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Adrian Backmann

Gwen Guth

Integrative Project

April 28, 2011

Fantasy’s New Moral Perspective

Steven Erikson is a modern author who subverts and paradoxically celebrates the very

tropes that make up the genre of fantasy. To appreciate this statement one must first understand

what fantasy is and something of its history. Modern fantasy, also known as high fantasy or epic

fantasy, begins to take shape in the 19th century. Fairy tales had been common from the medieval

ages to the Victorian age. They often contained magical beings such as faeries or witches but

were normally told with the pretence of truth in order to strengthen the effect of wonder. The

fairy tale evolved towards the end of the 19th century as writers sought both to lengthen the

narrative and to return to the adventurous romances of the medieval ages with an intentionally

fictitious prose. A famous example is William Morris’ The Well at the World's End (1896) which

had a strong influence on other writers at the time. It is remarkable because it is one of the first

examples of a work set in an entirely different world of imagination and fantasy rather than in a

dream or in a vague far-off land. This work is often seen as the precursor to fantasy, as it

influenced writers such as E.R. Eddison, J.R.R. Tolkien and C.S. Lewis. Many writers continued

Morris’ method of world-building. Another famous influence on later writers is Lord Dunsany

for his collection The Gods of Pegāna (1905) because it was set in an invented world with its

own unique religion, geography and history. Such works, however, are still considered to be

heroic romances rather than fantasy stories. E.R. Eddison could be considered the first true

fantasy writer because his work, The Worm Ouroboros (1922), not only featured a unique and

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detailed alternate world, but it moved away from the romantic adventure story and focused on a

great struggle between two powerful kingdoms in an unending war. Suddenly, the scale of these

invented worlds evolved from the adventures of individual heroes to the conflict between nations

and factions.

This augmentation of scale and complexity led the fantasy genre in a new direction, as

authors became increasingly creative. J.R.R Tolkien’s first novel, The Hobbit (1937), fits within

both children’s literature and high fantasy because it is coherent to a young audience but also

participates in world-building fiction. J.R.R. Tolkien’s friend, C.S. Lewis, follows with his own

multi-volume fantasy story for children called The Chronicles of Narnia (1950), set in a parallel

universe that is accessible through a wardrobe. Narnia was very successful because the child-

protagonists were sympathetic to their audience. The children in the novel and the readers shared

the experience of discovering a new world. Tolkien changed the world of fantasy, however, with

the monumental work, The Lord of the Rings (1954). The book, split into three volumes, is not

overly long, yet the amount of time and effort invested into the fictional universe of Middle-

Earth is incomparable. Tolkien’s notes suggest that he had been working on the series since

1917.A philologist, Tolkien constructed over twenty languages with unique grammar, vocabulary

and alphabets (Clute 950-5). He drew detailed maps of the whole continent of Middle-Earth,

even though only a small fraction is ever seen in his novels. The book was highly praised, and it

spawned a revitalization of fantasy literature that emulated the scope, themes and the fantastic

elements that made Lord of the Rings so popular. Remarkably, Lord of the Rings is one of the

highest-selling books of all time, and the tradition of fantasy writing has remained strong in

terms of sales and distribution since Tolkien. Another fantasy book series, Harry Potter, is the

fastest-selling book series of all time, continuing the tradition set by C.S. Lewis (including the

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existence of a parallel world accessible through a portal). In the span of a few decades, the

fantasy genre blossomed from fairy tales to heroic romance to the epic world-building of high

fantasy.

Despite the commercial success of fantasy since Tolkien’s achievement, the rapid

evolution of the genre in the early 20th century essentially peaked with Tolkien, and has

plateaued, with a few exceptions. Since epic fantasy was lucrative, it was uncommon for

publishers to support anything outside of the known formula for success. The first exceptional

writer was Stephen R. Donaldson with his Chronicles of Thomas Covenant, the Unbeliever

(1977): the main character is a self-loathing leper from the real world who, after getting hit by a

car, is sent to a parallel universe that he refuses to believe in. Thomas Covenant fits within epic

fantasy but has been criticized for some similarities to Lord of the Rings since the action revolves

around a magical ring. It was also criticized, interestingly, for its dark tone and unsympathetic

protagonist. Another exceptional work of fantasy was Glen Cook’s The Black Company (1984)

because it told the familiar tale of good versus evil in an epic struggle across various continents

from the eyes of a single disgruntled soldier in a band of mercenaries fully aware that they are

fighting for the bad guys. These works never achieved the popularity of J.R.R. Tolkien or C.S.

Lewis, or even more recent authors like Terry Brooks, who held closely to the standard form of

epic fantasy. Donaldson and Cook have managed to remain in print, however, and have been

consistently growing in popularity as their originality is appreciated.

Recently, authors have been seeking to add life to a genre that has changed very little

over the last five decades. Foremost among them is Canadian author Steven Erikson (Steve R.

Lundin) for his epic fantasy series The Malazan Book of the Fallen. The first book, Gardens of

the Moon, was written in 1991 but was not published until 1999, due to the fact that Erikson

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spent eight years travelling Canada, the United States and Britain, attempting to find a publisher.

They all told him Gardens was too ambitious, too different and too difficult for readers to

understand (Erikson, Preface, xi-xvi). Needless to say, they were wrong. The success of the book

led to his publisher, Transworld, signing a further nine-book deal with Erikson (Lewis 104). He

announced that he had plans for nine more novels in the series; he has since published roughly

one volume a year. Erikson perhaps exceeds even Tolkien in his vision of history, geography, and

culture in a fabricated world. Drawing from his experience as an archaeologist and

anthropologist, Erikson brings to his fiction a deep level of human understanding and respect for

history. To put the work in perspective, his ten-thousand page series has an incredibly detailed

world history involving dozens of gods, tracing back five hundred thousand years and literally

hundreds of characters with their own personal back-stories. Additionally, the information is

never presented through long Tolkienian expositions or historical passages by means of a mentor

character such as Gandalf. Rather, information is discovered through experience and second-

hand accounts in dialogue. Erikson brings the action to a human level by limiting the narrative to

several point-of-view characters he follows through the multi-narrative of the historical

sequence. Frustrated with the romanticism and clichés of traditional fantasy, Erikson seeks to

create a more realistic and believable universe. Gardens accomplishes this realism immediately

because the plot begins midway through a war, with the preceding events only hinted at in the

thoughts of his protagonists. The presentation of the narrative allows the reader to be just as

frightened and confused as are the characters living in these situations. The perspective is rarely,

if ever, that of god-like beings; they are described in tones of awe and mystery. Also, the

progression of Anomander Rake from an unknown darkness to hero is natural and believable.

Therefore, Erikson’s strong visionary entrance into fantasy aims to do more than simply profit

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from the success of past authors.

By foregoing the classic structure of good versus evil, Erikson has set himself apart from

a fantasy community largely devoted to the preservation of cultural values and beliefs. Due to

Erikson’s history as an anthropologist, as well as to the situations depicted in his novels, he

seems to be in accordance with moral relativists such as Friedrich Nietzsche who reject short

cuts to morality set up by religion and philosophy. Erikson does not employ a dominant moral

standpoint to drive the story forward. When two combatants meet, the only thing that determines

victory is luck and skill. The righteous can die too. In Erikson’s fictional world, there are no

obvious moral truths that rule the world; in this way, his world participates in the relativism

observed by philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in his book Beyond Good and Evil. However,

Erikson does not declare all morality null and void, nor does he make all characters despicable.

The tragedy in Erikson’s books does not occur when monsters hurt good people. The tragedy is

when good people hurt each other. Good people, however, are not supposed to kill one another in

a fantasy novel. Similarly, Erikson incorporates many political practices from the often

demonized Niccolo Machiavelli into both his heroes and his villains. Through the actions of his

characters, Erikson acknowledges that sometimes necessity is stronger than the distinction

between right and wrong. This is in direct opposition to the common theme in fantasy novels that

good conquers evil. In addition, Erikson’s world features realistic politics and it uses war as a

backdrop to comment on the human condition. The factions at war are in probable circumstances

that follow the same patterns and general rules described by writers such as Machiavelli. On the

other hand, Erikson is not as harsh as Machiavelli; the implementation and decision-making is

grounded in the situation and the conditions that exist within it. Machiavelli was not writing The

Prince specifically about moral philosophy in the same way that Erikson is not writing Gardens

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of the Moon about moral philosophy. Still, Machiavelli was equated with Satan after the first

English translations, and to this day, people debate over whether his often-brutal methods were

pragmatic or pessimistic. Erikson and Machiavelli both write to reach an honest, realistic, and

functional description of humanity. Epic fantasy is not prominently featured in literary studies

because it has been reduced, through selective publishing, to a genre focused on marketing and

sales rather than originality or artistic value. Steven Erikson includes elements of the epic fantasy

genre such as mythical creatures, magic, feudal technology, and a detailed fictional world;

however, the similarities end there. Erikson dispenses with romanticism, fairy tale clichés, and

even the races associated with Tolkienesque fantasy. Instead, he builds up clichés in order to

subvert them. He plays off of the reader’s expectation at every opportunity. Steven Erikson

challenges traditional moral values by subverting the fantasy genre’s romantic ideas of good and

evil with gritty realism and diverse perspectives.

The fantasy genre is characterized by its relationship with tradition and the adventure

formula. It is defined by its inclusion of an adventure in a fictional world - either to provide a

deliberate message or simply to provide distraction and entertainment. The relationship between

tradition and adventure is achieved through coming of age stories, Christian symbolism, themes

of love and friendship, as well as magical implements to spark the imagination and to amaze the

reader. The genre has become so formulaic that it is capable of being described with specific

terms and tropes. In John Clute’s Encyclopedia of Fantasy Literature, the common creatures,

characters, clichés, and plot devices are explained in detail. For example, the term Primary World

refers to the real or knowable world. Epic fantasy writers create a Secondary World that lies

parallel to the Primary (Clute 847). This is a necessary condition for epic fantasy. Probably the

simplest and most prevalent trope of epic fantasy is the Dark Lord (250). He or she is the

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absolute embodiment of evil, usually immortal and capable of destroying or conquering all life.

Examples include Sauron in Lord of the Rings, Lord Foul in Thomas Covenant, the White Witch

in Chronicles of Narnia, the Dominator in The Black Company, and Lord Voldemort in Harry

Potter. In addition, most stories begin with the Dark Lord returning from a long absence, having

been presumed dead. The Dark Lord has the power to end the world, and only the Hero can stop

him. This is where the adventure, known as a Quest, normally begins (796). The Hero is

normally young and unassuming to begin with, but will soon reveal his or herself to be the

world’s one and only hope (464). Again, this can be seen with Frodo in Lord of the Rings, Harry

Potter from Harry Potter, and Peter in Chronicles of Narnia. An important factor in epic fantasy

is the level of danger associated with the realization of the Dark Lord’s plan. The danger is

normally the reason behind the adventure. The epic within epic fantasy, therefore, alludes to the

severity of the adventure’s outcome.

Within this structure is the popular theme that good will triumph over evil. Christian

morals are important in fantasy because they reflect the romantic and didactic origins of the

genre. For example, Frodo in Lord of the Rings is not a typical hero of epic adventure stories. He

is intentionally diminutive and unskilled with weapons. As a result, Frodo is a Christian hero in

many ways: “he endures great hardship—going hungry, being stabbed, being beaten by orcs,

losing his finger—suffering nearly (but not completely) to the point of martyrdom. Moreover, he

shows mercy to Gollum. And he advocates peace by the end of the work, refusing to fight in The

Battle of Bywater” (Bruce 32). Frodo reinforces qualities such as courage, fortitude, compassion

and selflessness. Similarly, Aslan the Lion in Narnia is an almost direct allegory for Jesus. There

are many examples within Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe:

The death of Aslan as a substitute for Edmund, and Aslan’s resurrection. While

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not a “one for all” death (as was Jesus’ crucifixion in the Bible), it does show the

substitutionary aspect of Christian atonement and the inability of evil to overcome

a sinless individual by death. Aslan is a type of Christ, who is seen as “the Lion of

the Tribe of Judah” in biblical symbolism (Revelation 5:5). (Barratt)

The allegorical nature of fantasy has continued to endure in order to make the story’s meaning

carry into the real world. Another important aspect of fantasy is the inclusion of mythology. This

is displayed through the use of mythical creatures such as dragons, unicorns, gryphons, and

talking animals. Also, there are mythical races from old tales such as elves, trolls and goblins that

are common in fantasy. Therefore, epic fantasy’s emphasis on morality, tradition and mythology

have defined the literary genre.

In such a rigid market, writers like Steven Erikson need to be drastically different in order

to stand out. The genre has become so popular and successful that few institutions are willing to

risk their support on new authors that break the accepted categories. There are already many

lucrative avenues for the established fantasy genre. It has evolved beyond books into tabletop

games such as Dungeons & Dragons and Warhammer. Also, there are videogames such as

Warcraft (which was influenced by Warhammer) and Elder Scrolls (influenced by

Dungeons&Dragons). Lord of the Rings and many other fantasy franchises have expanded into

comic books, movies, plays, toys, and more. Steven Erikson got into fantasy by playing

Dungeons&Dragons with his friend Ian C. Esslemont (who writes his own Malazan novels). In

fact, they created the world and many of its characters through gaming. Erikson and Esslemont,

however, were galvanized after they realized the rigidity not only of the game, but also of the

genre it represented:

The first games we played were set in the [Advanced Dungeons & Dragons]

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world, and we almost immediately clashed with the class and alignment rules set

in place…The tropes were bleeding back and forth, yet the literary foundation

was fifty years old. We recoiled, I think, from what we perceived as an

ossification of the genre…the quest group; the standardization of good and evil—

the actual birth of the Dark Lord cliché was right there in front of us and of course

the un-killable hero… [The creator of Dungeons & Dragons] was a genius. He

systematized [Lord of the Rings]. (Erikson, “Malazan Empire and Role-playing

Games”)

Two of the most famous fantasy series embrace the formula of Quest groups and adventures set

by Dungeons & Dragons: Forgotten Realms by R.A. Salvatore and Dragonlance by Margaret

Weis. Since authors are creating stories more or less in Tolkien’s model of fantasy, there is a

minimum amount of effort put into world-building. As a result, many authors (or publishers)

have lost touch with their readers’ cultural environment. Tolkien argued that the true fantasy

writer did not have to rely on the reader’s suspension of disbelief in order to write a deeply

moving story. In his essay, “On Fairy-Stories,” Tolkien states that it is the author’s duty to create

a world in such a way that anything that happens is believable within that Secondary world:

Fantasy (in this sense) is, I think, not a lower but a higher form of Art, indeed the

most nearly pure form, and so (when achieved) the most potent...Fantasy has also

an essential drawback: it is difficult to achieve. Fantasy may be, as I think, not

less but more sub-creative; but at any rate it is found in practice that “the inner

consistency of reality” is more difficult to produce, the more unlike are the images

and the rearrangements of primary material to the actual arrangements of the

Primary World. It is easier to produce this kind of “reality” with more “sober”

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material. Fantasy thus, too often, remains undeveloped; it is and has been used

frivolously, or only half-seriously, or merely for decoration: it remains merely

“fanciful.” Anyone inheriting the fantastic device of human language can say the

green sun…But that is not enough. (Tolkien 16)

Unfortunately, Tolkien’s fame and success could not influence the artistic value of all imitators.

Many authors followed Tolkien’s template of world design, changing only minor superficial

aspects without altering the underlying philosophy or attitude. There are exceptions, but most

critics ignore the genre due to its apparently stagnant nature. This has led certain fantasy authors,

like Terry Goodkind, to resent the fact that their novels are placed in the fantasy section of

bookstores. What Tolkien describes as merely “fanciful” writing, critics apply to the genre as a

whole. While sales are strong, critical response is very rarely positive:

Genres such as fantasy and science fiction are dismissed not because the writing

is weak or the imagination inferior but because they do the wrong things. Code

words like “juvenile,” “time waster,” or “cult” are all clues that the critic

disapproves not of the text but of the work it performs…A retold folktale, a

graphic novel, and a poem by William Blake might have more in common than

conventional wisdom (or the structure of English departments) would allow. In

order to discover the common threads, someone must first be willing to ignore

accepted categories and second be able to name the patterns that emerge.

(Attebery 2-3)

Clearly, there seems to be a need for critics (and authors) to look beyond the form of the writing

and see the intent of the work. In order to be noticed, authors need to break through the rigid

confines of the genre by challenging their readers with new and exciting ideas.

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Steven Erikson’s writing in the Malazan series is an example of contemporary fantasy

operating within the genre. For example, Erikson follows Tolkien’s tradition of world-building in

a significant way. Rather than build a world similar to Tolkien’s or a world similar to this one,

Erikson builds a world that is entirely unique. Innovation, rather than imitation, brings Erikson

closer to Tolkien. Erikson excludes most traditional mythological creatures in order to create his

own unique species and races. The genealogy of these races dates back millions of years from

evolution, invasion from other worlds (called Warrens, parallel universes that are also the source

of magic), magical creations, and inter-species reproduction. The most dominant by far are

humans, as most of the others have been driven to extinction either by warfare or by

environmental depletion. The extinct races can be seen as metaphors for historical races and sub-

species such as Neanderthals, a position highlighted by Erikson’s background in anthropology

and archaeology. Also, Erikson’s magic system is not vaguely hinted at (as in the case of Lord of

the Rings) or simplified to a set of words that cast spells (in the case of Harry Potter). In the

Malazan world, magic has a firm metaphysical explanation that works because magic is relies on

a physical interaction with parallel universes through an idealistic understanding that the mind

can affect the boundaries between the worlds. In addition, Erikson’s world-building is indicative

through his world history. Every chapter in Gardens begins with at least one poem or an excerpt

of prose. Every excerpt is written by a fictional character within the Malazan world. Some are

characters from the narrative, some are not. The tone, theme, year, and other elements vary in the

excerpts in order to create the illusion of a world with its own culture and history. Furthermore,

the characters occasionally cite poetry or history books in dialogue to further the plot or provide

back-story. The first excerpt after the prologue is one such example- one of the few moments of

exposition in the series:

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In the eighth year the Free Cities of Genabackis established contracts with a

number of mercenary armies to oppose the Imperium's advance; prominent

among these were the Crimson Guard, under the command of Prince K'azz

D'Avore (see Volumes III & V); and the Tiste Andii regiments of Moon's Spawn,

under the command of Caladan Brood and others […] In the Year of Burn's Sleep

1163, the Siege of Pale ended with a now legendary sorcerous conflagration…

Imperial Campaigns 1158-1194

Volume IV, Genabackis

Imrygyn Tallobant (b.1151) (Erikson, Gardens of the Moon 10)

What is interesting is that the novel takes place in the year 1163, but this fictional book’s history

lasts until 1194, so it lasts beyond the series. In addition, there is a reference to a Volume V

which would suggest the writer is many years in the future. The Malazan world existed before

the story, and it will continue to exist after the story has been told. All of these factors

communicate to the reader a sense of weight and realism to this imaginary world. This is a

necessary factor for what Farah Mendlesohn calls “immersive fantasy:”

The immersive fantasy is a fantasy set in a world built so that it functions on all

levels as a complete world. In order to do this, the world must act as if it’s

impervious to external influence; this immunity is most essential in its

relationship with the reader. Immersive fantasy must take no quarter: it must

assume the reader is as much a part of the world as those being read about. It

should construct an irony of mimesis in which ornamental speech and persuasive

speech become inseparable. The immersive fantasy is both the mirror of mimetic

literature and its inner soul. It reveals what is frequently hidden: that all literature

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builds worlds, but some genres are more honest about it than others…we must

share the assumptions of the world as much as a contemporary reader of Jane

Austen shared the assumptions she presented in Pride and Prejudice. (59)

Erikson writes within both epic and immersive fantasy, just like Tolkien. Both authors seek to

imitate the complexity of the human condition with their art, and immersive fantasy allows

skilled authors to guide their reader’s feelings toward a complex idea. By writing within the

genre, Erikson has a considerable influence on fantasy and the direction in which he wants it to

go.

With this creative power, Erikson makes a conscious effort to subvert the genre in order

to make a statement about fantasy and the traditions it represents. Consequently, to effect change,

Erikson utilizes the same conventions and tropes that have defined (and isolated) the fantasy

genre. Erikson does not avoid clichés in an attempt to be original; rather, he uses clichés as far as

he needs to:

So, I can rail at the clichés established by [Advanced Dungeons & Dragons] but

man, they’re in my fucking blood, like it or not. I use them [in my fiction]. All.

The. Time. And lo, it’s not a problem. In fact, I depend on them: as my readers

know, in the Malazan series there’s scant else for them to connect with at first

glance. And even as readers get a handle on them, I mess them up. (Erikson,

“Malazan Empire and Role-playing games”)

Gardens of the Moon, for example, begins as do most fantasy works. A young boy, Ganoes

Paran, age twelve, sits on a castle wall with a High Fist (basically a general) wishing he was a

soldier and a hero. In a typical fantasy story, this pairing would set the stage for a coming-of-age

story, but Erikson, in the next page, jumps ahead nine years and Paran is already a cynical

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Lieutenant hated by the other soldiers simply because he has noble blood. This progression is set

up by the dialogue that occurs between the young Paran and the High Fist Whiskeyjack as they

sit on the castle wall. Paran declares that one day he will be a soldier. Whiskeyjack replies, “Only

if you fail at all else, son. Taking up the sword is the last act of desperate men. Mark my words

and find yourself a more worthy dream” (Erikson, Gardens 8). Such a pronouncement goes

against the romantic notion of combat so common in fantasy. In addition, the fantasy cliché of

the Dark Lord is subverted by the character Anomander Rake. He is introduced as the Lord of

Moon’s Spawn, the floating mountain above the city Pale. The initial information given is that he

has an epic poem written about him, he is old and powerful beyond measure, he has white hair,

jet-black skin (in an absolutely inhuman way), and his title is the “Mane of Chaos” (70). His first

appearance is in a sorcery battle against the Malazan mages as he protects the city of Pale. In the

battle, Anomander Rake kills thousands of Malazan soldiers with his black, necrotic magic.

Furthermore, it is later revealed that he is the Knight of Darkness, that he is the first son of

Mother Dark and that he has tasted the blood of dragons. So, in a very literal sense, Anomander

Rake is the Dark Lord from cliché. This perception changes, however, when the point of view

changes from the Malazan army to Darujhistan (the city at war with the Malazan Empire). Here,

Anomander Rake is seen as the protector of Darujhistan, and the Malazans become the vicious

invaders. It is revealed that there is a city within Moon’s Spawn that holds the last women,

children and elderly citizens of Rake’s people, the alien Tiste Andii. Anomander Rake is revealed

to have been merely protecting his people; since the Malazans had made the first strike, he was

acting in self-defence. Much later in the story, Anomander Rake saves Paran’s life from the

Hounds of Shadow (guardians of a Warren). From this point on, Anomander Rake basically

drives the action of the novel, fighting off dragons and demons, and the reader is exposed to his

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thoughts and speech. So rather than being a demonized other, Rake is presented as a character

flawed like any other, and capable of acts good or bad. On the other hand, Whiskeyjack’s squad,

Paran and Tattersail (one of the Malazan mages and sole survivor of the battle against

Anomander Rake) are the Malazan heroes of the novel. Towards the end, Tattersail dies and

Paran is injured, so only Whiskeyjack’s squad is left. However, Whiskeyjack’s squad is sent to

Darujhistan undercover in order to cripple the city with explosives. Then, the perspective of the

novel changes from the Malazans to the citizens of Darujhistan. The heroes of the novel are now

presented as villains as they work towards terrorizing an unsuspecting city. In addition, Erikson

subverts the fantasy tradition that magic is a source of awe and beauty. Erikson’s magic exists as

a violent discharge of energy used extensively in warfare, like modern day artillery. The novel

begins with a horrifying magic battle described in detail:

The world became a living nightmare, as sorcery flew upward to batter Moon's

Spawn, and sorcery rained downward, indiscriminate and devastating. Earth rose

skyward in thundering columns. Rocks ripped through men like hot stones

through snow. A downpour of ash descended to cover the living and dead alike.

The sky dimmed to pallid rose, the sun a coppery disc behind the haze. (77)

The theme of unbridled violence in this passage is repeated throughout the novel when sorcery is

unleashed. The other major use for magic is transportation, but it is equally dangerous due to the

inimical nature of Warrens and their demonic inhabitants. It has been said that Erikson’s series

“pushes the boundaries of epic fantasy with morally ambiguous protagonists, bloody altercations

and gritty-world-building” ("Bauchelain and Korbal Broach” 48). As such, Erikson is making

changes in fantasy literature as he skilfully introduces new and profound elements to existing

conventions. Erikson’s developments in the fantasy genre are exercising a deep (if not yet fully

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appreciated) influence as his deconstruction of the romanticised notion of heroes, villains, and

magic, add a diversity of perspective.

Erikson’s narrative implies a level of realism in the Malazan world that reaches from the

lowest characters to the highest politics. Erikson writes in an odd form of third person that

closely follows a single character at a time, but frequently switches characters. This way, Erikson

simultaneously conveys the biases and motivations of multiple characters without interrupting

the action with an external narrator. Furthermore, Erikson does not present a main protagonist

nor does he provide an overall narrative voice to drive the story forward. Like history, Erikson’s

narrative is constructed through an assortment of moments, which when viewed in retrospect

appear to be a single narrative. As the narrative is presented as the ongoing history, the reader

must experience the world as it happens to the characters. The first significant perspective in the

novel follows Paran, the young Lieutenant. The second major perspective is that of the woman

Tattersail, a powerful mage. She experiences the cataclysmic battle between the Malazan mages

and the Dark Lord of Moon’s Spawn. The third perspective comes from the young thief Crokus,

who lives in Darujhistan (which is at war with the Malazan Empire). The problem with these so-

called protagonists is their flaws in regards to storytelling. Paran is young and inexperienced. He

dies within a few chapters, but is later resurrected by a god. Tattersail is independent and

powerful, but dies when she tries to desert the Malazan Army. Finally, Crokus is on the other side

of the conflict and his ineffectual personality leads him to remain an observer of greater

characters. The fact that there is no one central character would suggest that, as in history, every

event is dependent upon multiple actors.

Erikson’s approach to characters extends to the way political factions are represented in

the novel. The close narrative tied to respective characters’ points of view presents the reader

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with several story threads. Every character is the hero of their own story. As a result, the story is

told not only through the characters but also through the actions surrounding them. For many,

this style of writing is too alien to understand or appreciate. Given that “an axiom in fiction is

‘show, don't tell.’ Steven Erikson takes this to extremes…Rather than tell the story, Erikson

shows everything that happens, no matter how minor. This actually makes it harder to follow

what's going on, as if we're watching uncut news footage” (Fuller b9). Although Fuller has a

negative opinion of Erikson’s style, the style itself must be appreciated as a deliberate choice by

the author that helps to remove the readers’ personal beliefs and cultural biases. Through these

three central characters, and roughly a dozen others, the machinations of three larger factions are

observed: Laseen’s Malazan Empire, High First Dujek’s Army, and the city-state of Darujhistan.

Throughout the course of the novel, no faction is held above another within the narrative.

Factions alternate between alliances and enmity while maintaining a mutual distrust. Fuller’s

criticism is well taken: the story does unfold like news footage. Of course, this is the most

realistic experience of the action that can be conveyed through writing, with a depth unmatched

by any other medium. Similarly, the characters behave in a deeply complex and natural way.

Reducing the characters in this novel to good guys and bad guys would be akin to reducing

historical characters to simple heroes and villains. It is a matter of perspective and subjective

reasoning. The only common value among all of these characters and political factions is the

pragmatic desire for survival in the face of adversity. Therefore, the politics in the Malazan world

are strikingly similar to the real-world equivalents, since Erikson creates characters and factions

with practical goals and applications.

One can convincingly argue that Erikson incorporates the harsh pragmatism of the

political theorist, Niccolo Machiavelli. The Malazan Empire, ruled by Empress Laseen, reaches

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its continent-spanning dominion through brutal political tactics. Conquering with military force

is only one step to an empire’s success. The conquered city-states and nations must be made

dependent on the new regime, yet retain enough of their population and health to be useful as

labourers and soldiers. In an aristocratic setting, the conquerors can gain favour by deposing the

former nobility and appointing governing officials from partisan factions from the native area. In

Gardens of the Moon, the Malazan Empire’s public executions of nobility are described as

“Empire policy” (Erikson 286). This policy is shown to be effective and crucial to the Empire’s

success:

the culling of the nobility, a scourge that would raise to the gallows the greediest,

least-liked nobles…a tried and true procedure that swelled recruitment on a tide of

base vengeance - with every hand stained by a righteous glee…She’d seen it run

its course in a hundred such cities. No matter how benign the original rulers, no

matter how generous the nobility, the word of Empire, weighted by might, twisted

the past into a tyranny of demons. A sad comment on humanity, a bitter lesson

made foul by her own role in it. (297-8)

Tattersail’s reflections paint a vivid picture of both the Empire’s method of indoctrination and

their method of deposing rivals. The Malazan Empire, like any comparably large empire, is built

with force, deceit and manipulation.

In his political treatises, Machiavelli forms theories and policies based off his

observations of contemporary and historical governments. The strategy employed by the

Malazans is supported by Machiavelli’s opinion on gentry and the dangers of harbouring citizens

susceptible to corruption. In order to maintain political stability, Machiavelli argues it necessary

that a government should eliminate internal power struggles:

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Men born [as gentry] are entirely inimical to any form of civic government. In

provinces thus organized no attempt to set up a republic could possibly succeed.

To reconstitute them, should anyone want to do so, the only way would be to set

up a monarchy there. The reason for this is that, where the material is so corrupt,

laws do not suffice to keep it in hand; it is necessary to have, besides laws, a

superior force, such as appertains to a monarch, who has such absolute and

overwhelming power that he can restrain excesses due to ambition and the corrupt

practices of the powerful…where the gentry are numerous, no one who proposes

to set up a republic can succeed unless he first gets rid of the lot. (Machiavelli,

Discourses 246-47)

Machiavelli speaks at length both in Discourses and The Prince about the advantages and

disadvantages of principalities and republics. It is clear, however that “the extraordinarily high

value he attaches to political stability” (Crick 22) outweighs the form of government. The

function of government thus becomes the focus, and that function is to preserve the state’s

stability. In practice, some ruthlessness is necessary to achieve this honourable goal. The

Malazan Empire seeks the same thing, and the readers are capable of aligning themselves with it.

At the very end of the novel, Erikson shows how Empress Laseen extends, to the capital city of

the Empire, the policy of culling the nobility. Also, she uses the opportunity to remove any

potential threats to her rule:

The Empress made few mistakes. She’d used the opportunity to round up

malcontents and unaligned academics, to close the fist of military presence on the

capital, drumming the need for more troops, more recruits, and more protection

against the treasonous scheming of the noble class. The seized assets paid for this

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martial expansion. An exquisite move even if forewarned, rippling out with the

force of Imperial Decree through the Empire, the cruel rage now sweeping

through each city. Bitter admiration. (Erikson 724)

These thoughts belong to Heboric, an academic critical of the Empress’ policies. As a result, he

becomes a victim. In Tattersail’s reflection, she admits her own involvement in the Empire’s

expansion. Both speakers find themselves grudgingly admiring these tactics and they cannot

deny their effectiveness. Interestingly, both use the word “bitter” to convey powerful emotions of

resentment and hostility. Erikson’s political systems serve to enhance his world’s sense of

realism and authenticity because they can be applied to the rigorous empirical theorizing of

Machiavelli.

Machiavelli’s theories and interpretations, however, do not always pertain to Erikson’s

construction of his world’s understandable nature. Machiavelli places great emphasis on the

necessity for a ruler to be feared rather than loved (Prince 95). The reasons that compose this

idea are based on the level of control a ruler has over his subjects: “since some men love as they

please but fear when the prince pleases, a wise prince should rely on what he can control” (98).

There is a hole in his argument, however, as he later states that a prince should endeavour not to

be hated, and he will not be hated if he shows “good-will” (105) toward his subjects. If a prince

cannot control how the people love him, how can he hope to control whether the people hate

him? Erikson takes the opposite approach in the Malazan series as he shows that fear tactics only

work in the short term. While it does not explicitly take place in the novel, there is a lot of

history that details the rise of the Malazan Empire and Empress Laseen’s usurpation of the

throne. From the beginning of the narrative, the Empire has survived for 105 years. The last nine

years, however, are under the rule of Laseen since she has assassinated the original emperor,

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Kallenved. Throughout the novel, there is a conspiracy to eliminate those loyal to the old

Emperor. Also, there is a rebellion forming on the other side of the world in the oldest colony of

the Empire. Dujek’s army, the largest and most veteran, contains many of the Emperor’s

loyalists. The danger to Laseen’s regime comes after the High Mage Tayschrenn battles Moon’s

Spawn outside Pale. Tayschrenn makes some mistakes: he kills many of his own soldiers and

then plans an excessive culling of the nobility that even the Empress’ second in command,

Adjunct Lorn balks at. Initially, Lorn attributes these mistakes to Tayschrenn’s position as a

mage: “mages by nature never commanded loyalty. Fear, yes, and the respect born of fear, but

the one thing a mage found difficult to understand or cope with was loyalty. And yet there had

been one mage, long ago, who had commanded loyalty - and that was the Emperor” (Erikson,

Gardens of the Moon 294). Here Erikson uses Machiavelli’s language of fear and respect, but he

makes a judgement on the nature of fear that is contrary to Machiavelli’s. Lorn says to

Tayschrenn that if the loyalists become aware of the Empire’s scheme to eliminate them, the

Empire “may end up with an insurrection the size of which could destroy the empire” (295). The

point is, while the Empire’s soldiers may fear the Empress, they love their High Fist Dujek and

the memory of Kallenved. In this case, the love outweighs the fear and the soldiers are willing to

mutiny at the end of the novel. The insurrection Lorn fears becomes a reality and the first novel

in the ten book series plots the course for the Empire’s dissolution. As such, Erikson’s approach

to politics strengthens the effect of realism in the Malazan world with a consistency that reflects

the complexity of the characters and their sense of right and wrong.

The moral implications of Machiavelli’s politics and Erikson’s narrative are interpreted

by critics and scholars due to their portrayal of human nature. Machiavelli was equated with

Satan when his work was interpreted by several religious figures such as Englishman Cardinal

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Pole (Bull 9). The traditional understanding of Machiavelli is that “The Prince is a book inspired

by the Devil. The legend of Machiavelli’s depravity was already established by the time the first

English translation appeared in 1640” (Bull 9). While these claims are largely unfounded, since

Machiavelli was simply describing what he saw, there are some quotes within The Prince

frequently used to prove his wickedness: “one can make this generalization about men; they are

ungrateful, fickle, liars, and deceivers, they shun danger and are greedy for profit” (Machiavelli,

Prince 96). Without the historical background of Machiavelli’s political environment, then it

would seem from this statement that he has no faith in humanity, but that would to take the

quotation out of context. Additionally, there are similar quotations that can be used show his

sinful opposition to religion: “[a prince] is often forced to act in defiance of good faith, of

charity, of kindness, of religion” (101). Since he did not conform to the moral values of the time,

Machiavelli was designated evil by the religious and academic community. In a similar way, one

could produce select quotations from Gardens of the Moon to prove Erikson’s cynicism:

“Is this what’s left of your squad, Sergeant? Two desert marauders and a blood-

hungry recruit?”

Whiskeyjack’s tone was flat: “I have seven left.”

“This morning?”

“Fifteen.”

[…] “Still,” she added, “I’m sure they were good men, the ones you lost.”

“Good at dying,” he said. (Erikson 57)

Taken out of context, this dialogue between Tattersail and Whiskeyjack shows the heartless

nature of Erikson’s central characters. However, Whiskeyjack is the same man who stood on that

castle wall nine years earlier as a High Fist, speaking to a young Paran about the ugliness of war.

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Whiskeyjack has seen twenty-five years of combat, and since Laseen’s rise to power, he has been

demoted to Sergeant. Before the battle between the Malazan mages and Moon’s Spawn,

Whiskeyjack’s Bridgeburners numbered fourteen hundred. At the time of the above passage, that

number is reduced to thirty-five. To add insult to injury, these soldiers were killed by friendly

fire; it is thus understandable that Whiskeyjack would be cynical in this situation. In a traditional

fantasy novel, Whiskeyjack would weep and then declare vengeance against those responsible.

The reality is that no one is responsible. The deaths of his friends are a product of misfortune.

Erikson does not entirely disagree with Machiavelli’s view of human nature but he does not

agree with fantasy’s traditional Christian morality either. Instead, he uses his multi-perspective

narrative to form sympathy between opposing factions and to prove that right and wrong are

dependent on a character’s point of view. By using context and perspective to determine the

morality of his characters, Erikson implies a relativist position that favours understanding over

judgement.

Erikson rejects firm moral truths in his fantasy world as he withholds the traditional

format of binary forces in opposition. He achieves this through his choice of protagonists and the

way in which he presents characters. By providing the reader with a character’s deepest thoughts

and feelings, Erikson conveys his or her unique position on events and on other characters. This

leads to an effective style that relies on perspective: “Our sympathetic viewpoint characters range

from all sides of the struggle, an interesting strategy that allows no one side to be obviously in

the right” (De Lint 31). As a result, Erikson does not give the reader a side to root for or a

dominant expression of morality. He leaves the actions of the characters to be interpreted by the

reader so that they can determine for themselves what is right. Through this approach, Erikson

supports the morality described in Nietzsche’s Beyond Good and Evil. Nietzsche condemns

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traditional philosophers and their quest for truth, questioning both whether universal right and

wrong exist and whether human beings are capable of discovering morality through reason or

observation:

For we are entitled to doubt, first, whether such an opposition of values exists at

all and, second, whether that popular way of estimating worth and that opposition

of values, on which the metaphysicians have imprinted their seal, are perhaps only

evaluations made in the foreground, only temporary perspectives, perhaps even a

view from a corner, perhaps from underneath, a frog’s viewpoint, as it were, to

borrow an expression familiar to painters. (Nietzsche 2)

Like Erikson, Nietzsche reinforces the importance of perspective and the relative nature

of human understanding. Erikson forces his readers into “a frog’s viewpoint” by withholding

information and limiting the perspective in the beginning of the novel (in the third book, there is

a painter with a talking frog as his critic. His painting is a solid red canvas, which shows

Erikson‘s familiarity with the expression). His characters need to be constantly re-evaluated as

the perspective changes and details emerge that alter preconceived notions of right or wrong.

Erikson moves beyond characters and perspective to show how violence is a natural fact

of life. War is a result of normal people, under extreme circumstances, in conflict with other

normal people. In Gardens of the Moon, Erikson establishes the opinion of his characters who

“never believed in pure evil” (104). Thus, the binary opposition typical of epic fantasy is lacking

in Erikson’s work. This problem is compounded further by the way Erikson normalizes violence

within the novel:

“Sorry likes killing, and having her around is like having spiders down your shirt.

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I know all that, I can see it and feel it the same as any of you. It doesn’t mean

she’s some kind of demon.” [Whiskeyjack] turned to face Kalam. “She kills like

you do, Kalam. You’ve both got ice in your veins. So what? I look at you and I

see a man because that’s what men are capable of – I don’t hunt for excuses

because I don’t like to think that that’s how nasty we can get. We look at Sorry

and we see reflections of ourselves. Hood take it [Hood is the god of death, the

expression is similar to ‘never mind,’ but suffused with irreverence], if we don’t

like what we see.” (Erikson 132-3)

Erikson shows that violence and death are integral to human nature. The entire Malazan series

involves war, and a history book will not differ in its content. Nietzsche says that “With

individuals madness is something rare—but with groups, parties, peoples, and ages it’s the rule”

(156). This aphorism is an ironic comment on human nature that revels in the inconsistency of

the whole in regard to its parts. In other words, Nietzsche is saying that while individuals may

hide their madness, the larger structure of society reveals the truth of its constituents. Many

philosophies and religions fail to address the existence of “evil,” and this is why Nietzsche is so

critical in his work. Erikson’s inclusion of a relativist philosophy diverges from epic fantasy’s

clear moral compass in order to present a more complete image of humanity.

The alternative morality suggested by Erikson fits Nietzsche’s concept of noble morality

and slave morality. Of course, the noble-slave morality has nothing to do with social position.

These are merely tools Nietzsche uses to explain this complex idea. Someone who rules their

morality is a noble; someone who follows the morality of others is a slave. Nietzsche states that a

philosophy is an “interpretation, not text” (22), and that every individual has the right to their

own interpretation, called the “will to power” (36), or “noble morality” (260). This quality

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describes Nietzsche’s alternative to traditional morality, and it can be observed in Gardens of the

Moon: “This night, and with his words, Toc had given something back to Tattersail, not just for

her but for the cadre. It didn’t matter if she understood, and he knew she must be feeling

bewildered by his actions; none of that mattered. What he’d done he’d done for himself”

(Erikson 311). This passage shows how an individual can act for himself, and determine his own

version of right and wrong. What Toc has done in this situation was lie to the highest authority in

the Malazan Empire in order to protect his colleague Tattersail. Toc was trained from an early

age by the Empire to be a spy and an assassin. He developed loyalty to his fellow soldiers by

sharing their experiences on the battlefield, so he decided to lie in her favour. While the principle

of lying for a friend is not revolutionary by any means, the reason behind his action would

interest a philosopher like Nietzsche. He acted according to his own will, because he decided it

was right. This is the main distinction between noble morality and slave morality: only nobles

trust that they are capable of a truly moral response. Also, Erikson includes examples of slave

morality: “[Whiskeyjack’s mind] took the unknown and fashioned, in blind desperation, a visage

it could recognize. Despair, he told himself, always demands a direction, a focus. Find the

direction and the despair goes away” (363-4). This shows the need for clear-cut moral values that

many people seek out and cling to. This unknown terror, the cause of despair, embodies itself as

the Dark Lord in traditional epic fantasy. However, Erikson cleverly subverts the fantasy genre

through the next lines, “Of course it wasn’t that easy. The despair he felt had no shape” (364).

This way, Erikson simultaneously includes and criticizes the slave mentality that many people

use to form their morality. In the Malazan world, much like the real world, there are no “easy

solutions” that philosophers can fit around their prejudices (Deininger n.p.). As a result, the

Malazan world resembles the real world’s moral ambiguity as Erikson presents characters that

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create their own path and question the value of traditional virtues.

While there are many similarities, Erikson seems to use the premises of relativism and

noble morality to reach a different conclusion than Nietzsche. Nietzsche’s theories of the will to

power and the noble-slave morality begin simply enough, but they develop into a case of extreme

elitism and arrogance. It has been established that Erikson and Nietzsche agree that morality is

based on perspective, there are no absolute truths, and morality is determined by individuals.

Erikson would agree with Nietzsche’s claim that “there are no moral phenomenon at all, but only

a moral interpretation of phenomena” (Nietzsche 109). Nietzsche is very proud of this discovery,

as he frequently exclaims and jests in his prose. Unlike Nietzsche, Erikson does not celebrate the

lack of morality in the world. In fact, the Malazan Book of the Fallen, as suggested by its name,

is a tragedy of epic proportions: “Sometimes my series feels like a ten thousand page requiem for

our species, or a long, drawn-out howl verging on utter despair; as I search in desperation for

moral gestures of humanity, no matter how small, no matter how momentary, in the midst of self-

inflicted carnage” (Erikson, “Commentary-Endgame”). The purpose of the series is to provide a

world so immersive, characters so complex, and a story so enthralling that the reader forgets

he/she is reading fiction. From this position of power, Erikson, like any talented writer, can infect

the reader’s mind with insight on human suffering, and the vague hope that it can be eased.

Nietzsche does no such thing. He celebrates suffering’s function in human history by holding it

responsible for all of humanity’s feats:

That tension of a soul in misery which develops its strength, its trembling when

confronted with great destruction, its inventiveness and courage in bearing,

holding out against, interpreting, and using unhappiness, and whatever has been

conferred upon it by way of profundity, secrecy, masks, spirit, cunning, and

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greatness—has that not been given to it through suffering, through the discipline

of great suffering? (Nietzsche 225)

It seems that Nietzsche’s arguments are sound and inevitable. Suffering has indeed contributed to

humanity’s growth; it is responsible for the need for technological advancement. However, its

truth does not make suffering a virtue, as he would argue. Nietzsche is missing a key component

in his argument. Suffering is not the motivation for scientific, artistic and philosophic

advancement. The desire to alleviate suffering is the true force behind the growth of civilization.

These two statements are not to be confused. In addition, philosophy, art, and science strive to

create something that brings humanity to a better state than it was before. Through relativist

philosophy, Erikson produces an artistic commentary in an effort to guide his readers toward a

deeper understanding of themselves and others.

Erikson expertly weaves aspects of realism and fantasy to form a complete work that

conveys an ineffable truth through a series of knowable concepts and representations. Erikson

relies on real-world parallels in order to establish the believable nature of his fictional world. He

uses Machiavelli’s empiricism to form politics, and Nietzsche’s morality to form characters. He

uses the genre of fantasy to set up the narrative, but he subverts the genre in order to keep the

narrative interesting. While dragons and magic do not exist as truths in the world, they exist

within the work as representations of the unknown beauty- and danger - of the known world.

Gardens of the Moon contains love, hatred, fear, courage, happiness, sadness, laughter, tears,

violence, tenderness, peace, war, comedy, tragedy, death, rebirth, ugliness, and beauty. However,

despite the multiplicity of these concepts, none of them is truth in and of itself. Each represents

experiences. When presented together in the context of narrative, they form a suggestion of

Erikson’s true intent. In the absence of moral certainty, humanity encounters a bleak and

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unforgiving picture of the world. In a world where ruthlessness and manipulation are the keys to

success, it is hard for humanity to find comfort. If the good do not triumph then evil becomes the

face of humanity. However, these challenges have not defeated humanity because hope is a truth

that survives through the initial despair found in grief and pain. In an obscure and mysterious

passage from the novel, Erikson leaves a clue to this thought. In a conversation between three

unintroduced characters about an unexplained subject, if one looks past the content of the

dialogue to look at its intent, the novel’s truth is revealed:

“The Azath [Magical house, nature’s prison] will not be touched, for it is new,

a child.” Her eyes, soft brown, slowly regarded those of her companions. “The

queen of Darkness spoke thus of Light when it was first born: ‘It is new, and what

is new is precious. Observe this child of wonder, and know respect.’”

Orfantal scowled. “Thus did Light survive, and so was Darkness destroyed,

the purity vanquished - and now you would have us flawed as our Queen was

flawed. Light corrupted and destroyed our world, Korlat, or have you forgotten?”

Korlat’s smile was a sad one. “Cherish such flaws, dear sister, for our Queen’s

was hope, and so is mine.” (Erikson 696)

Erikson, through his characters, speaks about the flawed nature of humanity and the intrinsic

value of hope. Gardens of the Moon goes beyond the fantasy genre and its real-world parallels so

as to impart the hope that endures in spite of humanity’s flaws.

In order to challenge romanticised notions of morality, Erikson subverts the epic fantasy

genre’s tradition of good triumphing over evil. Past authors have created a model of

epic fantasy with an emphasis on morality, mythology and the adventure formula. It takes

originality and a singular vision to break away from the plethora of current fantasy writers.

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Erikson’s debut stands out even further, however, from its predecessors by creating a deep,

honest, and varied world. He follows the fantasy genre’s conventions in order to establish a

framework from which to deconstruct the underlying values and clichés which have been used

for so long. Furthermore, Erikson creates realistic politics that correspond with Machiavelli’s

observations and proposals. The Malazan political systems have functional applications and

goals that also serve to enhance his world’s sense of authenticity. The consistency with which the

politics are treated in relation to each other is reflected by the characters who tell the story from a

variety of perspectives. These characters are not judged based on their actions within the

narrative. Instead, each is given an equal chance for sympathy and point of view. This way,

Erikson employs a relativist approach to morality that stems from Friedrich Nietzsche. As a

result, good and evil are not products of the narrative tone. The characters are described with

moral ambiguity in order to let the readers determine their own opinion. Subsequently, Erikson

creates his own version of epic fantasy that challenges the conventions of the traditional genre.

The Malazan world, like the real world, is devoid of a moral compass that guides its characters.

The protagonists undergo a constant internal struggle that relates to the uncertainty that all

people face in their lives. The characters, and the readers, have to figure out their own individual

sense of right and wrong. The readers need to decide who to trust, who to believe in, and who to

support when things go awry. In the real world, there are parents, cultures, and religions that tell

people what to do. In the Malazan world, these moral reference points are snatched away, and the

reader is left to flounder. This is an uncomfortable feeling for most people, and Erikson’s series

presents itself as a challenge to those willing to think beyond accepted moral and literary

boundaries. Consequently, Erikson’s portrayal of morality and politics transcends the fantasy

genre to reach an insightful commentary on humanity. Although few have the vision and ability,

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the fantasy genre is perfectly suited for the stripping away of cultural bias. Fantasy is one the

best and most unfulfilled formats for expression because it allows the author to convey difficult

ideas through situations and settings beyond the confinements of reality. Modern readers are

more willing than ever to accept new ideas. Moral independence, diversity, tolerance, and

environmentalism are examples of humanity’s shift in mentality that are explored in The

Malazan Book of the Fallen. Erikson writes in the spirit of the times. Readers take note.

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Works Cited

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Works Consulted

Attebery, Brian. “Introduction: Cultural Work.” Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts 21.1 (2010):

1-4. Humanities International Complete. EBSCO. Web. 16 Feb. 2011.

Barratt, David. “The Chronicles of Narnia.” Masterplots II: Christian Literature (2007): 1-3.

Literary Reference Center. EBSCO. Web. 23 Mar. 2011.

“Bauchelain and Korbal Broach: Three Short Novels of the Malazan Empire.” Publishers

weekly 256.30 (2009): 48. Canadian Reference Centre. EBSCO. Web. 16 Feb. 2011.

“Beyond Good and Evil.” Masterplots, Fourth Edition (2010): 1-3. Literary Reference Center.

EBSCO. Web. 16 Feb. 2011.

Bruce, Alexander M. “Frodo wouldn't have got far without Sam.” Medieval Perspectives 21.

(2005): 26-37. Humanities International Complete. EBSCO. Web. 23 Mar. 2011.

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