standards such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D5744-96) and Guidelines and Recommended Methods for the Prediction of Metal Leaching and Acid Rock Drainage at Mine sites in British Columbia.

Column Leach and Attenuation Studies – Mill tailings collected from seven copper mine mill sites in the western United States were examined by researchers from the Bureau of Mines for metal dissolution properties using a column leaching procedure involving a formulated “western rain” leachant. Studies investigated effects of height of waste column, wet/dry cycle, and maximum leachability of waste tailings. Further studies on selected samples indicated that treatment of acid-producing tailings with chemical stabilizers such as phosphates and carbonates did not greatly affect mobilization of heavy metals leached from these samples.

8

Increased metal mobilization from unsaturated columns was often associated with decreased leachate pH and increased sulfate production, but was not observed in all samples examined. Results from these and other studies suggest that the driving force for metal dissolution and/or acid formation in unsaturated mine tailings is the oxidation of metal sulfides by atmospheric oxygen. The maintenance of tailings at or near saturation or the exclusion of atmospheric oxygen appear to produce leachates of nearly constant too slowly decreasing metal concentrations with each subsequent leaching.

Effluent Treatability Studies - Industrial wastewaters come from a variety of sources and have widely varying characteristics so there are no fast and hard rules. No two industrial wastewaters are alike and even two plants of the same type, for example breweries, can produce wastewaters having significantly different treatability characteristics. Most industrial wastewaters contain a variety of organic constituents and in many cases in high or very high concentrations.

General Soil Testing - Crop producers cannot afford to waste money on unnecessary crop inputs. Neither can they afford lower yields or quality caused by insufficient nutrients. Crops cannot obtain the needed nutrients, in the required amounts from infertile soil. Also, as each year goes by, the government is imposing more requirements on crop producers to minimize the amount of surplus nutrients that escape from the farm. Soil testing is a tool that can provide some of the critical, basic information to better manage crops, soils, and the environment. Available Tests:S1 - Includes Soil pH, Buffer pH (when needed) , Organic Matter, Available Phosphorus , Exchangable Potassium, Magnesium, Calcium, Cation Exchange Capacity(CEC), Percent Base

9

Saturation of Cation Elements and fertility recommendations for up to three crops. S2 - Includes all of S1 plus the choice of three of the following micronutrients: Boron, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Sulfur and Zinc. S3 - Includes all of S1 plus Boron, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Sulfur and Zinc.

D.) Jeffrey A. Simmons, Biology Department, West Virginia Wesleyan College, Erin R. Lawrence, Biology Department, West Virginia Wesleyan College, andThomas G. Jones, College of Science Marshall University Studied the effects of acid mine drainage (AMD) on three key stream properties and functions. Four streams from each of three categories (AMD, treated AMD, and reference) were selected randomly from within the Tygart Valley River watershed in West Virginia. Analysis of stream water verified that the three stream types had very distinct chemical characteristics. Periphyton biomass was significantly reduced in AMD streams; however, treated AMD streams were no different from reference streams. Leaf decomposition was significantly slower in treated streams than in reference streams. Compared to reference streams AMD streams exhibited significantly lower macroinvertebrate density and diversity, whereas treated AMD streams had lower diversity. Thus, although treated AMD is much less toxic than raw AMD, it still has substantial impacts on macroinvertebrate diversity and leaf decomposition which could lead to ecosystem-wide impacts.

Riparian Zones

10

A.) A riparian zone is the interface between land and a river or stream. Riparian zones are significant in ecology, environmental management, and civil engineering because of their role in soil conservation, their habitat biodiversity, and the influence they have on fauna and aquatic ecosystems, including grassland, woodland, wetland or even non-vegetative. The word "riparian" is derived from Latin ripa, meaning river bank.

B.) Distinctive vegetation and other characteristics that separate it from the land beyond it. Riparian zones contribute a number of important things to the natural environment, with many conservation groups promote the maintenance and restoration of them for the benefit of the environment in their regions. Homeowners who live along riverbanks and streams are also encouraged to establish healthy land around the water. The area's width varies, depending on prevailing conditions in the region and the amount of human interference which has occurred, and the zone can include wetlands as well as solid ground. Spotting this area is usually very easy, as a healthy one appears as a ribbon of green along the banks of the river. It often hosts an assortment of trees along with other plants that like moist environments, and in a healthy waterway, the plants will be extremely diverse. The environment is also friendly for an assortment of wildlife, like birds, butterflies, and bees, and larger animals will sometimes make their homes there as well.

Stream order & River Continuum Concept

a. Stony CreekThe Stony Creek Valley lies just north of the Pennsylvania cities Harrisburg and Lebanon. The portion designated as a Pennsylvania Wild

11

& Scenic River is an 18 mile long valley running roughly parallel to the Appalachian Trail. It is part of State Game Lands 211, a 44,000 acre wilderness.

b. Swatara CreekSwatara Creek (nicknamed the Swattie) is a 72-mile-long (116 km)[1] tributary of the Susquehanna River in east central Pennsylvania in the United States. The name Swatara is said to derive from a Susquehannock word, Swahadowry or Schaha-dawa, meaning 'where we feed on eels'.

It rises in the Appalachian Mountains in central Schuylkill County, north of the Sharp Mountain ridge, approximately 5 mi (8.0 km) west of Minersville. It then flows southwest in a winding course, passing south of Tremont, then cutting south through Second Mountain ridge. It passes through Swatara State Park then turns south to pass through Swatara Gap in the Blue Mountain ridge northwest of Lebanon. After emerging from the ridge it flows southwest, north of Hershey, past Hummelstown, and joins the Susquehanna at Middletown. It receives Quittapahilla Creek from the east 3 mi (4.8 km) north of Palmyra.

c. Susquehanna RiverThe Susquehanna River is a river located in the northeastern United States. At 464 miles (747 km) long,[4] it is the longest river on the American east coast that drains into the Atlantic Ocean*. With its watershed it is the 16th largest river in the United States and the longest river in the continental United States without commercial boat traffic today—for what navigations had been used to improve the waterway for barge shipping of bulk goods by water transport of the Pennsylvania Canal in the Canal Era were let go under the domination of the more flexible and much faster shipping measures under the railroad industry.

The nation's sixteenth largest river by volume, the Susquehanna flows through New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland into the Chesapeake Bay. It forms from two main branches, with the "North Branch", which rises in upstate New York, regarded by federal mapmakers as the main branch,[1] and the West Branch Susquehanna, both of which were improved by navigations in the 1820s—1830s as the Pennsylvania Canal which, using the offices of the Allegheny Portage Railroad actually allowed ladened barges to be hoisted across the mountain ridge into the Pittsburgh area. The 82 mile leg conceived to connect the Delaware to the Susquehanna became instead the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad built by the Pennsylvania Canal Commission. The shorter West Branch, which rises in western Pennsylvania, joins the main stem near Northumberland in central Pennsylvania.

The river drains 27,500 square miles (71,000 km2), including nearly half of the land area of Pennsylvania. The drainage basin (watershed) includes portions of the Allegheny Plateau region of the Appalachian Mountains, cutting through a succession of water gaps in a broad zigzag course to flow across the rural

12

heartland of southeastern Pennsylvania and northeastern Maryland in the lateral near-parallel array of mountain ridges. The river empties into the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay at Havre de Grace, Maryland, providing half of the Bay's freshwater inflow. The Chesapeake Bay is in fact the ria of the Susquehanna.

Lime Stone Diversion WellsA. Limestone Diversion wells are created to raise the pH levels or

alkalinity in creeks and streams affected by acid rain. Limestone is used in conjunction with these diversion wells as it provides good acid neutralization. Dams are constructed to channel the stream or creek to the diversion well.

B. Raise the pH levels or alkalinity in creeks and streams affected by acid rain. Limestone is used in conjunction with these diversion wells as it provides good acid neutralization. Dams are constructed to channel the stream or creek to the diversion well. CaCO3 + H+ « Ca+2 + HCO3

C. In northern Lebanon County deep within State Game Lands #211 there is a movement afoot to combat the acidic effects of abandon mine drainage into Rausch Creek, a major tributary of Stony Creek. The movement referred to is what is known technically as a mover diversion well, the first of its kind to be built in the United States. Patterned after a Swedish design, the original diversion well was constructed in 1987 as a joint project of Pennsylvania State University and the Dauphin Chapter of Trout Unlimited. Ironically,

13

the mover diversion well contains no moving parts. Instead, it’s the movement of stream water diverted by an upstream dam through a pipeline leading into a chamber containing crushed limestone. Water under hydraulic pressure enters the chamber through a nozzle which directs the flow against the limestone, causing the rock to be ground into powder before re-entering Rausch Creek. Treating the acidic water of Rausch Creek results in a pH increase (the higher the number, the less acidity) from an average of about 4.0 above the well to over 6.0 several hundred yards below the outflow. Although the appearance of the clear water tumbling over rocks upstream of the well would lead the casual observer to conclude that the stream is of high quality, no fish life is present there. Downstream less than a hundred yards, healthy brook trout can sometimes be observed from the old stone arch bridge on the Stony Creek Trail. Since Rausch Creek is the largest tributary to Stony Creek, the treated water has a profound effect on the main stem for a significant number of miles. Routine measurements of the pH near Allendale Forge some fifteen or so miles downstream reveal readings averaging over 6.0, adequate to support a year-round population of both brook and brown trout. Although other factors such as a stream’s metals content also must be weighed, research has shown that a minimum pH threshold of 5.0 will support a healthy trout population of all age classes. Prior to the diversion well installation in 1987, trout stocked in Stony Creek by the PA Fish & Boat Commission survived for relatively short periods due to the higher acidity levels. Since 1987, the diversion well has been faithfully maintained by members of Doc Fritchey TU. Founded in 1971 as the Dauphin Chapter, the local chapter was later renamed in honor of Dr. John A. “Doc” Fritchey, Jr. who mounted a major campaign to save Stony Valley from planned commercial exploitation during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Weekly maintenance of the well has depended upon volunteer labor to transport approximately 2 tons of crushed limestone by

14

wheelbarrow and shovel it into the treatment chamber, year-round. Over the years it was observed during periods of higher than normal flow that pH levels downstream from the well would temporarily drop to as low as 5.3, seriously threatening the integrity of the fish population. Since the original plan developed by Dr. Dean E. Arnold of the PA Cooperative Fish & Wildlife Research Unit suggested a supplementary well to handle high stream flow conditions, Doc Fritchey TU personnel decided in 2000 to add a second well in tandem with the original installation. Chapter volunteers went to work in August 2000 constructing the supplementary well. The original diversion dam was restructured, approximately 100 yards of trenching was dug and pipe laid, and the new concrete well chamber was installed. Although significant manual labor was involved, donation of earth-moving equipment by local Caterpillar dealer Cleveland Brothers greatly reduced the man-hours and the physical effort required. Funds for purchasing project materials were provided under grants from national TU’s Embrace-A-Stream Program and the Eastern PA Coalition for Abandoned Mine Reclamation (EPCAMR). Since additional tonnage is required to charge the second well, the limestone supply was moved down the hill adjacent to the wells, now allowing volunteers to shovel stone directly from the stockpile into both chambers.

D.)

15

Water chemistry1) Dissolved OxygenDissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a body of water as an indication

of the degree of health of the water and its ability to support a balanced aquatic

ecosystem; also, the amount of free (not chemically combined) oxygen dissolved in

water, wastewater, or other liquid, usually expressed in milligrams per liter, parts per

million, or percent of saturation

CausesProlonged hot temperatures, sewage waste, and chemicals.

What determines low dissolved oxygen?-Oxygen saturation can be measured regionally and non-invasively. Arterial oxygenation is commonly

measured using pulse oximetry. Tissue saturation at peripheral scale can be measured using NIRS. This

technique can be applied on both muscle and brain.

Nitrates1. Chemical group: a salt or an ester of nitric acid

2. Fertilizer: a fertilizer that consists of sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, or ammonium

nitrate

3. Use nitrate on something: to treat something with a nitrate or nitric acid, usually in

order to change an organic compound into a nitrate

CausesUrine could potentially

16

How to find nitrates 1. Brown ring test

2. Devarda's test

3. Diphenylamine test

4. Copper Turning test

Nitrites- A salt or ester of nitrous acid

Cause of nitritesA nitrite is a water-soluble molecule that is made when nitrogen from ammonia mixes

with oxygenated water

How to test for nitrites1. Brown ring test

2. Devarda's test

3. Diphenylamine test

4. Copper Turning test

4) pHpH is the measurement of how basic or acidic something is, with 0 being the most acidic,

14 being the most basic, and 7 being neutral. The pH scale is logarithmic, which means

each unit change is either 10 times greater or less than the previous number.

Natural factors that affect pHCalcium CarbonateCalcium carbonate can combine with hydrogen that can alter the water’s pH. They don’t

affect as much as long as there are buffer zones. Watersheds that don’t contain a lot of

buffer minerals will be vulnerable to acid rain and will have a lower pH.

17

Pine or Fir forestThe decomposition of the needles from the trees add acidity to the soil and nearby

streams.

PrecipitationWhen precipitation falls through the air it dissolves gases like carbon dioxide and forms a

weak acid. Natural unpolluted precipitation like snow and rain usually have a pH of 5-6

SeasonsIn the fall when leaves and needles fall into the water and decompose, they may increase

the acidity of the water.

Photosynthesis and RespirationWhen plants do photosynthesis they remove carbon dioxide from the water. This can

raise the pH of the water, making the water more basic. Considering that plants do

photosynthesis during sunlight hours, the pH will be the highest during the afternoon and

lowest just before sunrise.

Human factors that affect pHAcid RainSulfuric acid (which is produced by coal burning industries) and nitric acid (produced by

car engines) are main contributors to acid rain. An effective way to decrease the effect of

acid rain, would be to have a buffering soils.

Point Source PollutionDumping the industrial pollutants directly into water can affect the pH of the water. A

change in the pH of the water. This can raise the pH of the water, a raise of pH in the

water can alter the behavior of other chemicals in the water. The altered chemicals in the

water may affect plants and animals. For example ammonia is harmless in acidic water

but as pH increases ammonia becomes more toxic. A lower pH also allows metals like,

cadmium, lead, and chromium to dissolver more easily. Heavy metals become toxic when

dissolved in water.

18

MiningMing can expose rocks to rain water and produce toxic acid runoff. Mine drainage can

introduce acids into water ways if it is poorly buffered, the pH can reach toxic levels.

Temperature degree of heat: the degree of heat as an inherent quality of objects expressed as

hotness or coldness relative to something else Relative degree of heat: the heat of something measured on a scale such as the

Fahrenheit or Celsius scale. body heat: the degree of heat in a living organism

CauseLight from the sun is converted to heat as the sun's rays warm the earth's surface

Energy from friction creates heat. For example when you rub your hands, sharpen a

pencil, make a skid mark with your bike, or use the brakes on your car, friction generates

heat.

Thermal energy can be transferred to other objects causing them to heat up. When you

heat up a pan of water, the heat from the stove causes the molecules in the pan to vibrate

faster causing the pan to heat up. The heat from the pan causes water molecules to move

faster and heat up. So, when you heat something up, you are just making its molecules

move faster.

Testa) Thermometerb) Touch

B.O.D.- The amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms in a

body of water to break down organic material present in a given water sample at certain

temperature over a specific time period. The term also refers to a chemical procedure for

determining this amount. This is not a precise quantitative test, although it is widely used

as an indication of the organic quality of water. The BOD value is most commonly

19

expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per liter of sample during 5 days of

incubation at 20 °C and is often used as a robust surrogate of the degree of organic

pollution of water.

CauseOrganic pollutants, even if they have no toxicity, are one of the causes of water pollution

because they will have an effect on the dissolved oxygen level in the water. This effect is

called BOD or biochemical oxygen demand. Dissolved oxygen is essential to much of the

aquatic life

Testing for B.O.Da) measuring and comparing the dissolvedb) Oxygen content before and after incubating the sample for 5 days at 20°C.c) All reagents, including seed capsules and glassware needed to perform thisd) test

AlkalinityAlkalinity is the water's capacity to resist changes in pH that would make the water more

acidic. This capacity is commonly known as "buffering capacity." For example, if you

add the same weak acid solution to two vials of water - both with a pH of 7, but one with

no buffering power (e.g. zero alkalinity) and the other with buffering power (e.g. an

alkalinity of 50 mg/l), - the pH of the zero alkalinity water will immediately drop while

the pH of the buffered water will change very little or not at all.  The pH of the buffered

solution would change when the buffering capacity of the solution is overloaded.

Alkalinity of natural water is determined by the soil and bedrock through which it passes.

The main sources for natural alkalinity are rocks which contain carbonate, bicarbonate,

and hydroxide compounds. Borates, silicates, and phosphates also may contribute to

alkalinity. Limestone is rich in carbonates, so waters flowing through limestone regions

or bedrock containing carbonates generally have high alkalinity - hence good buffering

capacity. Conversely, areas rich in granites and some conglomerates and sandstones may

have low alkalinity and therefore poor buffering capacity. The presence of calcium

carbonate or other compounds such as magnesium carbonate contribute carbonate ions to

20

the buffering system. Alkalinity is often related to hardness because the main source of

alkalinity is usually from carbonate rocks (limestone) which are mostly CaCO3. If

CaCO3 actually accounts for most of the alkalinity, hardness in CaCO3 is equal to

alkalinity. Since hard water contains metal carbonates (mostly CaCO3) it is high in

alkalinity.

How alkalinity affects aquatic lifeAlkalinity is important for fish and aquatic life because it protects or buffers against rapid

pH changes. Living organisms, especially aquatic life, function best in a pH range of 6.0

to 9.0. Alkalinity is a measure of how much acid can be added to a liquid without causing

a large change in pH. Higher alkalinity levels in surface waters will buffer acid rain and

other acid wastes and prevent pH changes that are harmful to aquatic life. Acid shock

may occur in spring when acid snows melt, thunderstorms, natural discharges of tannic

waters, "acid rain", acidic dryfall, and other discharges enter the stream. If increasing

amounts of acids are added to a body of water, the water's buffering capacity is

consumed. If additional buffering material can be obtained from surrounding soils and

rocks, the alkalinity level may eventually be restored. However, a temporary loss of

buffering capacity can permit pH levels to drop to those harmful to life in the water.

Testing MethodologyAlkalinity is an electrometric measurement which is performed using a titrant and a pH

electrode. A potentiometric titration is taken to an end-point reading of pH 4.5. The

amount of acid required to reach a pH of 4.5 is expressed in milliliters. The calcium ions

(CO3) neutralize the acid in this reaction, and show the buffering capacity of the sample.

From the amount of acid used, a calculation will indicate the amount of carbonate (CO3)

involved in the reaction. This then is expressed as mg of CaCO3/L even though actually

part of the alkalinity may be contributed by MgCO3, Na2CO3 or K2CO3.

OrthophosphateOrthophosphate is soluble reactive phosphorus, SRP and occurs chiefly as ions of HPO4

2-,

with a small percentage present as PO43-. Dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) exists in a

21

variety of forms (primarily P-esters) which result from excretion, decomposition, death

and autolysis.

PhosphatesOrthophosphates are organic phosphates, phosphates enter waterways from human and

animal waste, phosphorus rich bedrock, laundry, cleaning, industrial effluents, and

fertilizer runoff. These phosphates become detrimental when they over fertilize aquatic

plants and cause stepped up eutrophication.

Eutrophication is the natural aging process of a body of water such as a bay or lake. This

process results from the increase of nutrients within the body of water which, in turn,

create plant growth. The plants die more quickly than they can be decomposed. This dead

plant matter builds up and together with sediment entering the water, fills in the bed of

the bay or lake making it shallower. Normally this process takes thousands of years.

TestingTesting for cultural eutrophication, one would expect to find an algal bloom or scum on

the water accompanied by a fishy smell to the water and a low dissolved oxygen content.

Do not expect to find a high phosphate reading if the algae is already blooming, as the

phosphates will already be in the algae, not in the water. The algae bloom should start

where running water enters the lake or bay, so test the water before the area where the

bloom begins for high phosphate and nitrate levels.

TurbidityTurbidity is caused by particles suspended or dissolved in water that scatter light making

the water appear cloudy or murky. Particulate matter can include sediment especially clay

and silt, fine organic and inorganic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, algae,

and other microscopic organisms. In the Minnesota River, sediment is the primary

contributor to turbidity. In a shallow lake in August, it may be algae. In a northern

Minnesota lake it may be tannin released by the breakdown of organic material.

22

ImpactHigh turbidity can significantly reduce the aesthetic quality of lakes and streams, having

a harmful impact on recreation and tourism. It can increase the cost of water treatment for

drinking and food processing. It can harm fish and other aquatic life by reducing food

supplies, degrading spawning beds, and affecting gill function.

Directly impacted

o Acting directly on fish, killing them or reducing their growth rate, resistance to

disease, etc

o Preventing successful development of fish eggs and larvae

o Modifying natural movements and migrations

o Reducing the amount of food available

o Affecting the efficiency of methods for catching fish.

MethodsPHWater contains both hydrogen ions, H+, and hydroxide ions, OH–. The relative

concentrations of these two ions determine the pH value. Water with a pH of 7 has equal

concentrations of these two ions and is considered to be a neutral solution. If a solution is

acidic, the concentration of H+ ions exceeds that of the OH– ions. In a basic solution, the

concentration of OH– ions exceeds that of the H+ ions. On a pH scale of 0 to 14, a value

of 0 is the most acidic, and 14 the most basic. A change from pH 7 to pH 8 in a lake or

stream represents a ten-fold increase in the OH– ion concentration. Rainfall generally has

a pH value between 5 and 6.5. It is acidic because of dissolved carbon dioxide and air

pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides. If the rainwater flows over soil

containing hard-water minerals, its pH usually increases. Bicarbonate ions, HCO3–,

resulting from limestone deposits react with the water to produce OH–ions, according to

the equation: HCO3– + H2O → H2CO3 + OH– As a result, streams and lakes are often

23

basic, with pH values between 7 and 8, sometimes as high as 8.5. The measure of the pH

of a body of water is very important as an indication of water quality, because of the

sensitivity of aquatic organisms to the pH of their environment. Small changes in pH can

endanger many kinds of plants and animals; for example, trout and various kinds of

nymphs can only survive in waters between pH 7 and pH 9. If the pH of the waters in

which they live is outside of that range, they may not survive or be able to reproduce.

Nitrates1) Fill the sample bottle with sample water. Use gloves if drawing the sample by hand.

2) Rinse and fill one test tube to the 2.5 mL line with water from the sample bottle.

3) Dilute to the 5 mL line with the Mixed Acid Reagent. Cap and mix. Wait 2 minutes.

4) Use the 0.1 g spoon to add one level measure (avoid any 50-60 times in one minute). Wait 10 minutes.

5) Insert the test tube into the Nitrate Nitrogen Comparator. Match the sample color to a color standard. Record the result as mg/L(ppm) Nitrate Nitrogen (NO3-N). To convert to mg/Nitrate (NO3) multiply by 4.4.

6) Place the reacted sample in a clearly marked container. Arrangements should be made with toxic material handlers for safe disposal. Please wash your hands after this water test is completed.

Dissolved Oxygen1. If you have a barometer, record the atmospheric pressure. Remove the cap and immerse the DO bottle beneath the river’s surface. Use gloves to avoid contact with the river.

2. Allow the water to overflow for two to three minutes (This will ensure the elimination of bubbles).

3. Make sure no air bubbles are present when you take the bottle from the river.

4. Add 8 drops of Manganous Sulfate Solution and 8 drops of Alkaline Potassium Iodide Azide.

24

5. Cap the bottle, making sure no air is trapped inside, and invert repeatedly to fully mix. Be very careful not to splash the chemical-laden water. Wash your hands if you contact this water. If oxygen is present in the sample, a brownish-orange precipitate will form (floc). The first two reagents "fix" the available oxygen.

6. Allow the sample to stand until the precipitate settles halfway. When the top half of the sample turns clear, shake again, and wait for the same changes.

7. Add 8 drops of Sulfuric Acid 1:1 Reagent. Cap and invert repeatedly until the reagent and the precipitate have dissolved. A clear yellow to brown-orange color will develop depending on the oxygen content of the sample.

8. Fill the titration tube to the 20 mL line with the "fixed": sample and cap.

9. Fill the Direct Reading Titrator with Sodium Thiosulfate 0.025 N Reagent. Insert the Titrator into the center hole of the titration tube cap. While gently swirling the tube, slowly press the plunger to titrate until the yellow-brown color is reduced to a very faint yellow.

If the color of the fixed sample is already a faint yellow, skip to step 10.

10. Remove the cap and Titrator. Be careful not to disturb the Titrator plunger, as the titration begun in step 8 will continue in step 11. Add 8 drops of Starch Indicator Solution. The sample should turn blue.

11. Replace the cap and Titrator. Continue titrating until the sample changes from blue to a colorless solution. Read the test result where the plunger top meets the scale. Record as mg/L (ppm) dissolved oxygen.

Phosphorous

1. Fill the test tube (0843) to the 10mL line with the water to be tested for Phosphate.

2. Use the 1.0 mL pipet (0354) to add 1.0mL of the *Phosphate Acid Reagent (PAR) V-6282 to the sample in the test tube and cap and mix until dissolved.

Note: The PAR contains sulfuric acid and an ammonium molybdate compound.

3. Use 0.1 g spoon (0699) to add one level measure of *Phosphate Reducing Reagent (V-6283). Cap and mix. Wait 5 minutes

25

4. Remove cap from test tube. Place tube in Phosphate Comparator (3122) with Axial Reader (2071). Read Axial Reader Instruction Manual before proceeding

5. When entering the Q-Value on the WQI Form (Water Quality Index), multiply the

Testing value (mg/l) by 4 to determine the total phosphate level. This is based on the measured orthophosphate value.

In general, the deeper the blue color the more phosphate in the sample water.

MapsMap of PA

We are located in the Susquehanna River watershed which contains minor watersheds such as the Swatara and Rausch creek. The Susquehanna runs north to south through PA and into the Chesapeake Bay.

Map of Lebanon

Tributaries such as the Swatara, Quittapahilla, and Beck creek run through Lebanon County. Stony and Rausch Creek can be found in the northern most region of the county.

26

Map of Stony Valley

Where Rausch Creek runs into stony there is a gap in the mountain. Rausch creek stays in Lebanon county and is parralell to the Dauphin-Lebanon county line.

ResultsPhysical Results

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3Average Width 8.12 6.78 9.56Average Depth 0.40 0.411 0.344Velocity (m/s) 0.47 0.53 0.676Flow Rate (m3/s) 1.22 1.18 1.778

27

Tolerance Key: S – Sensitive F – Fair T – Tolerant

Biological ResultsSite 1 Biotic Index = 12 (Fair)Common Name

Phylum Class Order Family Genus Tolerance

Free living Caddisfly

Anthropoda

Insecta Trichoptera Rhyacophilidae

Rhyacophilidae

S

Crayfish Crustacea Malacostraca

Decapoda Astacidae Cambaridae F

Brushed Legged Mayfly

Anthropoda

Insecta Ephemerotera

Oligoneuriidae

Isonychia Bicolor

S

Aquatic Earthworm

Annelida Clitellata Oligochaete Tubifex Tubifex T

Common Stonefly

Anthropoda

Insecta Plecoptera Perlodidae Acroneunia S

Site 2 Biotic Index = not available because tadpoles have vertebrates Common Name

Phylum Class Order Family Genus Tolerance

Tadpole Chordata Amphibia Anura -- -- --

Site 3 Biotic Index = 21 (Good)Common Name

Phylum Class Order Family Genus Tolerance

Free living Caddisfly

Anthropoda

Insecta Trichoptera Rhyacophilidae

Rhyacophilidae

S

Crayfish Crustacea Malacostraca

Decapoda Astacidae Cambaridae F

Brushed Legged Mayfly

Anthropoda

Insecta Ephemerotera

Oligoneuriidae

Isonychia Bicolor

S

Dragonfly

Anthropoda

Insecta Odonata Aeshnida Anax junius F

28

Common Stonefly

Anthropoda

Insecta Plecoptera Perlodidae Acroneunia S

Flathead Mayfly

Anthropoda

Insecta Ephemerotera

Heptageriidae

Stenacron S

Broad-winged

Anthropoda

Insecta Odanata Calopterygidae

Zygoptera F

Chemical ResultsSite 1 Site 2 Site 3

Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)

10.0 8.0 8.0

Alkalinity (ppm CACO3)

20 45 0-60

Orthophosphate (ppm)

0 0 0

Nitrate-Nitrogen (ppm)

0 0 0

Temperature (oC) 11.6 11.8 12.4pH (from meter) 6.1 7.0 6.9Turbidity 37.4 79.3 48.7

29