STEM-ED Genetics pathway · traits. Genes provide instructions for producing specific proteins. CfE...
Transcript of STEM-ED Genetics pathway · traits. Genes provide instructions for producing specific proteins. CfE...
LE
VE
LL
EV
EL
d1
Reproduction and Inheritance
Living things produce offspringof the sam
e species.CfE links - H
WB 0-47a, M
NU
0-20b,LIT 0-04a
Reproduction and InheritanceIn m
any cases offspring are not identicalw
ith each other or with their parents but
have similarities.
CfE links - SCN 1 -14a, M
TH 1-15a, M
NU
1 - 20b, MTH
1 - 21a, LIT 1 - 10a
Reproduction and InheritanceSom
e traits are solely inherited and othersresult from
interactions with the
environment.
CfE links - SCN 2-14b, SCN
2-03a, MN
U2-20b, M
NU
2-22a, HW
B 2-30a, HW
B 2-32a, SCN
2-14a, LIT 2-26a.
Genetics and Inheritance
Genetic Inform
ation is passed down from
onegeneration of organism
s to another
Key Themes:
DN
AG
enesInherited Characteristics
ReproductionTechnological Advances
Genetic inform
ation in a cell is held in the chemical
molecule D
NA in the form
of a genetic code. Genes
determine the developm
ent and structure oforganism
s. In asexual reproduction all the genes inthe offspring com
e from one parent. In sexual
reproduction one full set of the genes come from
each parent
&E
AR
LY
FIR
ST
S
EC
ON
D&
EA
RL
YF
IRS
T
SE
CO
ND
&L
EV
EL
LE
VE
L
LE
VE
L
d2
Reproduction and InheritanceH
ereditary information is contained
in genes which are passed from
parentto offspring during reproduction.
CfE links - SCN 4-14c
Technology and Genetics
Before individual genes on DN
A could be identifiedresearchers studied organism
s to assess the relativeinfluences of genes and the environm
ent. Advancesin technology have increased the reliability of theinform
ation obtained and the amount and type of
information that can be gathered and analysed.CfE links - SCN
4 -14c, SCN 4 - 20a
TCH 4 - 01a, M
NU
4 - 22a, SOC 4 - 05a, H
WB 4 -
15a, HW
B 4 - 16a, LIT 4 - 06a
Reproduction and InheritanceD
uring sexual reproduction one set of thegenetic m
aterial is inherited from the egg
cell of one parent and one set from the
sperm cell of the other parent, w
hereas inasexual reproduction all the genetic
information is inherited from
one parent.CfE links - SCN
4-14b
Molecular G
eneticsG
enes are specific nucleotide sequences, locatedalong D
NA m
olecules, that determine particular
traits. Genes provide instructions for producing
specific proteins. CfE links - SCN 4-14c
Reproduction and InheritanceFor offspring to inherit traits there m
ust be areliable m
echanism for transferring genetic
information from
one generation to the next.CfE links - SCN
3-14a
Molecular G
eneticsThe instructions for specifying the characteristicsof an organism
are carried in a molecule called
DN
A (deoxyribonucleic acid). All organisms use
the same genetic language for their instructions.
CfE links - SCN 3-14b
Technology and Genetics
The uniqueness of the DN
A structure makes
it possible for scientists to create a profile ofan individual's D
NA and use it as a m
eans ofpersonal identification. D
NA analysis opens
up the potential to know m
ore and more
about individuals.CfE links - SCN
3-14b, SCN 3-12b, TCH
3-01a,SO
C 3-15a, LIT 3-08a, LIT 3-06a, MN
U 3-22a,
MN
U 3-20a, SCN
3-20a, SCN 3-20b
TH
IRD
&F
OU
RT
HT
HIR
D&
FO
UR
TH
LE
VE
L
NATIO
NAL 4 & 5
NATIO
NAL 4 & 5
d3
Reproduction and InheritanceThere are patterns of correlation betw
eenalternative form
s of the same gene and the
traits observed in offspring. The probabilityof offspring inheriting certain traits can bepredicted if it is know
n which form
s of thegenes both parents have.
Reproduction and InheritanceIn sexual reproduction the inheritance of different types ofalleles of the sam
e gene affects the traits observed in offspring.Som
e alleles are dominant, w
hile others are recessive andrem
ain masked unless the tw
o inherited alleles are identical.
Technology and Genetics
Advances in technology make it possible to alter the
genetic makeup and create organism
s by DN
Am
anipulation, rather than using the traditional method
of breeding species for particular characteristics.
Molecular G
eneticsAlternative form
s of the same gene
are known as alleles and an individual
inherits two alleles for each gene, one
from each parent.
Molecular G
eneticsThe m
ajority of an organism's DN
Ais located in the nucleus of an
organism's cells in a packaged form
called a chromosom
e. DN
A isunpackaged and the m
oleculeunw
inds so that it can bereplicated during cell division andw
hen its instructions are requiredfor the production of proteins.
CfE links - SCN 4-14c
Reproduction and InheritanceM
any features of human heredity are explained by the fact that hum
an cellscontain tw
o copies of each chromosom
e (one inherited from each parent) and
therefore two copies of each gene. D
uring cell division the paired chromosom
esare duplicated and tw
o new cells form
ed with paired chrom
osomes identical to
the original cell. When gam
ete cells (mature sexual reproductive cells, such as a
sperm or egg) are produced the replicated paired chrom
osomes are selected at
random, sorted into tw
o single sets and each set allocated to a new gam
ete.
NA
TIO
NA
L 6
& 7
NA
TIO
NA
L 6
& 7
d4
Reproduction and InheritanceD
uring the production of the sex cells theselection of chrom
osomes at random
and onoccasion, chrom
osome m
utations andabnorm
alities, create genetic variation.
Molecular G
eneticsChanges to genes (m
utations) and the cellenvironm
ent (e.g. toxins) can alter thestructure and function of proteins producedby cells, and can change how
an organismlooks and functions (phenotype). Som
echanges can be neutral, som
e beneficialand others harm
ful to the organism.
Molecular G
eneticsProteins are the central elem
ents thatm
ediate genetic effects and connect genesto traits. Protein interactions at the m
olecularand cellular level result in the patternsobserved at the m
acro level. The overallstructure and properties of the protein,determ
ined by the amino acid sequence,
affords and constrains its function.
Reproduction and InheritanceThe inheritance of traits is often com
plex and canbe determ
ined by one or many genes, and a single
gene can influence more than one trait.
Understanding the patterns of correlation betw
eeninherited alleles m
akes it possible to: grouppopulations into distinct categories, predict traits
in offspring and trace heredity.
Technology and Genetics
Advances in technology develop and expand ourunderstanding of genetic phenom
ena and thisenhanced understanding often leads to further
technological advances and new technologies. The
developments and new
technologies in geneticshave an im
pact on society requiring citizens to make
informed choices.
Molecular G
eneticsG
enes work by coding for proteins. The sequence
of nucleotides on the gene is translated intothe sequence of am
ino acids in the specificprotein encoded by the gene. Protein productionis regulated and a variety of proteins can be
produced from the sam
e gene.
Molecular G
eneticsThe genom
e is the complete D
NA sequence
of the organism's nuclear D
NA. An im
portantproperty of D
NA is that it can replicate itself
making it possible for each cell to have exactly
the same D
NA. Variation in D
NA can serve as
a way to identify individuals and species, and
can provide information on evolutionary
relationships and origins.
Genetics and InheritanceG
enetic information is passed dow
n from one
generation of organisms to another
Key themes:
•DN
A
•G
enes
•Inherited Characteristics
•Reproduction
•Technological Advances
Broad overview of the progression in Genetics and Inheritance
Storyline
Genetic inform
ation in a cell is held in the chemical m
olecule DN
A in the
form of a genetic code. G
enes determine the developm
ent and structure
of organisms. In asexual reproduction all the genes in the offspring com
e
from one parent. In sexual reproduction one full set of the genes com
e
from each parent.
Living things produce offspring of the same species, but in m
any cases
offspring are not identical with each other or w
ith their parents. Plants and
animals, including hum
ans, resemble their parents in m
any features because
information is passed from
one generation to the next. Other features, such
as skills and some behaviours, are not passed on in the sam
e way and have
to be learned.
The information that is passed betw
een generations is in the form of a code
represented in the way that the parts of a large m
olecule called DNA are put
together. A gene is a length of DNA; and hundreds or thousands of genes are
carried on a single chromosom
e (packaged DNA in cells). In the hum
an body
most cells contain 23 pairs of chrom
osomes w
ith a total of about twenty
five thousand genes. These provide the information that is needed to m
ake
more cells in grow
th and reproduction.
When a cell divides as in the process of grow
th and replacement of dead
cells, this genetic information is copied so that each new
cell carries a replica
of the DNA of the parent cell. Som
etimes an error occurs in replication,
causing a mutation, w
hich may or m
ay not be damaging to the organism
.
Changes in genes can be caused by environmental conditions, such as radiation
and chemicals. These changes can affect the individual but only affect the
offspring if they occur in sex (sperm or egg) cells.
1
Molecular
Genetics
Reproductionand
Inheritance
Technologyand
Genetics
Glossary of terms
Asexual reproduction - the formation of offspring from
the cell(s) of a single
parent.
Allele - an alternative form of a gene.
Base pair - two com
plementary DN
A nucleotide bases from opposite strands
of the DN
A molecule that pair up to produce the double helix structure
(with the base pairs form
ing the rungs on the spiral ladder like structure).
Biotechnology - the industrial use of living cells, usually microorganism
s,
or of their isolated enzymes.
Chromosom
e - a single piece of coiled DN
A packaged into a large thread-
like structure that is found in cells. Hum
ans have 46 chromosom
es (23
pairs inherited from each parent).
Cloning - the growth of identical cells from
a single cell or the development
of an animal or plant from
a single body cell.
Differentiation (differentiate) - the increasing specialisation of organisation
of the different parts of an embryo as a m
ulticellular organism develops;
the development of cells w
ith specialised structure and function from
unspecialised precursor cells.
DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid, the large m
olecule that carries genetic
information as a set of coded instructions. It is m
ade up of two entw
ined
strings (the double helix) of nucleotide subunits that contain the bases
(chemical m
olecules): A - adenine, T - thymine, G
- guanine and C – cytosine.
Fertilisation (fertilised) - the union of male and fem
ale gametes (e.g. sperm
and egg cells) to form a cell w
ith two sets of chrom
osomes.
Gam
ete (sex cell) - a reproductive cell (e.g. sperm or egg cell) w
ith one set
of chromosom
es.
In sexual reproduction, a sperm cell from
a male unites w
ith an egg cell from
a female. Sperm
and egg cells are specialised cells each of which has one
of the two versions of each gene carried by the parent, selected at random
.
When a sperm
and egg cell combine one full set of genes in the fertilised
egg is from the sperm
cell and one full set is from the egg cell. As the
fertilised egg divides time and tim
e again this genetic material is replicated
in each new cell. The sorting and recom
bining of genetic material (the process
in which DN
A is exchanged between chrom
osomes that contain the sam
e
sequence of genes) when egg and sperm
cells are formed and then fuse
results in an imm
ense variety of possible combinations of genes, and in
differences that can be inherited from one generation to another. These
variations provide the potential for natural selection, because some variations
result in organisms being better adapted to certain environm
ental conditions.
Asexual reproduction, which occurs naturally in a w
ide range of organisms
including bacteria, insects and plants, leads to populations with identical
genetic material unless a m
utation occurs. Biotechnology has made possible
the production of genetically identical organisms through artificial cloning
in a range of species including mam
mals.
More is being learned all the tim
e about genetic information by m
apping
the genomes (the com
plete genetic information of an organism
) of different
kinds of organisms. W
hen the sequences of genes are known, the genes that
give organisms certain characteristics can be identified and it is possible to
selectively change genetic information to produce desired features. In gene
therapy studies specific genes can be delivered using special techniques into
cells to replace, swap or repair the 'norm
al' gene and potentially cure diseases.
[Adapted from Principles and Big Ideas in Science edited by W
ynne Harlen]
2
Protein - a large molecule com
posed of amino acids (m
olecules that contain
both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups) that perform
s a specialised
job in the cell and is specified by a gene.
RNA - ribonucleic acid, the large linear m
olecule which is m
ade up of a
single chain of nucleotide subunits that contain the bases: A - adenine,
U - uracil, G
- guanine and C - cytosine.
Radiation - energy radiated in waves or particles e.g. electrom
agnetic
radiation or emissions from
radioactive sources.
Replication - the process in which an entity m
akes a copy of itself.
Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) - occur w
hen a pattern of two or m
ore
nucleotides are repeated and the repeated sequences are directly adjacent
to each other on the DN
A molecule. The pattern can range in length from
2 to 50 base pairs. They are independent of genes and can not be used to
identify genes, e.g. eye colour.
Sex marker - a portion of a gene that occurs on both the X and Y-
chromosom
e that is used to identify gender.
Sexual reproduction - reproduction involving the formation and fusion of
two different types of reproductive cell (e.g. sperm
and egg).
Species - in sexually reproducing organisms a group of interbreeding
individuals not normally able to interbreed w
ith other such groups.
Trait - a distinct visible or otherwise m
easurable physical or biochemical
characteristic, which m
ay be either heritable or environmentally determ
ined
or both.
Gene - the fundam
ental unit of inheritance. Genes are sequences of
chemical units (bases) on the D
NA m
olecule found at specific locationsand m
ost contain information for m
aking proteins.
Genetic code - the order of the chem
ical units (nucleotide bases) of theD
NA m
olecule determines the order of the chem
ical units of the proteins(am
ino acids). There are 64 three-letter 'words' in the code.
Genome - the com
plete genetic information of an organism
found in nearlyevery type of cell.
Molecule - m
ade up of atoms held together by chem
ical bonds, a molecule
is the smallest particle in a chem
ical element or com
pound that has thechem
ical properties of that element or com
pound.
Mutation - a change in the am
ount or the structure (sequence of nucleotides)of DN
A of an organism. M
utations can have a positive, negative or neutraleffect.
Nucleus - the area of the cell w
ere almost all D
NA is found. Its function
is essential to the survival of the cell.
Nucleotide - a sm
all molecule that joins w
ith other nucleotides to formchains of nucleotides called nucleic acids (such as RN
A and DN
A). Eachnucleotide is com
posed of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group and a base.
Nucleotide Base - the structural unit of a nucleic acid that m
ay be involvedin pairing (see base pairs); the m
ajor nucleotide bases in DNA are adenine
(A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thym
ine (T), and in RNA uracil (U
) replacesthym
ine.
Organism
- any living thing.
PCR (polymerase chain reaction) - technique for selectively replicating a
particular section of DN
A (in a laboratory vessel or other controlledexperim
ental environment) to produce a large am
ount of a particular DNA
sequence.3
Question:
Are we, and other organism
s, alike in every way?
Big Idea: Offspring resem
ble their parents and the characteristics that distinguish them can be described in term
s of a com
bination of traits.
4
The story begins in the early years by observing and comparing the offspring
of familiar anim
als, to one another and their parents. All animals have offspring,
usually with tw
o parents involved. When anim
als and plants reproduce sexually they produce offspring of their own type w
hichare sim
ilar, but not exactly the same (e.g. kittens in a litter w
ill usually have different markings). Exploring the likenesses and
differences between offspring and their parents reveals traits (characteristics that distinguish individuals and plants from
another)in anim
als and plants e.g. hair, eye and flower colour, and height.
Reproduction and Inheritance:Living things produce offspring
of the same species.
HW
B 0-47aM
NU 0-20b LIT 0-04a
Big Ideas & CfE Experiences &
Outcom
esI recognise that w
e havesim
ilarities and differences butare all unique. H
WB 0-47a
I can match objects, and sort
using my ow
n and others'criteria, sharing m
y ideas with others. M
NU 0-20b
I listen or watch for useful or interesting inform
ation and I use this to m
ake choices or learn new things. LIT 0-04a
By comparing generations of fam
ilies of humans, plants and anim
als, I can begin tounderstand how
characteristics are inherited. SCN 1-14a
I can compare, describe and show
number relationships, using appropriate vocabulary and
the symbols for equals, not equal to, less than and greater than. M
TH 1-15a
I have used a range of ways to collect inform
ation and can sort it in a logical, organisedand im
aginative way using m
y own and others' criteria. M
NU 1-20b
Using technology and other methods, I can
display data simply, clearly and accurately by
creating tables, charts and diagrams, using
simple labelling and scale. M
TH 1-21a
I can comm
unicate clearly when engaging w
ithothers w
ithin and beyond my place of learning,
using selected resources 1 as required. LIT 1-10a
i.There is a tendency to focus m
ore on the differences between individuals and som
etimes the sim
ilarities areneglected.
ii.Young people m
ay think that they inherit physical traits from other fam
ily mem
bers e.g. aunts, uncles, cousins and siblings because people often pointout resem
blances among relatives.
iii.Young people m
ay not recognise plants as living things.iv.
Young people often see the '=' symbol as an instruction to com
plete an operation. It is not always appreciated that the '=' sym
bol signifies 'the same as',
but not necessarily 'identical to'. It is not a request to do something and sim
ply states the situation. Emphasis should be put on the equivalence aspect of
the '=' symbol by using phrases such as 'is the sam
e as' or 'gives the same result as' in preference to 'm
akes' or 'leaves'.
Reproduction and Inheritance
Comm
on Misconceptions
Reproduction and Inheritance:In m
any cases offspring are not identicalw
ith each other or with their parents
but have similarities.
SCN 1-14a M
TH 1-15a
MN
U 1-20b MTH
1-21a LIT 1 10-a
Early p
rog
ressing
Early p
rog
ressing
into
First Level
1 This may include im
ages, objects, audio, visual or digital resources.
5
Curriculum Links, Skills and Interdisciplinary Learning O
pportunities•
Gathering inform
ation through observation and seeking patterns
•Evaluating by identifying and m
atching
•U
nderstanding by describing
•Com
municating in the activities and through discussion
Matching living things and their offspring, for exam
ple through structured play with m
odel representations or picture sortingactivities, and then observing the sim
ilarities and differences between them
. Observing the early stages of developm
ent andusing the differences betw
een the offspring to distinguish them e.g. follow
ing a litter of animals from
birth (for example using
the Scottish Sealife Centre webcam
s) or the growth of seeds from
parent plants. Fingerprinting, matching and sorting seeds
from different species of plants 2 and anim
als with their offspring, and draw
ing portraits/taking photographs of humans and
other animals and observing the sim
ilarities and differences. Activities at early level will be m
ore experiential and as young people move into first level they
should progress from describing to sorting and selecting based on criteria.
•G
athering information through observation, seeking patterns and exploration
•Evaluating by com
paring and classifying
•U
nderstanding by selecting, describing and sorting based on criteria
•Creating through m
aking
•Com
municating through discussion and displaying findings
Identifying similarities and differences (e.g. height, flow
er or eye colour, no. of leaves and leaf shape, ability to roll tongue, etc) between offspring from
thesam
e parents and with their parents (need to be cautious if children are com
paring themselves w
ith their parents and siblings), for example construct a fam
ilytree using pictures from
famous fam
ilies that go back a couple of generations (e.g. film stars and royalty), or produce then play a gam
e of 'Happy Fam
ilies'.Classifying the sim
ilarities and differences using the phrases 'is the same as' and 'is not the sam
e as' as well as the sym
bols '=' or '' and describing m
easurableattributes such as 'bigger' or 'sm
aller', 'more' or 'less', etc. O
ther activities could involve: the children producing a life size portrait of themselves, discussing
the similarities and differences betw
een them then using them
to create graphs (e.g. attach the pictures to a wall from
tallest to smallest to create a graph,
measure the height of the pictures w
ith blocks and colour in squares on graph paper to represent the number of blocks/height); displaying annotated
photographs of the growth process, from
seed to plant 2; using computer graphing packages and producing sim
ple tables of the similarities and differences
e.g. eye and hair colour; and creating groups for classifying objects and comm
unicating the justification for the choice of group clearly e.g. leaf shape orseed colour. Young people should be encouraged to verbalise w
hat they are doing and did in the activities.
2 http://ww
w.bbsrc.ac.uk/society/schools/keystage1-2/seeds-plant-grow
th.aspx
6
Introducing ideas about Science•
people learn about the world through careful observation
•som
etimes m
ore can be learned by people doing something and noting w
hat happens•
similar patterns are found in m
any places in nature•
it is important to describe things as accurately as possible because it enables people to com
pare their findings•
one way to describe som
ething is to say how it com
pares (is like/different) to something else
•w
hen people give different descriptions of the same thing, it is a good idea to m
ake fresh observations and see what the sim
ilarities and differences are•
people are more likely to believe ideas if there are reasons for them
•often people can find out about a group of things by studying just a few
of them
Learning Outcom
es and Assesment O
pportunities
Question:
Why are w
e, and other organisms, sim
ilar to our parents and siblings, but not identical?Big Idea:
Some traits are solely inherited and others result from
interactions with the environm
ent.
7
No individual organism
lives forever and reproduction is essential to thecontinuation of every species. Som
e traits in offspring are inherited fromtheir parents during reproduction - received by transm
ission from one generation to another such as physical traits e.g.
cleft chin, cheek dimples, free or attached earlobes, rolling your tongue and freckles, and som
e behaviours. Inheritedbehaviours are tendencies and offspring inherit the possibility (or predisposition) to exhibit that behaviour. O
ther traits areenvironm
ental - usually skills and behaviours that are acquired by experience in the organism's lifetim
e and make it
compatible w
ith its environmental and survival needs, for exam
ple, babies and toddlers are vulnerable to hazardous obstaclesbecause the instinct to avoid pain and injuries is a skill learned during infancy.There are sim
ilarities and differences between offspring and it is the com
bination of inherited and environmental traits that m
ake each individual unique.Environm
ental traits are not transferred genetically from one generation to another.
Behaviour in insects and many other species is determ
ined almost entirely by biological inheritance. Research suggests that in
humans only a sm
all amount of a person's 'm
ake-up' is purely down to genetics or to the environm
ent, and it is mostly dow
nto a com
plex combination of genes and the environm
ent (of nature and nurture). Scientists can now look at the com
plete geneticinform
ation of organisms (their genom
e) to discover the influence of genetics and the effect of the environment on traits.
Certain traits are easy to see, for example, curly hair or straight hair, w
hile other traits are more difficult to observe, for exam
ple,w
hether you have allergies or not (although it may be easy to conduct tests to find out).
Reproduction and Inheritance
Seco
nd
Level
Reproduction and Inheritance:Som
e traits are solely inherited and others resultfrom
interactions with the environm
ent.SCN
2-14b SCN 2-03a M
NU 2-20b M
NU 2-22a
HW
B 2-30a HW
B 2-32a SCN 2-14a LIT 2-26a
By exploring the characteristics offspring inherit when living things reproduce, I can distinguish betw
eeninherited and non-inherited characteristics. SCN
2-14bI have collaborated in the design of an investigation into the effects of fertilisers on the grow
th of plants. I can express an inform
ed view of the risks and benefits of their use. SCN
2-03aI have carried out investigations and surveys, devising and using a variety of m
ethods to gather information and have w
orked with others to collate, organise and
comm
unicate the results in an appropriate way. M
NU 2-20b
Comm
on Misconceptions
i.Young people assum
e that nearly all characteristics are inherited genetically. There is no recognition that som
e characteristics are inherited, some a result of environm
ental conditions and others a combination
of both environmental conditions and genetics.
Big Ideas & Curriculum
for Excellence Experiences & O
utcomes
CO
NTIN
UE
D O
N P
AG
E 8
8
Curriculum Links, Skills and Interdisciplinary Learning O
pportunities•
Gathering inform
ation through observation, asking questions and social interaction•
Applying knowledge to different contexts
•Evaluating by selecting and classifying
•U
nderstanding by selecting and explaining•
Comm
unicating through creating texts, discussion and displaying findingsIdentifying and differentiating betw
een inherited and environmental traits, for exam
ple: looking at the effect of the environment (dark, different soils, etc.)
has on growing seeds from
the same plants; using activities (e.g. creating 'handy' fam
ily trees 3 with inherited physical characteristics on the fingers of one
handprint and environmental traits on the fingers of the other) to explore the traits of individuals and to find out the things that m
ake them unique;
investigating the traditions and characteristics of different ethnic groups; examining how
lifestyle and diet can affect traits (e.g. smoking and m
alnutritionin pregnancy can result in babies born w
ith lower birth w
eights and smaller organs, and unhealthy eating as w
ell as lack of physical activity is contributingto the rising level of obesity in the U
K); and creating Reebops 4 and writing about their characteristics (inherited and environm
ental). During these activitiesthere w
ill be opportunities to look at chance and the probability of exhibiting certain traits (e.g. play traits games 3 and find out w
hich traits are the most
comm
on in the class and/or compare yourself w
ith others using the Wellcom
e Trust Centre for Hum
an Genetics database
5).[N
B: Be careful when looking at inherited characteristics and com
paring learners, especially with m
embers of their fam
ilies. Some traits considered either recessive
or dominant 6, such as tongue rolling and eye colour, are not as straight forw
ard as they were form
erly believed to be and are actually a combination of m
echanisms,
therefore it is possible for two parents w
ho can't roll their tongue to have a child who can and parents w
ith blue eyes to have a brown eyed child.]
3learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/activities/ 4ww
w.ise5-14.org.uk/Prim
3/New
_Guidelines/N
ewsletters/46/Reebop_1.htm
and
http://cbe.wisc.edu/cbe_pubs/reebops.htm
l5uniqueness.w
ell.ox.ac.uk/language_set/introduction.php 6http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/activities/pdfs/Inherited%20H
uman%
20Traits%20Q
uick%20Reference_Public.pdf
I can conduct simple experim
ents involving chance and comm
unicate my predictions and findings using the vocabulary of probability. M
NU 2-22a
By applying my know
ledge and understanding of current healthy eating advice I can contribute to a healthy eating plan. HWB 2-30a
I understand that people at different life stages have differing nutritional needs and that some people m
ay eat or avoid certain foods. HWB 2-32a
By investigating the lifecycles of plants and animals, I can recognise the different stages of their developm
ent. SCN 2-14a
By considering the type of text I am creating, I can select ideas and relevant inform
ation, organise these in an appropriate way for m
y purpose and use suitable vocabularyfor m
y audience. LIT 2-26a
CO
NTIN
UE
D FR
OM
PA
GE
4
Learning Outcom
es and Assesment O
pportunities
Question:
How
do we, and other organism
s, inherit traits from our parents?
Big Idea: H
eredity is the passage of genetic information from
one generation to another. For offspring to inherit traitsthere m
ust be a reliable mechanism
for transferring genetic information from
one generation to the next. A molecule called
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is passed from
adult organisms to their offspring during reproduction. This m
olecule containsthe instructions for an organism
to develop, grow, survive and reproduce. The sequence of nucleotides on the DN
A molecule
is unique to an individual, with the exception of cloned (identical) organism
s which share the sam
e DNA. DN
A analysisopens up the potential to know
more and m
ore about individuals.
9
Third
Level
Genetic inform
ation is passed from one generation to another. Sexually
reproduced offspring are never identical to their parents. Many species,
of animals and plants, including hum
ans reproduce sexually. Specialised cells from a fem
ale (egg cell/ova) and male (sperm
)fuse together to begin the developm
ent of a new individual. The new
individual receives genetic information from
bothparents. W
hen a sperm and egg unite one set of the genetic m
aterial in the fertilised egg is from the sperm
cell and oneset is from
the egg cell. If a fertilised egg (egg and sperm united) splits to form
more than one individual then the offspring
have the same genetic inform
ation and are genetically identical.Follow
ing fertilisation, cell division produces a small cluster of cells w
ith the same genetic inform
ation copied in each newcell. This cluster of cells then differentiates to form
an embryo in w
hich each new cell continues to have the sam
e genetic material - a replica of the DN
A inthe fertilised egg.
Reproduction and Inheritance
Molecular Genetics
The instructions for specifying the characteristics of an organism are carried in the D
NA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) m
olecule. DN
A provides the information required for cell function, cell grow
th and reproduction. The chemical and
structural properties of DN
A explain how
the genetic information that underlies inheritance is both encoded (in a sequence of building blocks)
and replicated (by a templating m
echanism).
DN
A is a large polym
er and the instructions for genetic inheritance are stored in a code made up of four building blocks called nucleotide bases.
A strand of D
NA
contains millions of these four nucleotide bases. It is the order, or sequence, of the nucleotide bases on the strand that provides
the information for producing the proteins that build and m
aintain an organism. The sequence of nucleotides on the D
NA
molecule is unique to
an individual, with the exception of cloned (identical) organism
s (such as plants, Dolly the Sheep and identical tw
ins) which share the sam
e DN
A.
An im
portant property of DN
A is that it can replicate, or m
ake copies of itself. DN
A is m
ade up of two strands joined together
in a double helix (like a spiral ladder) that can separate and each separate strand of DN
A can serve as a pattern for replicating
the molecule. D
NA
is extraordinary reliable at replicating. It must replicate faithfully to ensure the continuation of the species,
but make som
e mistakes to enable evolution. In sexual reproduction, organism
s inherit DN
A from
both the male (in the sperm
)and fem
ale parent (in the egg). One set of genes contains 300 billion base pairs of D
NA
and during replication there are around200 m
utations per generation, therefore offspring inherit around 400 mutations. H
owever, only 1-2 %
of DN
A is involved in
genes and the chances of inheriting a defect are very low and m
ost mutations have no consequences.
Comm
on Misconceptions
i.Sam
e sex only inheritance - i.e. sons take after their fathers and daughters take after their mothers.
ii.Characteristics are inherited only from
the mother during gestation.
iii.Certain characteristics are alw
ays inherited from the m
other and the others from the father.
iv.Com
bined/blended characteristics are inherited from both parents.
10
Technology and GeneticsD
NA
profiling is the collection, processing and analysis of the unique sequences of m
olecules on the DN
A strand. The uniqueness of the D
NA
structure makes it
possible for scientists to create a profile of an individual's DN
A and use it as a means of personal identification. To produce
a DN
A fingerprint or D
NA
profile a small sam
ple of skin tissues or cells, body fluids, or hair (with attached roots) is
required. Profiles are now constructed using PCR (polym
erase chain reaction) technology and detecting differences inthe num
ber of short tandem repeats (STRs) - areas containing repeats of sequences located on different chrom
osomes
which can distinguish us as unique individuals. In the U
K a complete D
NA
profile of an individual consists of 10 STRs(and a sex m
arker) and comes w
ith a random m
atch probability (the probability of a specific STR profile occurring randomly in a population). D
NA
profiling is considered one of the most reliable and conclusive m
ethods of personal identification available to today's scientists. The probabilityof tw
o individuals DN
A m
atching has been estimated at less than one in a billion
7. It is routinely used in the field of forensic science and it hasalso becom
e an important tool in genealogy. Although the technology is reliable, like any technique that relies on hum
ans processing and interpretingsam
ples, there is the potential for human errors during the processing of the D
NA
. DN
A evidence does not solve a crim
e or establish a suspect'sguilt. It is sim
ply another form of circum
stantial evidence.
There are concerns about the use of genetic information and genetic privacy. In M
arch 2009 an estimated 4,859,934 individuals had their D
NA
profiles held in the UK D
NA
database8. A
t that time the database held sam
ples from people, including children, w
ho have been arrested (for anyoffence including not w
earing a seatbelt) and not all of them w
ill have been charged with a crim
e. In Scotland, DN
A samples taken during crim
inalinvestigations from
people who are not charged or later acquitted are destroyed.
The analysis of DN
A is a technology led area that has generated an abundance of data that requires people w
ith the biology and mathem
aticsknow
ledge to interpret it. Analysis of D
NA
can reveal if an individual has any genetic diseases or disorders and their predisposition to developingparticular conditions (som
e conditions are a result of the interaction of genes and the environment, e.g. obesity and certain cancers, and not all
individuals with the predisposition develop the condition). It opens up the potential to know
more and m
ore about individuals (e.g. their risk ofdeveloping a condition) and countries around the w
orld (in the UK there is a m
oratorium on the use of unfavourable predictive genetic test results
by insurance companies) are putting in place legislation to protect individuals. A
nother area where there are ethical and legal concerns is around
the patenting of genetic material.
7The probability of the DNA profiles of tw
o unrelated individuals matching is on average less than 1 in 1 billion (1,000,000,000).
Postnote, February 2006, Num
ber 258, The National DN
A Database; Parliamentary O
ffice of Science and Technology.8Annual Report 2007-09; N
ational DNA Database.
11
Molecular Genetics:
The instructions for specifying thecharacteristics of an organism
arecarried in a m
olecule called DNA
(deoxyribonucleric acid). All organisms
use the same genetic language for
their instructions.SCN
3-14b
Technology and Genetics:The uniqueness of the DN
A structure makes it possible
for scientists to create a profile of an individual'sDN
A and use it as a means of personal identification.
DNA analysis opens up the potential to know
more
and more about individuals.
SCN 3-14b SCN
3-12b TCH 3-01a SO
C 3-15a LIT3-08a LIT 3-06a M
NU 2-22a
MN
U 3-20a SCN 3-20a SCN
3-20b SCN 3-20a
Reproduction and Inheritance:For offspring to inherit traits therem
ust be a reliable mechanism
fortransferring genetic inform
ation fromone generation to the next.
SCN 3-14a
I understand the processes of fertilisation and embryonic developm
ent and can discuss possible risks to the embryo.
SCN 3-14a
I have extracted DNA and understand its function. I can express an inform
ed view of the risks and benefits of DN
A profiling.SCN
3-14b
I have explored the role of technology in monitoring health and im
proving the quality of life. SCN 3-12b
I have collaborated with others to find and present inform
ation on how scientists from
Scotland and beyond have contributed to innovative research and development.
SCN 3-20a
Through research and discussion, I have contributed to evaluations of media item
s with regard to scientific content and
ethical implications. SCN
3-20b
I can find the probability of a simple event happening and explain w
hy the consequences of the event, as well as its
probability, should be considered when m
aking choices. MN
U 3-22a
I can work collaboratively, m
aking appropriate use of technology, to source information presented in a range of w
ays,interpret w
hat it conveys and discuss whether I believe the inform
ation to be robust, vague or misleading. M
NU 3-20a
From m
y studies of technologies in the world around m
e, I can begin to understand the relationship between key scientific
principles and technological developments. TCH 3-01a
I can use my know
ledge of current social, political or economic issues to interpret evidence and present an inform
ed view. SOC 3-15a
To help me develop an inform
ed view, I am
learning about the techniques used to influence opinion and how
to assess the value of my sources, and I can recognise persuasion. LIT 3-08a
I can independently select ideas and relevant information for different purposes, organise essential
information or ideas and any supporting detail in a logical order, and use suitable vocabulary to com
municate
effectively with m
y audience. LIT 3-06a
Big Ideas & Curriculum
for Excellence Experiences & O
utcomes
12
9ww
w.exploredna.co.uk/ and w
ww
.biology.ed.ac.uk/projects/GeneJury/learningzone_w
hoseDNA.htm
lhttp://w
ww
.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/Resources/fullbooklet.pdf
10teach.genetics.utah.edu/content/heredity/html/recipe.htm
l and ww
w.societyofbiology.org/education/educational-resources/genetics/hgl
11archive.planet-science.com/sciteach/index.htm
l?page=/sciteach/debating/ and ww
w.beep.ac.uk/content/15.0.htm
l12w
ww
.sciencemuseum
.org.uk/educators/classroom_and_hom
ework_resources/resources/do_you_w
ant_to_know_a_secret.aspx
13extra.shu.ac.uk/cse/geneticfutures/dream.htm
Learning Outcom
es and Assesment O
pportunities
Curriculum Links, Skills and Interdisciplinary Learning O
pportunities•
Gathering inform
ation through asking questions, sourcing texts and social interaction•
Applying knowledge to different contexts and developing vocabulary
•Evaluating by selecting inform
ation, making inform
ed judgements, appraising and prioritising
•U
nderstanding by summ
arising, prioritising and through discussion•
Comm
unicating through creating texts, discussion and displaying findings•
Developing investigative and laboratory skills
Finding out about DNA
9, extracting it and being aware of the genetic language by using coded
10 DNA to identify traits and select them
at random to create
'organisms'. Exploring through debates 11 the ethical and m
oral issues surrounding the uniqueness of DNA and the inform
ation it can now reveal thanks to
advances in technology. Making inform
ed choices about how m
uch information you w
ant to know about you e.g. explore the issues surrounding genetic testing
by using sealed boxes (create personalised boxes/packaging in technology) to represent taking genetic tests 12. Predicting and discussing where the future m
aylead
13 and the decisions that might have to be m
ade.
Question:
Why do w
e, and other organisms, only inherit som
e traits from our parents?
Big Idea: H
ereditary information is contained in genes w
hich are passed from parent to offspring during reproduction.
During sexual reproduction one copy of a gene is inherited from each parent and each copy w
ill be different. In asexualreproduction all the genes are inherited from
one parent and the offspring are an exact copy (clone) of the parent. Genesare specific nucleotide sequences located along DN
A molecules that provide instructions for producing specific proteins
and determine particular traits. The m
ajority of an organism's DN
A is located in the nucleus of an organism's cells in a
packaged form called a chrom
osome. DN
A is unpackaged and the molecule unw
inds so that it can be replicated during celldivision and w
hen its instructions are required for the production of proteins. Before individual genes on DNA could be
identified researchers studied organisms to assess the relative influences of genes and the environm
ent. Advances intechnology have increased the reliability of the inform
ation obtained and the amount and type of inform
ation that can begathered and analysed.
13
Fou
rth Level
Some organism
s reproduce asexually. Asexual reproduction differs from
sexual reproduction in that it does not require two parents. The offspring are
produced from a single parent through cell division and are genetically identical to their parent, inheriting all their genetic inform
ationfrom
them.
Genes - the fundam
ental units of inheritance - are the instructions that determine particular traits. During sexual reproduction one
copy of a gene is inherited from each parent and each copy can be different. Each individual has the sam
e set of genes, but the variantof each gene m
ay be different. It is this genetic information - the precise genetic constitution of an organism
- that is its genotype.
Reproduction and Inheritance
Molecular Genetics
The majority of DN
A is located in the area of the cell called the nucleus. Since the nucleus is very small, and because
organisms have m
any DNA m
olecules per cell, each DNA m
olecule must be tightly packaged. The packaged form
of the DNA
molecule is called a chrom
osome and each DN
A molecule in a cell form
s a single chromosom
e. Not all organism
s have the same num
ber of chromosom
es, buteach species has a definite num
ber present in each cell and most cells have tw
o matching sets of chrom
osomes. DN
A is a two stranded m
olecule and spends alot of tim
e in its chromosom
e form. H
owever, during cell division the DN
A molecule unw
inds into the two separate strands so it can be copied, then an original
strand and newly copied strand are transferred to a new
cell. This is critical when norm
al cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the
DNA present in the original cell. DN
A also unwinds so that its instructions can be used to m
ake the proteins that carry out the functions of life.The instructions on the DN
A molecule that determ
ine particular traits are called genes. Each gene is a length of DNA that contains a specific sequence of
nucleotides, they are arranged in a line along the length of the DNA m
olecule, and work by providing instructions for the production
of specific proteins.The location of genes on the sam
e chromosom
e means that certain traits are usually inherited together. There m
ay be hundredsor thousands of genes on a single DN
A molecule, w
ith a total of about twenty five thousand genes in the hum
an body. Most genes
that an individual has are the same as other individuals in the species, but a sm
all number of genes are slightly different.
Reproduction and Inheritance:H
ereditary information is contained in genes
which are passed from
parent to offspringduring reproduction. SCN
4-14c
14
Before individual genes could be identified researchers studied organisms to determ
ine the relative influences ofgenes and the effect of the environm
ent on particular traits. For example, identical and non-identical tw
ins thathad been raised together in sim
ilar environments w
ere studied (identical twins that happened to be grow
ing upin different households w
ere also studied). Where characteristics differed m
ore in the non-identical twins this w
asconsidered m
ost likely due to differences in their genes. Advances in technology have enabled researchers to studythe genes of organism
s as well as the organism
, increasing the reliability of the information obtained and the
amount and type of inform
ation that can be gathered and analysed. Genetics is a rapidly advancing field. The w
orkof the H
uman G
enome Project and subsequent research is evolving our know
ledge and understanding of genetics,and is changing practices in m
edicine and molecular engineering. Enhanced know
ledge and understanding ingenetics is likely to have a substantial im
pact on the lives of individuals in future; particularly in relation to their medical care.
Technology and Genetics
Comm
on Misconceptions
i.Students have difficulties understanding the relationship betw
een chromosom
es, DNA, genes and nucleotide
bases.ii.The role of genes is often m
isconstrued as determining one trait in all its observed com
plexity rather than providingthe instructions for proteins w
hose functions and interactions result in the traits we see.
Reproduction and Inheritance:During sexual reproduction one set of thegenetic m
aterial is inherited from the egg
cell of one parent and one set from the sperm
cell of the other parent, whereas in asexual
reproduction all the genetic information is
inherited from one parent. SCN
4-14b
Through evaluation of a range of data, I can compare sexual
and asexual reproduction and explain their importance for
survival of species. SCN 4-14b
I can use my understanding of how
characteristics are inheritedto solve sim
ple genetic problems and relate this to m
yunderstanding of DNA, genes and chrom
osomes. SCN
4-14cI have researched new
developments in science and can explain
how their current or future applications m
ight impact on m
odernlife. SCN
4-20aBy applying m
y understanding of probability, I can determine how
many tim
es I expect an event to occur, and use this information
to make predictions, risk assessm
ent, informed choices and
decisions. MN
U 4-22aI can com
pare traditional with contem
porary production methods
to assess their contribution in the world around m
e and explainthe im
pact of related technological changes. TCH 4-01aI can present supported conclusions about the social, politicaland econom
ic impacts of a technological change in the past. SOC
4-05aI can independently select ideas and relevant inform
ation fordifferent purposes, organise essential inform
ation or ideas andany supporting detail in a logical order, and use suitable vocabularyto com
municate effectively w
ith my audience. LIT 4-06a
Big Ideas & Curriculum
for Excellence Experiences & O
utcomes
Molecular Genetics:
Genes are specific nucleotide sequences,located along DN
A molecules, that determ
ineparticular traits. Genes provide instructionsfor producing specific proteins. SCN
4-14c
Molecular Genetics:
The majority of an organism
's DNA is located
in the nucleus of an organism's cells in a
packaged form called a chrom
osome. DN
A isunpackaged and the m
olecule unwinds so that
it can be replicated during cell division andw
hen its instructions are required for theproduction of proteins. SCN
4-14c
Technology and Genetics:Before individual genes on DN
A could be identified researchers studied organisms to assess
the relative influences of genes and the environment. Advances in technology have increased
the reliability of the information obtained and the am
ount and type of information that can
be gathered and analysed. SCN 4 -14c SCN
4 - 20aTCH
4 - 01a MN
U 4 - 22a SOC 4 - 05a H
WB 4 - 15a H
WB 4 - 16a LIT 4 - 06a
15
14http://teach.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/ReproductiveStrategies.pdf15w
ww
.teachengineering.org/view_activity.php?url=http://w
ww
.teachengineering.org/collection/duk_/activities/duk_genetics_mary_act/duk_genetics_m
ary_act.xml
and http://teach.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/findagene.pdf and http://w
ww
.woodrow
.org/teachers/biology/institutes/1997/makeface/teacinfo.htm
l
Learning Outcom
es and Assesment O
pportunities
Curriculum Links, Skills and Interdisciplinary Learning O
pportunitiesCom
paring reproductive strategies 14 and starting to explore how traits are passed from
one generation to another 15.
Reproduction and Inheritance:In sexual reproduction the inheritance ofdifferent types of alleles of the sam
e geneaffects the traits observed in offspring. Som
ealleles are dom
inant, while others are recessive
and remain m
asked unless the two inherited
alleles are identical.
Question:
Why do w
e, and other organisms, not have the sam
e traits as our siblings?Big Idea:
Across generations there are patterns of gene transfer that affect the traits offspring inherit. Many features
of human heredity are explained by the fact that hum
an cells contain two copies of each chrom
osome (one inherited from
each parent) and therefore two copies of each gene. Individuals all have the sam
e genes and chromosom
es, but chromosom
escan have different versions of specific genes (alleles). The inheritance of different alleles affects the traits observed inoffspring. Som
e alleles are dominant, w
hile others are recessive and remain m
asked unless the two inherited alleles are
identical. Patterns of correlation between alternative form
s of the same gene m
ake it possible to predict offspring inheritingcertain traits w
hen the forms of the parents' genes are know
n and to breed offspring with particular traits.
16
Natio
nal Levels 4
& 5
Comm
on Misconceptions
Big Ideas, Curriculum Links and Useful ResourcesM
olecular Genetics:Alternative form
s of the same gene are know
nas alleles and an individual inherits tw
o allelesfor each gene, one from
each parent.
Reproduction and Inheritance:There are patterns of correlation
between alternative form
s of the same
gene and the traits observed in offspring.The probability of offspring inheritingcertain traits can be predicted if it isknow
n which form
s of the genes bothparents have.
Reproduction and Inheritance:Advances in technology m
ake it possible to alter the genetic makeup and create organism
sby DN
A manipulation, rather than using the traditional m
ethod of breeding species forparticular characteristics.
Reproduction and Inheritance:M
any features of human heredity are explained by
the fact that human cells contain tw
o copies of eachchrom
osome (one inherited from
each parent) andtherefore tw
o copies of each gene. During cell divisionthe paired chrom
osomes are duplicated and tw
o newcells form
ed with paired chrom
osomes identical to
the original cell. When gam
ete cells (mature sexual
reproductive cells, such as a sperm or egg) are produced
the replicated paired chromosom
es are selected atrandom
, sorted into two single sets and each set
allocated to a new gam
ete.
17
16http://ww
w.sqa.org.uk/sqa/2565.htm
l17http://w
ww
.wellcom
e.ac.uk/Education-resources/Teaching-and-education/Big-Picture/All-issues/Genes-G
enomes-and-H
ealth/index.htm18http://w
ww
.philipallan.co.uk/biologicalreview/index.htm
Learning Outcom
es and Assesment O
pportunities
Curriculum Links, Skills and Interdisciplinary Learning O
pportunitiesFurther inform
ation on curriculum content can be accessed on the SQ
A website
16. Useful resources include the m
agazines: Big Picture - Genes, G
enomes
and Health (Issue 11: January 2010) produced by the W
ellcome Trust 17 and Biological Sciences Review
-aimed at advanced level biology students 18.
Reproduction and Inheritance:The inheritance of traits is often com
plex andcan be determ
ined by one or many genes, and a
single gene can influence more than one trait.
Understanding the patterns of correlation between
inherited alleles makes it possible to: group
populations into distinct categories, predict traitsin offspring and trace heredity.
Question:
How
do we, and other organism
s, express traits and how do changes in genetic inheritance occur?
Big Idea: Inherited traits can be determ
ined by one or many genes, and a single gene can influence m
ore than one trait.Cellular and m
olecular mechanism
s are responsible for the patterns of gene transfer across generations and result in geneticvariation. Unless a m
utation occurs all of the cells in an organism contain the sam
e genetic information. Cells are able to
regulate which inform
ation is used (expressed) and the proteins that are produced.
18
Natio
nal Levels 6
& 7
Comm
on Misconceptions
Reproduction and Inheritance:During the production of the sex cells the selection
of chromosom
es at random and on occasion,
chromosom
e mutations and abnorm
alities, creategenetic variation.
Big Ideas, Curriculum Links and Useful Resources
i.U
nderstanding that genes contain information is not enough to be able to explain how
the geneticinform
ation brings about its effects on specific traits. It is important to understand w
hat the information
specifies and how it translates in to instructions.
ii. Students are often unaware of the centrality of proteins in genetic traits. They do not conceive of the genetic inform
ational contentbeing expressed as the m
akeup of proteins. They do not distinguish the role of genes (DN
A) as carrying inform
ation for the make up of
proteins and instead attribute their role to coding for the structure and function of cells, tissues and organs at higher organization levels.
Molecular Genetics:
Genes work by coding for proteins. The sequence
of nucleotides on the gene is translated into thesequence of am
ino acids in the specific proteinencoded by the gene. Protein production is
regulated and a variety of proteins can be producedfrom
the same gene.
Molecular Genetics:
Proteins are the central elements that
mediate genetic effects and connect genesto traits. Protein interactions at the
molecular and cellular level result in the
patterns observed at the macro level. The
overall structure and properties of theprotein, determ
ined by the amino acid
sequence, affords and constrains itsfunction.
19
19http://ww
w.sqa.org.uk/sqa/2565.htm
l20http://w
ww
.wellcom
e.ac.uk/Education-resources/Teaching-and-education/Big-Picture/All-issues/Genes-G
enomes-and-H
ealth/index.htm21http://w
ww
.philipallan.co.uk/biologicalreview/index.htm
Learning Outcom
es and Assesment O
pportunities
Curriculum Links, Skills and Interdisciplinary Learning O
pportunitiesFurther inform
ation on curriculum content can be accessed on the SQ
A website
19. Useful resources include the m
agazines: Big Picture - Genes, G
enomes
and Health (Issue 11: January 2010) produced by the W
ellcome Trust 20 and Biological Sciences Review
-aimed at advanced level biology students 21.
Molecular Genetics:
Changes to genes (mutations) and the cell
environment (e.g. toxins) can alter the
structure and function of proteins producedby cells, and can change how
an organismlooks and functions (phenotype). Som
echanges can be neutral, som
e beneficialand others harm
ful to the organism.
Technology and Genetics:Advances in technology develop and expandour understanding of genetic phenom
enaand this enhanced understanding oftenleads to further technological advances
and new technologies. The developm
entsand new
technologies in genetics have anim
pact on society requiring citizens tom
ake informed choices.
Molecular Genetics:
The genome is the com
plete DNA sequence of the
organism's nuclear DN
A. An important property of
DNA is that it can replicate itself m
aking it possiblefor each cell to have exactly the sam
e DNA. Variation
in DNA can serve as a w
ay to identify individuals andspecies, and can provide inform
ation on evolutionaryrelationships and origins.
STEM-ED Scotland is hosted by the U
niversity of Glasgow
The research team gratefully acknow
ledgesthe support of the colleagues, individuals,groups and organisations that havecontributed to the developm
ent of this work.
The research team acknow
ledges the financial support from the Scottish
Governm
ent. They would also like to express gratitude for the financial
support and encouragement from
the Esmée Fairbairn Foundation that
enabled them to begin w
orking on learning progressions in STEM.
List of sources consultedA Learning Progression for Deepening Students' Understandings of M
odernGenetics Across the 5th-10th Grades. Journal of Research in Science Teaching(2009) Ravit G
olan Duncan, Aaron D. Rogat, Anat Yarden.
Atlas of Science Literacy. AAAS (2001) Washington, DC: AAAS and N
STA.
Benchmarks for Science Literacy. AAAS (Am
erican Association for theAdvancem
ent of Science (1993). Project 2016. Oxford U
niversity Press.
Curriculum Focal points for Prekindergarten through Grade 8 M
athematics:
A Quest for Coherence. (2006) N
ational Council of Teachers of Mathem
atics.
Curriculum coherence: an exam
ination of US mathem
atics and science contentstandards from
an international perspective. William
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