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English Honors Theses English Department

5-2017

Stepping out of the Shadows: Second GenerationHolocaust RepresentationOlivia Erin MillTrinity University, omill@trinity.edu

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Recommended CitationMill, Olivia Erin, "Stepping out of the Shadows: Second Generation Holocaust Representation" (2017). English Honors Theses. 26.http://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/eng_honors/26

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Stepping out of the Shadows: Second Generation Holocaust Representation

Olivia Mill

A departmental senior thesis submitted to the Department of English at Trinity University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduation

with departmental honors.

April 17, 2017

_______________Victoria Aarons_____ __________Claudia Stokes______

Thesis Advisor Department Chair

____Tim O’Sullivan, AVPAA

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StudentAgreementIgrantTrinityUniversity(“Institution”),myacademicdepartment(“Department”),andtheTexasDigitalLibrary("TDL")thenon-exclusiverightstocopy,display,perform,distributeandpublishthecontentIsubmittothisrepository(hereaftercalled"Work")andtomaketheWorkavailableinanyformatinperpetuityaspartofaTDL,InstitutionorDepartmentrepositorycommunicationordistributioneffort.IunderstandthatoncetheWorkissubmitted,abibliographiccitationtotheWorkcanremainvisibleinperpetuity,eveniftheWorkisupdatedorremoved.IunderstandthattheWork'scopyrightowner(s)willcontinuetoowncopyrightoutsidethesenon-exclusivegrantedrights.Iwarrantthat:1)IamthecopyrightowneroftheWork,or2)IamoneofthecopyrightownersandhavepermissionfromtheotherownerstosubmittheWork,or3)MyInstitutionorDepartmentisthecopyrightownerandIhavepermissiontosubmittheWork,or4)AnotherpartyisthecopyrightownerandIhavepermissiontosubmittheWork.Basedonthis,Ifurtherwarranttomyknowledge:1)TheWorkdoesnotinfringeanycopyright,patent,ortradesecretsofanythirdparty,2)TheWorkdoesnotcontainanylibelousmatter,norinvadetheprivacyofanypersonorthirdparty,and3)ThatnorightintheWorkhasbeensold,mortgaged,orotherwisedisposedof,andisfreefromallclaims.IagreetoholdTDL,Institution,Department,andtheiragentsharmlessforanyliabilityarisingfromanybreachoftheabovewarrantiesoranyclaimofintellectualpropertyinfringementarisingfromtheexerciseofthesenon-exclusivegrantedrights.”Ichoosethefollowingoptionforsharingmythesis(required):[x]OpenAccess(full-textdiscoverableviasearchengines)[]Restrictedtocampusviewingonly(allowaccessonlyontheTrinityUniversitycampusviadigitalcommons.trinity.edu)IchoosetoappendthefollowingCreativeCommonslicense(optional):None

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OliviaMill

ENGL-4399

Dr.Aarons

April3,2017

SteppingoutoftheShadows:SecondGenerationHolocaustRepresentation

“TheguardianshipoftheHolocaustisbeingpassedontous.Thesecondgenerationisthehingegeneration,inwhichreceived,transferredknowledgeofeventsistransmutedintohistory,orintomyth.”–EvaHoffman,AfterSuchKnowledge“Thesecondgenerationisthemostmeaningfulaspectofourwork.Theirroleinawayismoredifficultthanours.Theyareresponsibleforaworldtheydidn’tcreate.Theywhodidnotgothroughtheexperiencemusttransmitit.”–ElieWieselIntroduction

ForthechildrenofHolocaustsurvivors-thesecondgeneration-thepastisa

treacherousplacefracturedbyatragedyatonceunknownandalsofamiliarandshared.

Theirconnectiontoaseriesofeventsthattheywerenotalivetowitnesshasshapedthe

identitiesandpsychesofthesecondgenerationinvastlycomplicatedways.Thetraumaof

survivor’sHolocaustexperiencespassedfromsurvivorstotheirchildrenasanoriginstory.

Thememoriesofthetruehorrorstheywitnessedcouldnothelpbutfindtheirwayinto

survivorhomesandsurvivors’parenting.Theirparents,asthesecondgenerationknows

them,werecreatedoutoftheashesoftheHolocaust.AuthorMelvinJulesBukietputthis

bestwhenhesaid,“IfachasmopenedinthelivesoftheFirstGeneration,theycould

nonethelesssighonthefarsideandrecallthelifeBefore,butfortheSecondGeneration,

thereisnoBefore.InthebeginningwasAuschwitz”(Bukiet,12).Theveryexistenceofthe

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secondgenerationbeginswiththecamps.IfitwerenotfortheHolocaust,itis

overwhelminglylikelythattheirparentssimplywouldnothavebeeninthesameplacein

theaftermathofthewar.Theywouldnothavefranticallychoseneachotherandhad

childreninanattempttorestarttheirlivesandshowtheNazisthattheydidnotwintheir

waragainstJews.

Itisfartoodifficultforthechildrenofsurvivorstoimaginetheirparentsasanything

otherthantheseverelytraumatizedpeoplethattheHolocaustmadetheminto.Soforthe

secondgeneration,theHolocaustistheirfamilies’creationstory,andthussevere

complicationsanddysfunctionruledtheirrelationships.ThepassingofHolocausttrauma

fromthesurvivorgenerationtotheirchildrenwasinfactsoinevitableasto“…becomethe

geneticmaterialthatwastobepassedon”totheirchildren(ElijahVisible,5).Inheritingthe

traumawasmerelypartoftheirgeneticinheritance-foreverscarringthem,formingapart

oftheiridentityasfundamentalashaircolor.Thesecondgenerationhasinherited

knowledgeofwhattheirparentsandothervictimsoftheShoahexperienced,andnowview

themselvesasguardiansofthisknowledge.Thoughlimitedbylackoffirst-hand

experience,thesecondgenerationholdstheknowledgeofwhatsystematictortureand

oppressioncandotoaperson.Theirintimateknowledgeoftheeffectsofgenocideisso

muchpartoftheirpsyche,sofraughtwithguiltandimportance,thatitabsolutelymustlive

onafterthesurvivorsaregone.Thereisgreatanxietythatshouldsurvivors’storiesand

memoriesstopwiththesecondgeneration,theworldwilltrulyforgettheHolocaust.With

WorldWarIIbecomingmoreandmoredistant,thoselikeHoffmanreasonablyfearthatthe

Holocaustismorphingintomyth.Membersofthesecondgenerationunderstandthatfor

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theworldtoforgetmeansthatgenocidewillinevitablyhappenonthatscaleagain.Inorder

toensurethatthatdoesnothappen,notonlydomanychildrenofsurvivorsexpressthe

needtomakesenseoftheirownconnectiontotheHolocaust,buttheymustnavigatehow

theywillsharetheirintimateknowledgewithothers.AsWieselacknowledged,thesecond

generationmustpassonwhattheyunderstandaboutthepastbecausesurvivorsare

disappearing.Sharingwithothersincludesbothsharingtheirownexperiences,butalso

sharingtheinthesenseofallowingotherstowriteabouttheHolocaustaswell.

Manythingscomplicatetheinheritanceoftraumaforthesecondgeneration,butthe

largestbyfaristhattheyhavebeengiventhetask“nottoforget”thatwhichtheyhaveno

memoryof.Inanefforttogiveanametothesephantommemories,authorMarianne

Hirschcoinedtheterm“postmemory”.InHirsch’sownwords,

‘Postmemory’describestherelationshipthatthe‘generationafter’bearsto

thepersonal,collective,andculturaltraumaofthosewhocamebefore—to

experiencesthey“remember”onlybymeansofstories,images,and

behaviorsamongwhichtheygrewup.Buttheseexperienceswere

transmittedtothemsodeeplyandaffectively,astoseemtoconstitute

memoriesintheirownright(Hirsch,5).

Therefore,wecanseethatviewingtheworkofsecondgenerationauthorsthroughthislens

canhelpilluminatethesubtletiesofgrowingup“intheshadowoftheHolocaust,”asthe

titleofAaronHaas’collectionofessaysaptlystates.Second-generationwitnesses,through

theirwriting,attemptnotonlytoworkthroughthetraumaoftheirparents’past,buttocall

uponotherstoshareintheburdenofbearingwitnesstotheHolocaust.Thetruecarrying

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onofthelegacyofsurvivorscanonlyhappenwiththehelpofthoseoutsidethesurvivor

andJewishcommunities.IfmembersoftheSecondGenerationarenotwillingtosharein

theburdenofremembrance,thenthememorywillslowlybeforgottenuntiltheworldis

jadedbeyondmeasurebytheatrocitiesitcannotpreventinthewakeofitsperpetual

forgetfulness.LiteraryattemptstorepresenttheHolocaustvarywidely,withauthorsof

theSecondGenerationdisagreeingonwhatcanandcan’tbewrittenaboutandbywhom.

AllagreethattheHolocaustrequiresaresponsiblerepresentation,sothiswillnaturally

excludethosewhowillnottakeitseriouslyenoughfromwritingaboutiti.Someauthorsin

theSecondGenerationfeelthatinordertodotheirpartandtoreceivethehealingthey

needfromthecreativeprocess,theymustdealwithandrepresenttheirparents’

experienceastheytellit.Moreover,theybelievethatanyindividualwhofeelsthatheor

shecanrepresenttheHolocaustinaconscientiouswayisfreetoengagewiththematerial.

OthersbelievethattheunknowabilityoftheeventsrevolvingaroundtheHolocaustduring

theyears1939-45barsanyoneoutsideoftheSurvivorGenerationfromrepresentingthe

experienceinthecamps.StillathirdgroupbelievethattheSecondGenerationmayengage

theirparents’experiences,butbegrudginglyacceptrepresentationfromoutsidersas

traumaticrubbernecking.Withoutgeneralizingtoofar,onecansaythatmostauthorsofthe

SecondGenerationfallintothefirstcategoryofthinking,creatingmemoirsaboutthe

camps,theirownexperiencesinthepost-Holocaustworld,andwelcomingthosewhofeel

thecalltoresponsiblyshareinbearingwitness.Thewritingofthesecondgeneration,

includinggraphicnovels,shortstories,novels,memoirs,andessayssuggeststhatdespite

thefactthatwordsanddrawingswillalwayslackthefullabilitytoexpressthetraumaof

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theHolocaust.Thetransmissionofmemoryintowritingisespeciallyurgentwithchildren

ofsurvivorsbecausetheyfeelacompulsiveneedtofulfillthetaskthattheyhavebeen

chargedwith-imploringtheworldnottoforgetthehorrorsandlessonsoftheHolocaust.

Twosecond-generationauthorswhoseworkIwouldliketofocusonareArt

SpiegelmanandThaneRosenbaum,writerswhoseworkestablishesrecurringthemesfor

otherworksbysecond-generationauthors.Inparticular,Spiegelman’sPulitzerPrize

winninggraphicnovelMaus(1980),andThaneRosenbaum’scollectionofstories,Elijah

Visible(1996),andhisnovel,TheGolemsofGotham(2002)illuminatethemany

complicationsoftheinheritancethatthefractureoftheHolocaustproduced,andultimately

suggestthatthetraumaoftheShoahcanandshouldbepassedontofuturegenerationsina

productiveratherthandestructiveway.Bothauthorsattempt,throughtheirHolocaust

narratives,tounburdenthemselvesofmemoriesthatarenottheirown,whilepassingon

theirknowledgetofuturegenerations.

CharacteristicsoftheSecondGeneration:CriticalStudiesandSecondarySources

PastApproaches

Beforetheproliferationofnovels,shortstories,andpoemsexplainingthisandother

phenomenaaboutthesecondgeneration,numerousclinicalstudieswereconductedonthe

childrenofsurvivorsii.ThenatureoftheeffectsoftheHolocaustmakethemextremelyhard

tomeasure.Thisiswhereclinicalstudiesanddatagatheringbecomelessusefulfor

explainingaphenomenon.Emotionsandmemoriesarefleetingandhardtoholdconcretely

inone’shands.Theycannotbequantified,categorizedandmeasured,whichmakesthe

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manyclinicalstudiesonthesecondgenerationusefulonlytotheextentthattheyoffer

insightsintothedynamicsofsurvivorhouseholds.Inthepast,clinicianshavetriedand

failedtogivenametothemechanismsoftheintergenerationaltransmissionoftrauma.

ThisinturnalienatedboththesurvivorcommunityandmembersoftheSecond

Generation,becauseofthefocusondiagnosesratherthanonworkingthroughthetrauma.

Theseweremainlyaimedattryingtodiscoverorexplainamechanismoftransmissionof

Holocausttraumafromonegenerationtothenext.Itseemsthatoneoftheonlythingsthat

alloftheseanalystscanagreeonisthattheresultsareextremelyvariedandinconclusive.

ScholarAaronHaasarguesthatsomeofthemajorissueswiththeresearchonthe

secondgenerationspringsfromthenatureofwhatisbeingstudied.Theproblemsthatany

second-generationsurvivormightbeencounteringaresubjectiveattheircore.AsHaas

says,“Perhapsitisunrealistictoexpectaclearunderstandingofthetransmissionprocess

thatoccurredinsurvivorfamilies.Therearesimplytoomanyfactorstoconsider…Almost

allstudiesofthetransmissionprocessrelyonthechild’sperceptionofherparents’

behaviorandattitudes”(Haas,34).Researchonthesubjectissofocusedonfindingsome

magicalphenomenathatwillperfectlyexplainwhathappenedwithsurvivorsandtheir

childrenthatitappearsconclusionsarebeingdrawnwherenonemayexist.Animportant

thingtoestablishisthatwhilesomegeneralizationscanbedrawnaboutchildrenof

survivors,thereisnouniversaltruthwhenitcomestotheirexperiences.Haascitesthisas

anotherreasonthattheresultsofthevariousstudiesarefraughtwithdiscrepancies.He

explainsthat“Childrenofsurvivorsareextremelydiverseintheirpersonalityprofiles,

theirlevelsofachievement,andtheirlifestyles.Previousgeneralizationsaboutthisgroup

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haveoftenbeenfoundedonablatantdisregardfortherulesofscientificinquiry”(Haas,35-

36).Anotheroftheonlyconclusionsthatmoststudiesseemtoagreeon,whetherornot

theyagreeonthemodeoftransmission,ortheextentoftransmissionofeffectsofthe

Holocaustinthesecondgeneration,isthatthereis“noseriouspsychopathology

characteristicofthesecondgeneration”(Daneli,40).Whilemembersofthisgeneration

mayhavemoretroublethantheirpeersincertainaspectsoftheirlives,itseemsthata

messageofhopecanbegleanedfromthesecondgeneration.Itispossibletobeginworking

throughtheunimaginabletraumathatthesurvivorgenerationendured.Thelegacyofthe

Holocaustisanunavoidableinheritance,butnotaninheritancetiedtoanunavoidablefate.

ThefundamentalintentofpastapproachestostudyingtheSecondGenerationwerenotby

anymeansmeanttobemalicious,buttheydidverylittletopromotetrueunderstanding

andperhapsevendamagedanytrustthattheSecondGenerationhadforoutsider

representationforaperiodtime.

CriticalApproachesbeginningafter1975

Inanefforttounderstandtheirownfamilydynamics,andtocontinueworking

throughtraumaandmourning,manymembersofthesecondgenerationhavefeltthecall

towrite—whetherabouttheirexperience,theirparents’experience,orboth.Somefeltit

theirduty,animperativetobearwitness,whileotherscametoitreluctantly.Literature

bringstolightwhatfactsandstudiescannot.Thisiswhygreatmindsfeelcompelledto

writeinordertoilluminatesomefacetofthe“humancondition”.AsThaneRosenbaum

says,“Theonlytruththatexistsinfiction,whenit’sgoodfiction,isemotionaltruth”(Royal,

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25).InthecaseoftheHolocaustespecially,whattrulymattersistheemotionaltruthof

whathappened.Inthecourseofreadingliteraturebyandaboutthesecondgeneration,it

hasbecomeclearthatwhattheworldneedsmoreofwhenitcomestotheShoahis

emotionaltruth.Factsandfiguresfloatinourbrains,overwhelmingourabilityto

empathize.AsEpsteinexplainsinherarticle,decadesago,whilemanyofthesecond

generationweregrowingup,“Mostpeopleseemednottocare.Thewarthatpartitioned

ourlivesinto“before”and“after”seemednottohavetouchedtheirs…InSundayschool

andinbooks,gravevoicesevoked“TheSixMillion”and“TheHolocaust”-abstract,

antiseptictermsthathadnothingtodowiththemessy,volatileemotionssopalpableat

home”(Epstein,3).Haasreaffirmsthisideawhenhesays,“Sixmillionisnotanimpressive

number.Itisabstractanditnumbsratherthansensitizes.Oneperson’sstoryhasthe

potentialforillumination”(Haas,85).ThisisoneofthereasonsIbelievethatthesecond

generationwritersfeelapulltosharetheirortheirparents’stories.Ifperhapssomeone

readsitandknowswhatitmeantforthatonehumanbeinginparticular,thenhis/her

memorywillliveon,andthememoryofthedeadwillliveon.AnotherlargemotivationI

seeisadeterminationtosharetheburdenoftheHolocaustwiththerestoftheworld,

whichisthemainconclusionIwillfocusoninthewritingofthesecondgeneration.They

nolongerwanttofeelmarginalized,misunderstoodorcategorizedbytheirparents’past.

ThechildrenofsurvivorsdidnotlivethroughthehorrorsoftheHolocaust,yetthey

areinextricablylinkedtothosehorrorsandtheeffecttheyhaveontheirparentsand

community.ManyfeelthattheHolocaustissomuchapartofthemselves,thatthey

describeitasbeingpartoftheirgeneticmakeup,asinRosenbaum’sstory“CattleCar

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Complex.”Thiscommonfeelingamongchildrenofsurvivorsdemonstratestheunconscious

waythatchildrenofsurvivorsinherittheirparents’memories.Theinheritanceofthe

Holocaust,andinfacttheirveryexistencecanfeelrandomtomembersofthesecond

generation.Somespeakoffeelingstrangelythattheywouldlikelynotevenbealiveifit

werenotfortheHolocaust.HelenEpstein,herselfachildofsurvivors,wasoneofthefirst

ofhergenerationtonoticethesimilaritiesbetweentheexperiencesofchildrenof

Holocaustsurvivors,toreflectonthesimilarities(anddifferences),andthentofeelthecall

towriteabouttheexperience.Referencingavisittothesmallvillagehisfathercamefrom,

onesonofsurvivorstoldEpsteininaninterviewforher1977NewYorkTimesinterview,“‘I

hadavery,veryuncomfortablefeeling.OneofthelousiestfeelingsI’veeverhadinmylife.I

feltthatbyallrightsIshouldbedead,thatIshouldn’tbethereatall.’”Sortingoutthe

reasonsforone’sexistencecannotbeeasy.However,thepointhereissimplythatsome

childrenofsurvivorsfeelunjustlyburdenedwiththeirinheritance,becauseitwas

bestoweduponthemrandomly.

Despitethisrandomness,itisafactthattheirparents’pastispartofwhotheyare.

Thisbringsustoacrucialquestion:justwhoorwhatisthesecondgeneration?Putliterally,

thesecondgenerationofHolocaustsurvivorsiscomprisedofthechildrenofHolocaust

survivors.TheywereallbornaftertheendoftheWar,someevenwhiletheirparentswere

stillinaDisplacedPersonsCamps.Butmorethanthat,theyareadiversegroupofpeople

withacomplicatedinheritancethathasaffectedtheirlivesinmanydifferentways.Inorder

tounderstandthesecondgeneration,onemustfirstunderstandsomegeneralthingsabout

theexperienceofchildrenofsurvivors,andwhatitwaslikeformanyofthemgrowingup

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inasurvivorhousehold.WhentalkingaboutthedifferenteffectsoftheHolocaustonthe

secondgeneration,itisimportanttoconsiderthefactthatatonepoint,theywerejust

childrenlikeanyotherperson.Theydidn’tknowwhatallofthethingstheywitnessedand

feltmeant.Thisdifferssomewhatfromtraumasufferedatanolderage,becauseanadult

wouldatleastknowthatwhatishappeningisn’tnormal.Althoughthetraumamighthave

beenopaquetothesecondgenerationaschildren,theydidknowonethingforsure:their

parentswereHolocaustsurvivors,eveniftheydidn’tknowhowtheyknew.HelenEpstein,

inher1977articleaboutchildrenofsurvivors,relaysthatmanyoftheparticipantsshe

interviewedremarkedthattheyhadalwaysknownthattheirparentswereHolocaust

survivors.Almostnoneofthemcouldtellyouexactlywhenorhowtheyfoundout,itwas

justagiven,ashadowthathungovertheirhome.Oneintervieweeremarked,“‘Ialways

knewthatmyparentswereinaconcentrationcamp.Thefactthatitwasn’ttalkedabout

mademeknowitmore’”(Epstein,5).Herewecanseeonecommonsurvivorresponse:

burythememoriesandwar-timeexperiences.Manysurvivorssimplywantedtoattemptto

forget,topretendthatnothingwaswrongandsimplyassimilateintowhateversocietythey

movedintoafterthewar.Ontheoppositeendofthespectrum,weseethatothers

bombardedtheirchildrenwiththeirmemoriesandexperiences.

AsEpsteinnotes,someparentsconstantlyremindedtheirchildrenoftheirpastwith

avariationontheadage“‘Howcanyoubehavelikethistoyourparents?IwishIhadmy

parentsaliveandhere!’or‘IsthiswhatIhadtolivefor?Ishouldhavediedtherewiththe

restofthem!’”(Epstein,8).Othersbombardedtheirchildrenwithstories.Oneinterviewee

recalls“‘ItseemedtheynevertalkedtomeexcepttosaywhattheGermanshaddoneto

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them…Iwasabletolistenformaybe10minutes,15atmost.ThenI’dblockmyearsand

yell‘Idon’twanttohear!’”(Epstein,7).Fewchildrenofsurvivorscansaythattheydidn’t

haveexperiencesthatfellintooneormoreofthesecategories.Thiswiderangeof

responsesandexperiencesstillalladdeduptothesamething—childrenknewthattheir

parentshadbeenirreparablydamaged,whethertheyknewhoworbywhomisupinthe

air,buttheyallknew.Moreover,regardlessoftheamountofinformationthatachildof

survivorswasgiven,theenormityandcomplexityoftheinformationcreatedaseparation

betweensurvivorsandtheirchildren,sothattheyfelttheybarelykneweachother.

Anothermessagetobegleanedfromthesecriticalstudiesabouttheexperiencesof

theSecondGenerationisthatinwritingthesebooks,membersarelookingfor

understanding.Thesecriticalworksarecruciallyimportantbecauseknowingmoreabout

wherethethemesinthewritingoftheSecondGenerationstemfrommakesengagingwith

theotherworksoftheSecondGenerationthatmuchmoremeaningful.Moreover,asIseeit,

thesecriticalapproachesexplainindetailtheinnerworkingsofsurvivorhouseholdsand

giveanametoaphenomenonlikepostmemoryinordertoeducateoutsiderssothatthey

mightbeabletoreachapointintheirknowledgeofthesurvivorfamilieswheretheyhave

propervocabularythatallowsforthemtoresponsiblyrepresenttheirexperiences.

SecondGenerationNarratives

ArtSpiegelman’sMaus,vols.1&2

OnecannotwriteaboutthesecondgenerationandnotwriteaboutArtSpiegelman’s

Maus.Thenovelhassteadilygainedfamesinceitsreleasein1980,andchangednotonly

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howreadersviewcomics,butalsohowtheyviewtheHolocaust.HereIwillfocusonthe

elementsofthenovelthatincreaseitsaccessibilityandthuscallreaderstoshareinthe

burdenoftheHolocaust.Thefirstaspectofthenovelthatmakesitmoreaccessibleto

readersisitsformasacomic.Thesecondelementofaccessibilityistheallegorical

representationofpeopleasanimals,especiallyJewsasmice.Tobeclear,“accessible”here

doesnotmeanthatthecomicformorthemicehumansmakethestoryanyeasierto

comprehendorcometotermswith.Instead,theymakethesubjectmattereasierto

approach.Spiegelmanhimselfsaidinaninterviewthathedoesnotthinkthatthewayhe

chosetorepresentpeopleinhisbooks“lessenstheimpact”ofthesubjectmatter.Rather,

hebelievesthat“…itincreases[theimpact].Ithinkbyscreeningthingsthroughthemasks,

itmakesthereaderenvisionthemhimself,re-createtheminhismind”(Bolhafner

interview).IagreewithSpiegelmantoapoint.Makingthecharactersintoan“everyman

mouse”asLisaMulmancallsit,allowsforreaderstoinsertthemselvesintothestory

(Mulman,88).Noneofthecharactersresemblesarealhuman;thereforeanyoneofthem

couldbeyou,thereader.

IdonotbelievethatthecomicformlessenstheimpactoftheHolocaustonthe

reader.However,Idothinkthatthenatureofthecomicformmakesthematerialmore

appropriateforawideraudience.Itseemstomethatitisalothardertoshyawayfromthe

materialasitisdepictedinMaus.ThereaderstillcomestoknowtheHolocaustmore

intimately,butfocusesonrelatingtothecharacters,insteadoffocusingontryingto

imaginethedetailsastheyaregiveninprose.AsAndreaLisssays,

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…Spiegelman’spictorialapproachlevelsallspecifichumancharacteristics…in

ordertoparadoxicallyopenapathfortheviewer/readertoidentifywiththe

charactersashumanbeings…byrefusingtogivespecificfacialtraitstothevictims,

perpetrators,andcollaborators,theartistalsoblockscontemporaryreadersfrom

tryingtoidentifythemwithparticularethniccharacteristics.Hesubtlyremindsthe

readerthatracistmarkingandlabelingarenotthingsofthepast.Strategically,then,

Spiegelmanrefusesmereidentificationwiththeface.(Liss,53)

Ironicallythen,wehaveaneasiertimeidentifyingwithmicethanwithpeople.Insteadof

focusingsohardonthedescriptionsoftheevents,thereadercanfocusmoreattentionon

theemotionsbehindthestorybeingtold.Importantly,asLisssays,thereadertranscends

time,location,andethnicidentificationtorememberthatallofthevictimsandsurvivorsof

theHolocaustwerehuman.Spiegelmanhimselfacknowledgesthatthisisamainobjective

ofMaus:

Ultimately,whatthebookisaboutisthecommonalityofhumanbeings.It'scrazyto

dividethingsdownnationalisticorracialorreligiouslines.Andthat'sthewhole

point,isn'tit?Thesemetaphors,whicharemeanttoself-destructinmybook-andI

thinktheydoself-destruct-stillhavearesidualforcethatallowsthemtoworkas

metaphors,andstillgetpeopleworkedupoverthem(BolhafnerInterview).

Spiegelman’sgoalinwritingMauswastoremindtheworldthatthevictimsofthe

Holocaustwerehumans.Thus,ashumansitisourdutytorememberwhathappenedtoour

fellowhumanbeingsjustover70yearsagoandshareintheburdenoftheHolocaust.

Todaywearealltooeagertojust“moveon”fromtragedieswewerenotdirectlyinvolved

in,asymptomofwhatisbeingcalled“compassionfatigue”(Moeller,5).However,ifthe

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post-Holocaustworldhastaughtusanything,itshouldbethatremembranceiskey.If

perhapstheworldwasn’tsokeentomoveonfromtheHolocaustattheendofthewar,

moresurvivorswouldhavebeenabletofeelcomfortableconfrontingandsharingtheir

storiesinanefforttohealandmourn.

Alongthosesamelines,inwritingthisstoryandsharingitwiththeworld,

SpiegelmanisdemonstratingHass’sentimentaboutthepowerofanindividual’sstoryto

illuminatetheexperienceoftheHolocaust.Notonlydoesheaccomplishthis,but

SpiegelmanalsoshowedtheworldwhatitmeanttobethechildofHolocaustsurvivors.

Theconfusion,overwhelmingguilt,alongwiththeneedtoknowandsharetheirparents’

storieswasanewthingtomostpeopleatthetime,andtosomeextentisstillanewideato

manypeopletoday.Ashisfathersaysaboutthecomicregardinghismother’sdeath,“It’s

goodyougotitoutsideyoursystem”(MausI,104),andbydoingthiswithMaus,

Spiegelmancancontinuetheworking-throughoftheHolocausttraumathathisparents

passedontohim.

Some,likeRosenbaum,maycallintoquestionthemethodsthatSpiegelmanuses,

saying,“Anyattemptstodepictlifeinthecampsistrivializing,regardlessoftheaesthetic

form”(Royal,24).Otherswouldcriticizenottherepresentationofthecamps,buttheuseof

comics.Spiegelmanisawarethathehascriticswhoquestionhisrepresentation,butashe

saysinaninterview,“WhathappenedinMauswastheabsoluteshockofanoxymoron:the

Holocaustisabsolutelythelastplacethatonewouldlookforsomethingtobemadeinthe

formofcomics,whichoneassociateswithessentiallytrivial,simplifiedmatter.Sothose

twoparticularthingscametogetherandignitedanexplosionIwasabletoharness”

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(Mulman,86).ForSpiegelman,therepresentationofhisfather’sstorywasdonebestinthe

formofacomic.AlthoughRosenbaumbothhasapointandisentitledtohisopinion,this

wasthewaythatSpiegelmanknewhowtocommunicatetheemotionaltruthofhisfather’s

story,theverythingthatRosenbaumclaimsisimportantinliterature.

Thetwocontrastingopinionsonwhocanrepresentthecampsandinwhatways

demonstratesperfectlythediversityamongthesecondgeneration.Theyallcometothe

dialogueabouttheHolocaustandtheirexperienceinthePost-Holocaustwithavariedand

colorfulpast.Thispastinformstheiropinionsonrepresentation,especiallywhenitcomes

towhocanrepresenttheeventsoftheHolocaust.Spiegelmanevenquestionshisown

moralauthoritywithinthepagesofMaus.Speakingtohiswife,Artiesays“‘Justthinking

aboutmybook.It’ssopresumptuousofme…Imean,Ican’tevenmakesenseoutofmy

relationshipwithmyfather.HowamIsupposedtomakeanysenseoutofAuschwitz?Of

theHolocaust?’”(MausII,14).Confusionaboutthepastandtheirrelationshiptothe

Holocaustisacommonfeelingamongsecondgenerationwriters,andeachanswersthatin

hisorherownway.ForSpiegelman,makinghisfather’sstoryintoagraphicnovelwasthe

bestwaythatheknewtomakesenseoftheHolocaust.Throughtheinsightshegivesus

intotheprocessofwritingthebook,thereadercanalsoseethatinhisownwayhemade

peacewithhisrelationshipwiththeHolocaust,andmoreimportantly,withhisfather.

ThaneRosenbaum’sPost-HolocaustTrilogy

AlongwithSpiegelman,Rosenbaumisoneofthechiefrepresentativesofthesecond

generationinliterature.AlthoughSpiegelman’sworkismorewellknownamongthe

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generalpopulation,Rosenbaumisknownamongscholarsasanauthorthatdoesanequally

thoroughjobdemonstratingandattemptingtoexplaintheexperienceofbeingthechildof

survivors.Rosenbaum’scollectionofstories,ElijahVisible,andtwonovels,SecondHand

Smoke,andTheGolemsofGothamcomprisewhathecalls“…apost-Holocausttrilogy”inhis

interviewwithRoyal.Thesethreeworkstogetherencompassawiderangeofresponsesto

thepost-Holocaustworldandtheburdenofmemory.Ratherthanintwovolumesof

graphicnovel,RosenbaumtakestheentiretrilogytoreachaclimaxattheendofThe

GolemsofGothamwherehecallsontheworldtoshareintheremembranceofthe

Holocaust.ThoughonemightbeinclinedtoclassifyRosenbaumasawriterofHolocaust

literature,heisadamantlyrejectsthattitle.InaninterviewwithDerekParkerRoyal,

Rosenbaumsharedhisfeelingsonthesubject,saying

IgenerallyrecoilattheideaofbeingthoughtofasaHolocaustwriter…Idon’twrite

abouttheyears1933-45,norwouldIever.Mycharactersallliveintheaftermathof

Auschwitzanddealwiththesurrealcircumstancesofhavingtoliveinagenocidal

agewithfullknowledgeofhavinggenocideinone’sgenes…Ihavenoclaimstothe

Holocaustasanevent,onlyitsgenerationalconsequences.NordoIwelcomeany

suggestionthatIamawitnesstoanythingotherthanmyownexperiencesasachild

ofsurvivors(Royal,4).

Rosenbaum’sviewonwritingabouttheeventsoftheHolocaustclearlycontrastssharply

withtheviewsofArtSpiegelmanandmanyotherauthorsofthesecondgeneration.

Spiegelmanseesitashisresponsibilitytosharehisparents’experiencesintheHolocaust,

whileRosenbaumshiesawayfromthis.Yet,weknowthatalthoughhemaynotrepresent

thecampsdirectly,Rosenbaum’sworkisequallytiedtotheexperienceofthecampsasis

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Spiegelman’s.Thechoiceforwhatisorisnotpresentintheirworkrevealsyetagainthat

undertakingthetaskofbearingwitnessmeansdifferentthingstoeachauthor.Infact,

Spiegelmanhassaidthatwritinghisfather’sstorynotonlyhelpedhimbecomeclosertohis

father,butalsotocometotermswithhiscomplicatedfeelingsonhischildhood,his

relationshipwithhisparents,andtheirHolocaustpast.AswecanseeinMaus,second

generationauthorsoftenseewritingaboutthepost-Holocaustworldandtheeventsofthe

Holocaustasintrinsicallylinked.Afterall,oneinformstheotherandhasdirectinfluences

onitintheformofmemoriesinthesecondgeneration.However,eachchildofsurvivors

andwriterofHolocaustliteratureisentitledtohisorherownwayofapproachingand

writingabouttheHolocaust,itsaftereffects,orboth.Forinstance,inthesameinterview

fromabove,Rosenbaumexplainsthathistrilogy“…cameabout,almostbynecessity,

becausegiventheenormityoftheHolocaust,[he]didn’twanttoleaveanyoftheemotional

storyout”(Royal,6).Hegoesontoexplainthatthethreenovelsrepresentloss,rage,and

repairandresurrection,respectively.Rosenbaumdidnotinitiallyintendtowriteatrilogy,

buttherewassimplytoomuchtoaddresstoleaveitatElijahVisible.Knowingthatone

shouldviewthebooksasinterrelated,itbecomesveryevidentthatanemotionaljourneyis

beingrepresentedinthesethreeverydifferentbutveryconnectedworks.

ElijahVisible

BeginningwithElijahVisible,thecollectionofstoriesaboutloss,wecanseea

reflectionofthevarietyofexperiencesthatcomewithbeingthechildofsurvivors.The

manyiterationsofAdamPosnerrepresentmanyofthedifferenttypesofpeoplethatare

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childrenofsurvivorsandhoweachoftheirexperiencesisatoncevastlydifferentandalso

deeplyconnected.Inparticular,Rosenbaum’sopeningstory,“CattleCarComplex”isan

exemplarytestimonyofwhatitmeanstoinherittheHolocaustintoone’spsyche.Heuses

Adaminthisstorytoshowjusthowacutelyawaresurvivor’schildrenareofthehorrorsof

theShoah.JustasinMaus,wecanseethatthechildrenofsurvivorstakeonthepastasifit

weretheirown.AsElieWieselsays,“Theirroleinawayisevenmoredifficultthanours.

Theyareresponsibleforaworldthattheydidn’tcreate.Theywhodidnotgothroughthe

experiencemusttransmitit”(Berger,1).Furthermore,asBergerpointsout,inaveryreal

way,theaftermathoftheHolocaustwastheirstocometotermswithasthemembersof

thesecondgenerationdecidedhowtolivetheirlivesinthewakeofmissingrelatives,inept

parents,andsocietalstigma.Ifthisnovelisoneofloss,thenthisfirststoryrepresentsthe

lossofapersonalidentity.AdamhassofullytakenontheburdenofHolocaustmemory

thathetransformshimselfmentallyintoaHolocaustsurvivor.Thisisaverycommon

themeinthewritingofthesecondgeneration,aswehaveseen.However,inthisstory

takingonthememoriesisdramaticallydemonstratedinordertohelpthereader

understandjusthowdeeplychildrenofsurvivorsfeeltheirparents’experiences.

BeingengulfedbythepresenceoftheHolocaustandwantingtohelp‘fix’their

parents’problemsleadsthechildrenofthesecondgenerationtofeelthattheyarecarrying

aburdentooheavytobear.Thesechildrentakeonthepastasifitweretheirown,with

devastatingeffects.Butthroughtheactionsofoutsidersinthestory,thereaderisalsoable

tocometotheconclusionthattheSecondGenerationiscallingoutforhelp.Ifignoredand

lefttobeartheburdenofHolocaustmemoryalone,thechildrenofsurvivorswillmerelybe

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morevictimsofNazipersecutionbecausetherestoftheworldwillhavesatidlybyas

survivormemoryfades.However,ifhelpcomesfromtheoutside,thentogether,wemight

allbeabletocarrytheweightoftheHolocaust.

Inthestory,afteranightofworkinglate,Adamgetsintotheelevatortogohome.

Buttheelevatorstops,andsuddenlyheisstuckinaplacewherehecannotescapehisown

mind.Atfirst,Adamtriestostaycalmandrational.Buthequicklybecomesclaustrophobic,

asthepastthathetriestosuppressmakesitswaytothesurface.Wegetafirstglimpseof

thecentralmetaphorofthestorywhenthenarratorsays“Thedimensionsofthecarbegan

tocloseinonhim.Thealreadytightspaceseemedtobegrowingsmaller,ashrinking

enclosure,miniaturizingwitheachbreath”(Rosenbaum,5).Thefeelingofthesmall

elevatorclosinginonAdammimicswhatmanysurvivorsdescribeofthedifferentstagesof

theHolocaust—theworldgettingsmallerandsmaller,untilitdisappears.Inthenextline

thenarratorsays“Adam’sparentshadbeeninthecamps,transportedtherebyrail,cattle

cars,infact”(Rosenbaum,5).Suddenlythereader’smindsnapsbacktothetitleofthe

story,“CattleCarComplex”andthenitclicks.Adam’sconfinementintheelevatorisa

metaphorforhisparents’journeytothecampsinthehorrificconditionsincattlecars.

EverydetailwegetofAdam’spsychologicalbreakcloselymirrorstheexperienceof

transportationtothecampsduringtheHolocaust.

Piecebypiece,Adam’spresentrealityisreplacedbyincreasinglyvividdisembodied

memoriesofthepast.Theexperiencesheinheritedarenolongersharedmemories,

feelingsandemotions,butreal-timehappenings.Thepastnolongerbelongstothe

survivorsalone;itisinvadingAdam’spresent.Inthestory,wethengetareemergence,and

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directcommentaryonthephenomenonoftakingonthepast.Thenarratorexplainsthe

realityofAdamhavinggrownupwithHolocaustsurvivorsforparents:

“Itwasunavoidable.Thelegacythatflowedthroughhisveins.Parental

reminiscenceshadbecomethegeneticmaterialthatwastobepassedonby

survivorstotheirchildren…Theirownterriblevisionsfromahauntedpastbecame

his.Hehadinheritedtheirperceptionsofspace,andtheknowledgeofhowmuch

oneneedstolive,tohide,howtobreathewherethereisnoair”(Rosenbaum,5).

HereweseeRosenbaumcuttingthroughthemetaphoranddirectlyconfrontingwhatit

meanstoinheritsomeoneelse’spast.Rosenbaumisgivingavoicetoallthechildrenwho

feeltheburdenofinheritingtheHolocaust.Itisimportantthathedescribeshisfeelingsas

unavoidable.Thatgivesmoreofasenseofsharedexperience,asthisinheritanceisclearly

unavoidableinsomefashionforallchildrenofHolocaustsurvivors.Rosenbaum’schoiceof

wordscommunicatestheintrinsicnatureofwhatcanjustseemlikeanabstraction.For

Adam,asforRosenbaum,thelegacyoftheHolocaustissomethingfeltwithinhisveryveins.

Asthenarratorsays,thevisionsofthePosner’spastareAdam’s.Thesepowerfulimagesof

thepastarenotjustsomethinghehasheardabout,butaformofthe“postmemory”that

Hirschspeaksof.ThesefragmentsofpostmemorythatareescapingfromAdam’smind“…

approximatememoryinitsaffectiveforceanditspsychiceffects”(Hirsch,31)andthrough

thepowerfuluseofimagination,transformintoaction.

Adamisslowlyslippingawayfromrealityandgivingwaytoafullpsychological

break.ThenatureofthehorrendouspastthatAdaminheritsclearlycontributestofeelings

ofanxietyinAdam.Thisanxietyisengulfinghimashesitsinsidetheelevator.Heyells,

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punchesthebuttons,kicksthedoors—desperatelytryingtoclawhiswayoutofthe

elevatormuchthesamewaythatpeopletriedtoescapethecattlecars.Wearetoldof

Adam’spsychologicalstate,“Whathadoncebeenareliablysharpandpreciselawyer’s

mindrapidlybecameundone,replacedbysomethingfromanotherworld,fromanother

time,theimprintingofhislegacy”(Rosenbaum,6).Soherewearegettingcloserto

understandingwhatishappeningtoAdam.Thelegacythathehasinheritedisstripping

awaythepartsofhismindseparatefromit.Hestartstofeelthesameexactfearthathis

parentsandmillionsofothersfeltonthoseharrowingjourneystothecamps.Thepastthat

Adamhadresignedhimselftosharingisnowmakingitswayoutofhismindandintohis

actions.WhenthesecurityguardistalkingtoAdam,heasksifheisokay.Fromhisanswer,

itbecomesevidentthatheislosingagriponreality:“‘Whatdoyoumeanbyokay?Howcan

Ibeokay?Thisisnotlife—beingtrappedinaboxmadeforanimals!...Youarebarbarians!

Getmeout!’”(Rosenbaum,8).Atthispointthereisstillatensionbetweenreadersknowing

thatheisemulatingthereactionsofJewsintransporttoconcentrationcamps,andthe

peopletryingtohelpAdamthinkingheisjusthavingapanicattack.Buttheyarequickly

filledintotheseverityofthesituationasAdam’sresponsesbecomemoreandmorefrantic.

Hissharedmemoriesofhisparents’experienceintheHolocaustismanifestingitselfinhis

physicalactions.Adam’sresponsestotheguardandlimodriverareverbatimwhat

survivorsrememberhearingorsayingwhileinthecattlecars,“‘Wecan’tbreatheinhere!

Andthechildren,whatwilltheyeat?...Youhavealreadytakenourhomes,whatmoredo

youwant?...Liberateus!Wearestarving!Weareskeletons,walingbones,ghosts!Getus

outofthishell!’”(Rosenbaum,8-10).Thereisnolongeranyquestion:Adamhasbecome

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oneofthevictimsoftheHolocaust.Notonlyavictiminthesensethatheisactinglikeone,

butalsoavictiminthesensethattheHolocausthasfounditswayintoAdam’spsycheand

damagedit.Evenyearsandoceansawayashesaidearlier,theHolocausthasmanagedto

createanothervictimoutofachildofsurvivors.

TheurgencyandspecificitywithwhichRosenbaumwritestellsthereaderthathe

writesfromaverypersonalplace,andIthinkthatinthisstoryAdamPosnerisa

representationofRosenbaum.InaninterviewwithRosenbaum,interviewerDerekParker

Royalexplains:

Bothofhisparentswereholocaustsurvivors…butthesubjectoftheNazideath

campswasunmentionablewithinthehousehold.Yetdespite,orperhapsbecauseof,

theseconspicuoussilences,theaftereffectsoftheShoahfoundtheirwayintohis

adultwork.Hestudiedlawbecausehefeltthatthesecurityofalawdegreewould

helptomitigatehisinheritedsenseofvulnerability”(Royal,2).

Therefore,itseemsnaturalthatRosenbaumwouldstarthisnovelwithastorythathasa

deeplypersonalconnection.Thissetsthemoodfortherestofthestories,andmakesthe

readertrustthatRosenbaumknowswhathespeaksabout.Heistrulyconnectedtohis

work,andthatisimportantwiththesubjectmatter.Becausehehassuchadeep

understandingofwhatitmeanstobethechildofsurvivors,thereaderinturngainsan

understandingofthepervasivenatureoftheaftereffectsoftrauma,andspecificallytrauma

relatedtotheShoah.

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Openingthenovelwithastorywheretheemotionsaresovisceralmakesthereader

understandhowthisisnotsomethingRosenbaumisdoinghalfway.Heisgoingtobringus

intohisworld,showingushowtraumacantraversetimeandspace.

Likemanychildrenofsurvivors,Rosenbaumfeelsaneedtobearwitnesstotheeventsof

theHolocaust.WecanseetheanxietyofthelegacycreepbackupwhenAdamshouts“‘Who

willbelievewhathappenedtous?Whowillbeabletocomprehend?WhowillsayKaddish

forme?’”(Rosenbaum,10).Eventhen,astheatrocitywasunfolding,thevictimsofthe

Holocaustwereconcernedabouttheirfategoingunnoticed.Thesequestionsarepartofthe

reasonthatAdamandotherchildrenofsurvivorsfeeltheneedtowriteabouttheevents.

Evenifhisparentsdidnottalkaboutwhathappenedtothem,Adamstillknew.Hefeltit

deepwithinhimself.Ashesaidbefore,itispartofhisgeneticmakeup.Adamisworried

aboutthelegacyhewillpasson,becausethelegacyheinheritedconsumeshim.Sothenfor

Rosenbaum,writingthenovelispartofhispersonallegacythatheneedstoandwillpass

on.Butnowthatitisinprint,hecanpassitontothosewhoaredonothavesurvivorsfor

relatives,orarenotJews.TheRussianlimodriverrepresentsnon-Jewscomingto

understandhowtheHolocausthasaffectedgenerationsofJews.Hesayswithempathy,

“‘Thismanintheelevatorisnotcrazy…Itisworldthatiscrazy;heisonlyoneofits

victims’”(Rosenbaum,10).Throughthis,weseethattheresponsibilitytobearwitnessand

educateisnotjusttopassonknowledgetonextgenerationofsurvivors,butthenext

generationasawhole.Itiseveryone’sresponsibilitytobeawareofwhathappenedduring

theHolocaust,andtoworktogethertoensurethatitdoesnothappenagain.

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TheendingofthestoryiswherethereaderfeelsthefullforceofAdam’s

transformation.Hehasn’tjustinheritedtheexperiencesofthepast;heislivingthem.In

thatway,AdamisasurvivoroftheHolocaust.Intheinterview,Rosenbaumhasthistosay

abouttheendingofthestoryandthemomentthatthetransformationbecomesliteral:

“Iliketothinkoftheelevatordoorsasacurtain,whichgetspulled…Fromnowon,thinkof

thesechaptersasifyoujustenteredthistransformativeportal…Adam’sworldisinformed

bycattlecarsandtheirlethaldestinations,sotry,ifyoucan,toreadthesechaptersfrom…

theperspectiveofadamagedman,andthemanyreasonsthathebecamedamaged”(Royal,

8).Rosenbaum’smessagehereisaclearone.TheHolocaustneedstobetalkedabout.Ifthe

horrorsareburiedandforgotten,thentheywillreemergelaterwith,ifit’spossible,aneven

greatervengeance.Asthesayinggoes,thosewhoignorehistoryaredoomedtorepeatit.

Thatcouldnotbetruerhere.Adam’sparentschosetoignorewhathappenedtothem,so

theirhistorywasrepeatedintheirson.

ThoughtheHolocaustwasnottalkedaboutinAdam’sorRosenbaum’shouseholds,

itstillemergesintheirlives.Itisinevitable.Thenaturalanddeepconnectionwithparents

causestheirchildrentohaveprofoundsympathyforthem.Sothechildrenofsurvivorstake

ontheguilt,anxiety,nightmares,etc.thattheirparentssufferfrominthehopesof

alleviatingsomeoftheburdentheirparentscarry.ButRosenbaumseesthatjustafew

peoplecarryingalloftheburdencausesself-destruction.Thisisaburdenthateveryone

needstoshare,becauseJewswerenottheonlyonesinvolvedinandaffectedbythe

Holocaust.Bywritingstorieslikethis,piecebypiece,theburdenisdistributedonusall,

justasitshouldbe.

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AnotherstoryfromElijahVisible,“LittleBlueSnowmanofWashingtonHeights,”

demonstrateshowprofoundtheseaftereffectsoftheHolocaustareinthelivesofthe

secondgenerationfromaveryyoungage.Oppositetotheopeningstory,theconclusionof

“LittleBlueSnowman”demonstratesthatifnotgivenaproperchancetounderstand

childrenofsurvivorsandhowtohelptheminworkingthroughtheirinheritedtrauma,the

SecondGenerationwillbeisolatedandaloneintheirjourneytounderstandingthe

Holocaust.Thisstoryrepresentsthelossofchildhoodthatmanychildrenofsurvivors

describe.InthisstorylittleAdamisinkindergarten.Already,atsuchayoungageitisclear

thatAdamisdeeplyaffectedbytheHolocaust.Onceagain,weseethatthereisathemeof

inevitabilitywiththeHolocaustdamagingthechild.ItimposesitsownwillonAdamand

hasinvadedhislifealreadyat5yearsold.Adamisobviouslyfrightenedandhischildhood

hasbeenfromhim,becauseitistoomuchofaluxury,andpotentiallydangeroustobe

childishinthepresenceoftheHolocaust.Lookingatthestory,thenarratortellsusthat

“Adamdidn’thavetimetoplay.Hewasverybusywithcovertassignments—lookingfor

theotherguy”(ElijahVisible,192).Adam’sparentshavetoldhimtolookoutfordisaster,

thatthingscouldchangerapidly,andthatnoteveryonecanbetrusted.Adamisnervous

anduntrustingofsomanythingsthatanyotherfive-year-oldwouldn’teventhinkabout.

Hehasadultanxietiesandworries,anditiscleartotheadultsaroundhim.Theschool

nursecommentstoAdam’steacher,“Theparentshaveturnedhimintoaconcentration

campsurvivor,andhewasn’teveninthecamps!You’dthinkthey’dwanttosparehimall

that…nothingiswrongwithhimexcepthisnervesareshot.AllIhaveisafirst-aidkit.It

doesn’tworkverywellforthis”(ElijahVisible,200).Thenursecouldnothavebeenmore

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poignant.Herobservationsarealltooastuteandpointtoamajorproblemthatchildrenof

survivorsface.Theywantsobadlytohelptheirparents,tounderstandwhatmadethemso

damaged,butnothinganyofthemcandowillerasethepast.However,Manychildrenof

survivorsfeelthattheirliveswereruledbymakingsurethattheirparentswereokay,

tryingnottoupsettheminanyway.Manyofthemevenfeelthattheyweremorelike

parentsintheirrelationship(AuerhahnandLaub).Seeingsomeonesosmalland

vulnerablefeelsoafraidanduntrustingisheartbreaking.Moreover,itremindsthereader

thattheHolocausthadeffectsonthesecondgenerationfromaveryyoungage.Itdidn’t

carehowoldthesonsanddaughtersofsurvivorswere,itinfringedontheirlivesfromthe

verystart.Aswewillseelater,thereisasignificantanxietyamongstthesecondgeneration

tonotrepeatthispatternwiththeirownchildren.AllofthevariousAdamsinElijahVisible

helpthereadertomoredeeplyunderstandthewaysinwhichthesecondgenerationhas

beenaffectedbytheHolocaust,despiteneverhavingbeenthere.

TheGolemsofGotham

PartthreeofRosenbaum’sPostHolocaustTrilogy,TheGolemsofGotham,follows

Ariel,amemberoftheThirdGenerationofsurvivors,assheawakensthespiritsofherdead

grandparentsandacastofthemostfamoussurvivorauthors,andthecrazyanticsthat

follow.Evenmorethanhisprevioustwonovels,GolemsofGothamisatruecalltoactionfor

thoseoutsidethesurvivorcommunitytonotforgetaboutthefateofthoselostintheShoah.

Inhereffortstohelpcureherfather,Oliver,ofhisseverewriter’sblockanddepression,

ArielcallsonthepowersofancientJewishmysticismtoresurrectaGolemfromHudson

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Rivermudinherattic.Shegetsmuchmorethanshebargainedforwhenthespiritsofher

grandparentsandthoseofPrimoLeviandJerzyKosinski,tonameafew,alltakeoverher

andOliver’shomeandneighborhoodontheUpperWestSideofNewYork.Simultaneously,

thepowersthatresurrectedthesespiritshavecausedArieltoinherittheabilitytoplay

JewishKlezmermusicwithvirtuosicability.ThroughAriel’smusicandthegolems’mystical

influenceonsociety,thegolemstakeoverNewYorkandtransformitintoaplacealivewith

Jewishcultureinanefforttoremindpeopleofwhatoncewas.Throughtheuseof

prosopopoeiaRosenbaumgivesvoicetodeadsurvivors,andassertsthattheywouldbe

shockedandupsetbythestateofHolocaustremembranceinthemodernera.

Thisnovelisanexperimentofsortsinacoupleofdifferentways.Thefirstisinthe

resurrectionofthedead,andsubsequentimaginingoftheirthoughtsonthecurrentstateof

Holocaustremembrance.Importantly,allofthegolemsthatArielresurrectsareHolocaust

survivorsthatcommittedsuicideyearsafterleavingthecamps.Theideathatonemight

takeone’slifeafterfacingHellitselfhadconfoundedtheworldforyears.Rosenbaumis

takingonthatquestionhead-onandthroughthecourseofthenoveltrulygetstowhatthe

motiveswereforthesurvivors’actions.OneelementthatRosenbaumtapsinto,andamain

focusofthenovel,istheworld’srelativeinattentiontothesufferingoftheJewsduringand

afterthewar.Wieselexplainsthisbestwhenhesaid

Attheriskofoffending,itmustbeemphasizedthatthatvictimsuffered

more…profoundlyfromtheindifferenceoftheonlookersthanfromthe

brutalityoftheexecutioner.Thecrueltyoftheenemywouldhavebeen

incapableofbreakingtheprisoner;itwasthesilenceofthosehebelievedto

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behisfriends—crueltymorecowardly,moresubtle—whichbrokehisheart.

Therewasnolongeranyoneonwhomtocount…Itpoisonedthedesireto

live…IfthisIthehumansocietywecomefrom—andarenowabandoned

by—whyseektoreturn?(Wiesel,229-30).

Asalways,Wieselprovidesinvaluableinsightintothesurvivorperspective.Attheriskof

oversimplification,heisontothefactthatalargepartofthesuccessoftheThirdReichwas

bystanders.OfcoursenothingabouttheHolocaustisthatsimple,butaWieselshows,those

persecutedintheHolocaustfelttheperceivedorrealindifferenceofsocietydeeply.One

canbegintounderstandpossibleseedsthatwereplantedinthemindsofsurvivors-inthis

casetheseedis“noonecareswhetherIliveordie”.Furthermore,Wieselpointsoutthatat

theendofthewar,notonlyweresurvivorsreturningfromHellonEarth,buttheywere

returningtotheworldthathadturneditsbackontheirsuffering.Inthenovel,

Rosenbaum’sgolemsareanothersurvivorvoicethatbacksWiesel’sobservations.

Inthenovel,afterArielhasperformedthenecessaryKabbilistmagiconhergolem,

theghostsreturntoEarth,anditisimmediatelyapparentthattheyhaveaplananda

purposeinreturning.DuringtheirfirstappearancetheyarespeakingwithOliver,andtheir

answerstohisquestionsabouttheirpresencerevealtheirgoalsinnouncertainterms.The

ghostofPrimoLevisays,

Aswriterswereliedonwords,butasgolemsweknowthatsometimeswordsare

notenough…Wetriedtowarntheworldwhilewewerestillalive…perhapswecan

domorethistime,thisway.Thebloodiestcenturyisending,andanewoneis

beginning.Whoknowshowmuchmorebloodwillbelost.Theworldmustlearn

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howtolivewiththeHolocaustasitstepsintothefuture,otherwisetherewillbeno

future.Weknowthatmanhadafaultymemory,andacontinuousneedfornew

stimuli.InthenextfiftyyearsitisinevitablethattheHolocaustwillbedeemedless

importantthanitwasinthelast.Newhistoricaleventswilleventuallyovershadow

thisdarkcloud;otherstorieswillbecomemorenewsworthy.(Golems,81)

OnethingRosenbaumdoesnotdointhisnovelishidebehindhismetaphororconcealthe

meaningbehindit.Thegolemsarestraightforward,andleavenomysterybehindtheir

presenceandtheiractions.FromLevi’sexplanation,weseethatRosenbaumisgettingat

theheartofsurvivoranxietyandangerwithsociety.ThroughLevi’s,andthusRosenbaum’s

words,webegintoseethatthesecondgenerationhasalsoinheritedthisanxietyabout

forgetfulnessfromsurvivors,alongwiththehostofotheranxietiessurroundingthe

Holocaust.ThesecondgenerationunderstandsthattheworldforgetsabouttheHolocaust

atitsownperil.Ofcourse,membersofthesecondgenerationhavenochoicebutto

remembertheHolocaust.However,theyalsoknowthattheforceswhichallowedthe

Holocausttotakeplace,includingnationalism,politicalfanaticism,andblaminglarger

societalproblemsonan“other”arestillaliveandwell.Asthegolemsknow,theHolocaust,

andeventheirdeaths,havesomethingtoteachus.Ifwechoosetoignorethoselessons,

thenitwillonlymeanthatwhateverovershadowstheHolocaustwillmeanmoredeathand

persecution.

WithinmeredaysoftheirarrivalinManhattan,thegolemshavealreadystartedto

havetheirdesiredeffectonthecity.People’stattoosdisappearoffoftheirbodies,

cigarettesarenolongeravailableanywhere,thecity’spowercompanydecidestomove

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fromgastoallelectric,andshowerheadsmysteriouslywon’twork.Thegolemsaresetting

toworkmakingsurethatManhattanisalivewithJewishmorals.Atthesametime,Arielis

beginningtobecomenoticedandgainafollowingfortheKlezmermusicthatsheplays

outsideadelijustafewblocksfromherhome.Arielisn’tlookingforanyrecognition,she

simplydiscoveredhernewtalent,anditishelpinghergrandparentsintheirquesttofix

ManhattanandmakeitrecallthelostJewishcultureofEasternEurope.Butwhydidshe

evensummonthemthereinthefirstplace?Asshestatessimply“Iwantedtofixmyfather,

andthat’swhyIdidit”(Golems,19).Hermotivationswerepureandstraightforward.Ariel

knows,justasanymemberofthesecondgenerationknowsabouthisorherparents,that

theHolocausthas“kept[her]fatherindiapers”andstuntedhisemotionalgrowth(Golems,

34).Arielknowsthatbringinghergrandparentsbackmightfinallyallowherfatherto

moveonfromallofthetragedyhehashadtoendureinhislife.Thegolemswillhelphimby

notonlycuringhiswritersblockthroughallowinghimtotapintotheHolocaustasasource

forwritinghisnextnovel,butbychangingthecityhelivesinsothatitwillbereadyto

receivehisnovelabouttheHolocaust.

ArielrepresentstheotherexperimentatworkinTheGolemsofGotham.Sheisan

experimentbecauseRosenbaumisputtinghimselfintheshoesofamemberofthethird

generation.Althoughsheisthegranddaughterofsurvivors,itiscleartothereaderthatshe

isreallyanotheriterationofthesecondgeneration.Shehasaperfectunderstandingof

whatitmeanstobeinahouseholdovershadowedbytheHolocaust,andsheisaperfect

representationofwhatthesecondgenerationdoesnotwanttopassdown.Fora14year-

oldshecertainlyhasanastuteunderstandingoftheinnerworkingsofherfamily.She

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explainstothereader:“Somefamilyhistoriesaresobig,thefuturecan’tovershadowthe

past.Theclimaxandcrescendohasalreadyhappened,andnothingwilleverrateaslarge

again.TheHolocaustisthatwaywithus.It’snotinthepast.FormyfamilytheHolocaustis

alwayspresentandreal,eventhoughithappenedalongtimeago,eventhoughwenever

speakaboutit…”(Golems,42).Thenarratorevenremarksthatafterhermotherleft“What

wasleftwasasingleparenthomeandaninversionofresponsibilities.Ashiftinthe

parentalparadigm.Thekidwasincharge.Thefatherpaidthebills;thedaughterhandled

alloftheemotionaldepositsandwithdrawals”(Golems,87).SeeingthewaysthatAriel’s

experienceperfectlymirrorsthatofthesecondgenerationrevealsRosenbaum’sownself-

reflectionabouthowtheHolocaustaffectedhislifegrowingup.Arieltrulywantstofixher

father,andwillclearlygotogreatlengthstodoso.Thefactthatresurrectingthedeadand

thepastistheonlywayto“cure”herfathertellsusthatforRosenbaumthekeytomoving

intothefutureistosimultaneouslynotallowthepasttotakeoverthepresent,buttoalso

strivetounderstandthepastsothatthesecondgenerationcancompleteitsyears-long

mourning.Throughthegolems’takeoverofNewYorkCityandthewaythattheentire

publicbecomesconsciousoftheHolocaustinthenovel,wecanseethatRosenbaum

believesitisimperativeforsocietyasawholetorememberwhathappenedover70years

ago.TheresurrectedsurvivorswanttheworldtoremembertheHolocaustandtocare

aboutsurvivors’stories.Therefore,itfollowsthatifmorepeopleshouldbeconcerned

abouttheShoah,thenmorepeopleshouldbestudyingandwritingabouttheShoah.There

isnoonebetterto“givepermission”torepresentthecampsandtheHolocaust,thanthose

whoknowtheexperiencemostintimately.

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TheQuestionofRepresentation

RepresentationoftheSecondGenerationbyNonmembers

IreneKacandes

IreneKacandesprovidesanexampleofsuccessinsharingtheresponsibilityof

rememberingwitheveryoneiii.InDaddy’sWar,Kacandesexplainsthatthegreatdifficulties

thatherfatherexperiencedduringhistimeinWWIIGreeceprofoundlyaffectedhimforthe

restofhislife,andinturnhadanenormousimpactonherlifeaswell.WhatKacandes

describesinherbookisextremelysimilartowhatmanysecondgenerationchildren

describeregardinggrowingupwithHolocaustsurvivorsforparents.Sheknewacoupleof

anecdotes/detailsbyheart,butmostlyjustknewthatwhathadhappenedwastoopainful

forherfathertotalkabout.KacandesgrewtohaveanextremeinterestintheHolocaust

andhasdedicatedagreatdealofherprofessionalcareerasanacademictotheHolocaust.

Asshegotolder,shefeltthatitwastimetolookintoherfamilyhistory.

Whileresearchingherfather’spast,shelearnedthathewasmistakenforaJewand

deportedtoatransportcampinUkraineforaperiodoftimebeforebeingrescued.

Althoughthisseemedtoexplainagreatdealaboutherfatherandherinterestinthe

Holocaust,Kacandesnevercouldverify100%ofthefactsherfathergavetoher.Therefore,

shecannotsaywithcertaintywhetherherfatherisactuallyasurvivoroftheHolocaust.

However,muchofherbookisrelevantandhelpfulinunderstandingthesecondgeneration.

Forinstance,Kacandesstandsupforthesecondgeneration,arguingthat

ChildrenofHolocaustsurvivorswhowerebornafterthewardonot“remember”being

inAuschwitzorinhidingorlivingunderanassumedidentityorwatchingtheirrelatives

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andfriendsbeingraped,tortured,ormurdered,thoughtheymayhavefantasiesor

nightmaresaboutsuchexperiences.Remembranceofthatfantasizingordreaming,in

contrast,isas“real”asanyothermemorywemightconserve…Becausesomeofthese

individualsaretalentedwithwords,theyhavebeenabletodescribeforustheir

memoriesofthoseexperiences[inthepost-Holocaust]andothermemoriesperhaps

moreinchoateandlesstraceabletospecificevents(Daddy’sWar,246-47).

SheisaGreekAmerican,andnooneinherfamilyisapracticingJew.Shecannotevensay

forsurethatshehaspersonaltiestotheHolocaust,andyetshechosetobeavoicetelling

theworldaboutit.Tomyknowledge,noonehasquestionedherabilityorauthorityto

writeabouttheHolocaust,thoughsheisnottechnicallypartofthesecondorthird

generation.SheisabeaconforthefutureofbearingwitnesstotheShoah.Notjustthe

childrenandgrandchildrenofsurvivors,ortheirJewishpeersshouldfeeltheburdenof

bearingwitnessandpassingonthememoryoftheHolocaust.

Conclusion

Asthesurvivorpopulationcontinuestodisappearmoreandmorerapidly,theneed

topassontheirmemoriesandbearwitnesstothehorrorsthattheyenduredisbecoming

evenmorepressing.Withgrowingdistancefromtheeventscomesagrowingneedtoallow

thosewhoarenotsurvivorstoexploreandwriteabouttheeventsoftheHolocaust.Alltoo

soon,thiswillbetheonlywaythattheHolocaustcanberepresentedinnewways.The

questioninevitablyarisesthen:towhomdoestheHolocaustbelong?Whohasthemoral

authoritytowriteaboutandrepresenttheHolocaust?Thishasbeendebatedamong

membersofthesurvivorgenerationaswellassubsequentgenerationsforanumberof

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years.Aswehavepreviouslyseen,eventhetouchstonesofthesecondgenerationquestion

theirauthoritytorepresenttheHolocaust.Thisisnotaneasyquestiontoanswer,andit

willneverbe.However,Ithinkthatinthiscaseweneedtotaketheleadfromsurvivorslike

thelateElieWiesel.Hehasspokenaboutthenextgeneration’sresponsibilitytobearthe

burdenofmemoryandthetransmissionofthatmemory,asdemonstratedintheepigraph

above.InhisforewordtoAlanBerger’sbookChildrenofJob,WieselpraisesBerger’s

treatmentofthesubjectandgivessupportfortheendeavorhehasundertaken.Takingthis

further,Ibelievethatasthesecondgenerationstartstoageaswell,itisbeginningtobe

timetosharetheauthoritytowriteabouttheHolocaustwiththosewhodonothavea

directconnectiontotheeventsorthosewhosurvivedthem.Consideringthesuccessof

someonelikeKacandeswritingabouttheHolocaust,Ithinkthatproperrepresentationcan

beachievedbysomeonewhowantstoparticipateinbearingwitness.

If,aseveryonesays,fullandcompleterepresentationofthecampsandoftheShoah

isimpossible,thennoone’sattemptatrepresentingitwillbeperfect,evenasurvivor’s.

Takingthisatfacevalue,doesn’titmakesense,then,toallowmorepeoplethechanceto

contributetobearingwitness?IfwearguethatpassingonthememoryoftheHolocaustis

importantforallhumanity,theneveryhumanneedstofeeltheyheorshecanplaytheir

partindoingso,shouldtheychoosetoacceptthechallenge.Istilldon’treallyknowwhereI

exactlyIstandonthis.Perhapstheactualcampexperienceshouldbelefttothesurvivors,

becausetheyaretheonlyoneswhocantrulyknowwhatitwasliketoliveunfathomable

horrors.However,Ialsothinkthatitshouldbeokayforothers,especiallysurvivor’s

childrentorepresenttheirexperienceastheytellit.Aswehaveseen,manychildrenof

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survivorschoosetopublishworksthatfocusinpart,orentirelyontheirparents’

experienceinthecamps.Itappearsthatknowingtheinformationandimmortalizingitso

thattheirmemorylivesongivesthesecondgenerationatypeofclosure.Seeingtheir

parentsfinallyconfronttheirpastenoughtogivethewholestory(orasmuchastheycan),

givessecond-generationwriterstheabilitytoconfronttheirownfeelingsaboutgrowingup

asa“childoftheHolocaust”(Hoffman,10).Butarechildrenornowgrandchildrenof

survivorstheonlyoneswhohavetherighttowriteabouttheHolocaust?

Ibelievewearenowreachingacrossroads.Perhapsitistimetorelinquishthe

authoritytowriteabouttheHolocausttoothers.Becauseofthenatureoftheeventsofthe

Holocaust,writerswillnaturallytakegreatpainstoensurethattheyareproperlyand

appropriatelyrepresentingthesubject.If,asmostauthorsseemtobeindicatingintheir

work,morepeopleneedtobeconcernedabouttheHolocaustandpreservingitsmemory,

thenmorepeopleneedtofeeltheyhavethemoralauthoritytowriteaboutit.Bookssuch

asSarah’sKey,TheBoyintheStripedPajamas,TheBookThief,andevenThePawnbroker,

thefirstHolocaustnoveleverwritten,areallbeautifulrepresentationsofdifferentfictional

experiencesinvolvingtheNazigenocideinoneformoranother.Yet,noneoftheauthors

aresurvivors,childrenorgrandchildrenofsurvivors.Workssuchasthese,aswellasthe

plethoraofnovels,memoirs,poetry,etc.producedbythesecondgenerationofsurvivors

maketheHolocaustmoreaccessibletosociety.Inonewayoranother,whetherpurposeful

oraccidental,allsecondgenerationHolocaustliteratureiscallingforasharingofthe

burden.Thesecondgenerationrealizesthatnoonepersoncandealwiththehorrorsofthe

Holocaustalone.Bysharingtheirexperience,andtheexperienceoftheirparents,the

Mill38

secondgenerationiscallingontherestofsocietytopickuptheslack.ArtSpiegelman’s

subtitleforthefirstvolumeofMaus,“MyFatherBleedsHistory”isalltoofittingiv.The

survivorgenerationsustainedunhealablewounds,woundssodeepandlastingthatthey

bledontothesecondgeneration.Tryastheymight,theycouldnotstaunchtheflowof

bloodontheirown,thoughtheyfeltthattheymusttry.Itiseveryone’scollective

responsibilitytorememberwhathappened,andtokeepthememoryalivebybearing

witnessandpassingitontothenextgeneration.Ifeeltheobligation,notasaChristianor

religiousperson,notasawoman,norasascholar,butasahumanbeing.Ifweallowthe

storiesofsurvivorsandtheirchildrentocollectdustonshelvesandpassbyunnoticed,and

theeventsoftheHolocausttowritethemselvesintohistoryasanotherexampletoprove

thecliché“Historyoftenrepeatsitself”true,thenwehumanshavefailed.ThisiswhyI

believethatitisimportanttopromoteacontinuedstudyofthewaysthatthoseconnected

totheHolocaustrepresenttheunimaginableexperienceoftheirparents,andtheir

experiencewiththepost-Holocaustworld.Carvingapermanentandimportantplacefor

theHolocaustinthelandscapeofcollectivememoryissomethingIbelievetobeimperative

forallhumans,fornoonepersonshouldfeeltheweightofsuchmemoriesalone.

Mill39

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Berger,AlanL.ChildrenofJob.Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1997.Print. Bolhafner,J.Stephen,InterviewwithArtSpiegelman,“ArtforArt’sSake”.ComicsJournal,

145.1991Bukiet,MelvinJ.NothingMakesYouFree.NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,Inc.2002.

Print. Daneli,Yaeletal.“TheIsraeliResearchPerspective”.IntergenerationalHandbookof

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Epstein,Helen.“HeirsoftheHolocaust”.TheNewYorkTimesJune19,1977:

helenepstein.com.Web.Oct15,2016.Felsen,Irit.“TransgenerationalTransmissionofEffectsoftheHolocaust”.Intergenerational

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York:PublicAffairs,2004.Print. Kacandes,Irene.Daddy’sWar.Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2009.Print. Liss,Andrea.TrespassingthroughShadows:Memory,Photography,andtheHolocaust.

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Mill41

i“Responsible”representationoftheHolocaustmeansmanydifferentthings.Therehavebeencasesofwriterspretendingtobepartofthesurvivorgeneration,whichcausesgreatcontroversyandcallsintoquestiontheethicsregardingwhocanwriteabouttheHolocaust.Someothers,likeBukiethavenoticedthataproliferationofnovelsrefertotheHolocaustordealwithitinsomeway.However,beingtakenseriouslyandproducingaworkthatwillcontributetotheunderstandingofthesurvivorexperienceissomethingthattakesmanyyears,andmuchresearch.DealingwiththeHolocaust,especiallytheexperienceinthecampsissomethingthatcanbedonebythosewithouthavinggrownupinasurvivorhousehold,butitmeanstakinggreatcaretolearnasmuchaspossibleabouttheproperwaystoapproachthesubject.Thismeansusingcompassion,empathy,andtruthatalltimeswhenwritingaboutorrepresentingtheHolocaust.Althoughitisn’tveryintellectual,partofwhatresponsiblerepresentationcomesdowntoisfeelingaconnectiontotheplaceandthepeople,andhavinganhonestreasonforapproachingandrepresentingtheHolocaustinliterature.iiFormoreinformationonthemethodsandtypesofstudiesconducted,seeAuerhan&Laub(1998),Daneli(1984),Felsen(1998),Starman(2006),GiladiandBell(2012),WeissandWeiss2000,andSoloman(1998).Eachofthesealsohascountlessreferencestoclinicalstudiesfromtheearly1970s.iiiDuetoconstraintsontime,IwasunabletomentionotherauthorswhosewritingalsodemonstratestheabilityofotherstobeautifullyandaccuratelyrepresenttheHolocaust.OnesuchauthorisCynthiaOzick,authorofachillingshortstoryentitled“TheShawl”.ThoughOzickisJewish,sheisnotamemberofthesecondgeneration.Yet,herstoryiscaptivating,holdingemotionaltruththatcannotbedenied.AnotherauthorwhoseworkdeservestobementionedisPascalCroci.HisgraphicnovelAuschwitzisoneofthemostchillinggraphicrepresentationsofthecampsthatIhaveseen.HisBurtoneqsuestyleofdrawingcapturesthereaderandshowsvividlythelossofhumanityintheconcentrationcamps.ivSpiegelman’suseofthemetaphorofbleedingistruthfulandtelling.Manyauthors,suchasEvaHoffman,AaronHaas,andevenThaneRosenbaumallattemptintheirownwaytoexplainthattheirparentswerewounded,thoughonecouldnotseeanythingfromtheoutside.Thisvisceralimageofbleedinghistoryfitswellwiththecommonsentimentthatsurvivorsarelivinghistory,andthattheyareproductsofthebloodshedoftheHolocaust.Rosenbaumusessimilarmethodsinhisfictiontodescribethisphenomenonaswell,withthisconceptshowingitselfinallthreeofthenovelsmentioned.