steam generating

8/15/2019 steam generating

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F. RJ[YKIFN Y]WM[ H@ F Y]GFC AGOGUF]KOA WOK]

K. KO]UHMWI]KHO<

]jg whrnm gogray ihosucptkho jfs mhuengm ko tjg nfst tjkrty ygfrs fom kt dggps ho

koirgfskoa wktj fehut 6.7% pgr ygfr. Qjkng tjg Gfrtj‛s hkn fom afs rgsgrvgs frg gxpgitgm th

mgpngtg f`tgr rhuajny hog juomrgm ygfrs, tjg ihfn rgsgrvgs wknn nfst `kvg juomrgm ygfrs koth tjg

ùturg. Ko @konfom, 72% h` tjg gngitrkifn phwgr prhmuigm, ks prhmuigm ko stgfc phwgr pnfots. Eut

tjgrg frg chrg rgfshos th wjy gngitrkikty agogrftkhos efsgm ho stgfc phwgr pnfot wknn ihotkoug

th arhw fom wjy tjgrg stknn wknn eg f mgcfom `hr stgfc ehkngrs ko tjg ùturg<

]jg ihst h` tjg prhmuigm gngitrkikty ks nhw

]jg tgijohnhay jfs eggo usgm `hr cfoy mgifmgs fom ks rgnkfeng fom fvfknfeng

Qkom fom shnfr phwgr frg stknn gxpgoskvg ihcpfrgm th stgfc phwgr

]jg govkrhocgotfn kcpfit h` ihfn phwgrgm stgfc pnfots jfvg uomgr tjg pfst mgifmg

jgfvkny mkckoksjgm jfods th kcprhvgm YHx fom OHx rgmuitkho tgijohnhay.

]jg pfpgr komustry usgs stgfc ehkngrs fs f vktfn utknkty th rgiying ijgckifns fom mgrkvg

gngitrkikty `rhc enfid nkquhr (punpkoa wfstg).

Qfstg fom ekh ùgns ifo g``gitkvgny eg ihceustgm ko f ehkngr.

KK. Y]GFC AGOGUF]HU (EHKNGU)

]hmfy stgfc ko ehkngrs/stgfc agogrfthrs ifo eg agogrftgm ft sue-irktkifn/supgr-irktkifn

wftgr prgssurgs. Qjgo wftgr ks turogm koth stgfc ey ehknkoa ft sue-irktkifn prgssurgs, tjg

stgfc-agogrftkoa gqukpcgot ks ifnngm f "stgfc ehkngr" Qjgo wftgr turos koth stgfc wktjhut ehknkoa ft supgr-irktkifn prgssurgs, tjg gqukpcgot ks ifnngm "stgfc agogrfthr".

Ko sjhrt,

Yue-irktkifn Ytgfc agogrfthrs frg tjg Ytgfc Ehkngrs

Yupgr-irktkifn Ytgfc agogrfthrs frg tjg Ytgfc Agogrfthrs

F supgrirktkifn `nukm (YI@) ks foy suestfoig ft f tgcpgrfturg fom prgssurg fehvg kts irktkifn

phkot, wjgrg mkstkoit nkqukm fom afs pjfsgs mh oht gxkst. Kt ifo g`ùsg tjrhuaj shnkms nkdg f afs,

fom mksshnvg cftgrkfns nkdg f nkqukm.

]jg tgrc sueirktkifn wftgr rg`grs th nkqukm wftgr ft tgcpgrfturgs egtwggo tjg ftchspjgrki ehknkoa phkot fom tjg irktkifn tgcpgrfturg (91= I) h` wftgr. Pgry h`tgo kotgrgst ks ho tgcpgrfturgs

fehvg 522 I. Fntgroftkvg tgrcs koinumg prgssurkzgm jht wftgr (RJQ), jht ihcprgssgm wftgr(JIQ), ogfr-irktkifn wftgr (OIQ) hr supgrjgftgm wftgr.

Yupgrirktkifn stgfc agogrfthrs frg `rgqugotny usgm `hr tjg prhmuitkho h` gngitrki phwgr.

]jgy hpgrftg ft supgrirktkifn prgssurg. Ko ihotrfst th f "sueirktkifn ehkngr", f supgrirktkifn stgfc

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_powerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power


2/80

agogrfthr hpgrftgs ft suij f jkaj prgssurg (hvgr 9,522 psk hr 55.20 CRf) tjft fitufn ehknkoa

igfsgs th hiiur, tjg ehkngr jfs oh nkqukm wftgr - stgfc sgpfrftkho. ]jgrg ks oh agogrftkho h` stgfc

eueengs wktjko tjg wftgr, egifusg tjg prgssurg ks fehvg tjg irktkifn prgssurg ft wjkij stgfc

eueengs ifo `hrc. Kt pfssgs egnhw tjg irktkifn phkot fs kt mhgs whrd ko f jkaj prgssurg turekog fom

gotgrs tjg agogrfthr's ihomgosgr. ]jks rgsunts ko snkajtny ngss `ugn usg fom tjgrg`hrgngss arggojhusg afs prhmuitkho. ]jg tgrc "ehkngr" sjhunm oht eg usgm `hr f supgrirktkifn prgssurg

stgfc agogrfthr, fs oh "ehknkoa" fitufnny hiiurs ko tjks mgvkig.

Rrgssurg ks fppnkgm th dggp wftgr ko nkqukm stftg. ]jg prgssurg cfy eg gqufn th tjg vfphur

prgssurg h` wftgr ft f akvgo tgcpgrfturg hr jkajgr. ]jg ogigssfry prgssurg rfoag tjgrg`hrg ks ft

ngfst 60 efrs ft 522 I fom up th 550 efrs ft 91= I.

Qjgo wftgr ks jgftgm wgnn, fehvg 622 I kts mk-gngirki ihostfot mgirgfsgs fom kts khoki prhmuit

koirgfsgs. Ft 522 I tjg mkgngitrki ihostfot h` wftgr ks tjg sfcg fs tjft h` rhhc tgcpgrfturgcgtjfohn. Ft 5;1 I egozgog egihcgs ihcpngtgny cksikeng wktj wftgr. Fehvg 522 I wftgr cfy

eg fo fikm hr efsg iftfnyst egifusg kt‛s J9H+ fom HJ- kho ihoigotrftkhos frg pgrjfps hrmgrs h`

cfaoktumg jkajgr tjfo ko fcekgot wftgr.Yueirktkifn wftgr ks tjgrg`hrg f cuij egttgr shnvgot `hr jymrhpjheki hrafokis tjfo fcekgot

wftgr. Kt ifo ktsgn` eg f iftfnyst `hr rgfitkhos wjkij ohrcfnny rgqukrg fo fmmgm fikm hr efsg.

QJF] KY F Y]GFC AGOGUF]HU (EHKNGU)8

Gxfcpng h` f stgfc agogrfthr (ehkngr)

F ehkngr hr stgfc agogrfthr ks f mgvkig usgm th irgftg stgfc ey fppnykoa jgft

gogray th wftgr. Fntjhuaj tjg mg`koktkhos frg shcgwjft `ngxkeng, kt ifo eg sfkm tjft hnmgr stgfc

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperature_and_pressurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperature_and_pressurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inch


3/80

agogrfthrs wgrg ihcchony tgrcgm ehkngrs fom whrdgm ft nhw th cgmkuc prgssurg (6 ’ 922 psk hr

0.:;7 ’ 5,20:.=51 dRf) eut, ft prgssurgs fehvg tjks, kt ks chrg usufn th spgfd h` f stgfc agogrfthr.

F ehkngr hr stgfc agogrfthr ks usgm wjgrgvgr f shurig h` stgfc ks rgqukrgm. ]jg `hrc fom skzg

mgpgoms ho tjg fppnkiftkho< chekng stgfc goakogs suij fs stgfc nhihchtkvgs, phrtfeng

goakogs fom stgfc-phwgrgm rhfm vgjkings typkifnny usg f scfnngr ehkngr tjft `hrcs fo kotgarfn pfrt h` tjg vgjking4 stftkhofry stgfc goakogs, komustrkfn kostfnnftkhos fom phwgr stftkhos wknn

usufnny jfvg f nfragr sgpfrftg stgfc agogrftkoa `fiknkty ihoogitgm th tjg phkot-h`-usg ey pkpkoa.

F ohtfeng gxigptkho ks tjg stgfc-phwgrgm `krgngss nhihchtkvg, wjgrg sgpfrftgny-agogrftgm stgfc

ks trfos`grrgm th f rgigkvgr (tfod) ho tjg nhihchtkvg.

KKK. JKY]HU[ H@ F Y]GFC AGOGUF]HU (EHKNGU)

QJH KOPGO]GM ]JG EHKNGU8

]jg stgfc-agogrftkoa ehkngr's rhhts ah efid th tjg nftg 6122s fom gfrny 6:22s wktj tjg

mgvgnhpcgot h` tjg dgttng-typg ehkngr, wjkij skcpny ehkngm wftgr koth stgfc. ]jg wftgr wfs pnfigm fehvg f `krg ehx fom tjgo ehkngm koth stgfc. Kt wfso't uotkn frhuom 6:01, wktj tjg

mgvgnhpcgot h` tjg ihovgitkho ehkngr tjft tjg stgfc-agogrftkoa komustry egafo.

Kt cfy eg mgeftgm wjh mgvgnhpgm tjg `krst stgfc-agogrftkoa ehkngr4 jhwgvgr, chst wknnfargg tjft Aghrag Efeihid fom Ytgvgo Qknihx wgrg twh h` tjg `huomkoa `ftjgrs h` tjg stgfc-

agogrftkoa ehkngr. ]jgy wgrg tjg `krst th pftgot tjgkr ehkngr mgskao, wjkij usgm tuegs koskmg f`krgerkid-wfnngm struiturg th agogrftg stgfc, ko 6:01, fom tjgy `hrcgm Efeihid & Qknihx

Ihcpfoy ko Ogw [hrd Ikty ko 6:;6. ]jgkr `krst ehkngrs wgrg quktg scfnn, usgm nucp ihfn, `krgm

ey jfom, fom hpgrftgm ft f vgry nhw rftg h` jgft koput. ]jg shnkm `krgerkid wfnns tjft `hrcgm tjg

goinhsurg `hr tjg uokt wgrg ogigssfry egifusg tjgy jgnpgm tjg ihceustkho prhigss ey rgrfmkftkoajgft efid koth tjg ùrofig frgf.

]jg Ytkrnkoa Ehkngr Ihcpfoy, hwogm ey H.I. Efregr fom ofcgm `hr tjg strggt (Ytkrnkoa

Fvgoug) tjg `fiknkty wfs ho ko Efregrtho, Hjkh, fnsh egafo cfdkoa ehkngrs ko 6:;6. ]jgkr gkajtj

Ytkrnkoa ehkngr mgskao wfs ifnngm tjg J-typg ehkngr ("j" egkoa tjg gkajtj ngttgr ko tjg fnpjfegt)fom jfm f erkid sgttkoa mgskao. ]jg Ytkrnkoa ehkngr wfs cuij nfragr tjfo tjg Efeihid & Qknihx

ehkngr fom usgm tjrgg mrucs th jgnp ikriunftg tjg wftgr fom stgfc `nhw tjrhuajhut tjg ehkngr.

Ko 6;21, tjg Ytkrnkoa Ehkngr Ihcpfoy cgragm wktj tjg Efeihid & Qknihx Ihcpfoy.]jgy rgofcgm tjgkr ehkngr tjg J-typg Ytkrnkoa, fom kt egifcg hog h` egst-sgnnkoa ehkngrs h` kts

tkcg, prhefeny egifusg h` kts feknkty th prhmuig up th 72,222 phuoms h` stgfc pgr jhur.

Jhwgvgr, tjgy wgrg oht tjg hony ehkngr cfou`fiturgrs murkoa tjg nftg 6:22s. ]jg Arkgvg

Arftg Ihcpfoy fom tjg Fcgrkifo Ythdgr Ihcpfoy wgrg fnsh cfdkoa ehkngrs h` skcknfr fnn-

erkid-wfnn mgskao. ]jgy ehtj usgm f trfvgnkoa hr sirgw-typg arftg ft tjg ehtthc h` tjg ehkngr thtrfosphrt tjg ùgn (nucp ihfn) firhss tjg koskmg h` tjg ehkngr. Fs tjg ùgn trfvgngm firhss tjg koskmg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_locomotivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationary_steam_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireless_locomotivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireless_locomotivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationary_steam_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_locomotivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inch


4/80

h` tjg ehkngr, kt wfs eurogm fom tjg fsj hr uo-eurogm ùgn whunm mrhp koth f jhppgr. ]jgsg twh

ihcpfokgs nftgr `hrcgm tjg Ihceustkho Goakoggrkoa Ihcpfoy ko 6;65. ]jg ogw Ihceustkho

Goakoggrkoa Ihcpfoy h``grgm tjgkr vgrskho h` tjg Arkgvg fom Fcgrkifo Ythdgr ehkngrs fomifnngm kt tjg ]ypg G sthdgr ehkngr.

JKY]HU[ H@ YHCG ][RGY H@ EHKNGU

Mkm yhu dohw tjft shcg iurrgot ehkngr mgskaos ah efid wgnn hvgr 672 ygfrs8 ]jg chmgro

`krg-tueg ehkngr ks oht fnn tjft mk``grgot ko mgskao `rhc tjg ehkngrs tjft hoig phwgrgm trfkos fomsjkps. „Yihtij Cfrkog–, fom skcknfr `krg-tueg ehkngrs, ihosksts h` f jhrkzhotfn rhuom stggn sjgnn

wktj tueg-sjggts wgnmgm ft ehtj goms. ]jg tueg sjggts frg ihoogitgm koskmg tjg sjgnn ey f nfrag

pkpg (fdf ùrofig hr Chrrksho tueg) ogfr tjg ehtthc h` tjg sjgnn fom f sgrkgs h` scfnngr tuegs th

tjg skmgs fom fehvg tjg ùr ofig. ]jg `nfcg `rhc tjg eurogr `krgs mhwo tjg ùrofig ko f „`krst pfss– fom tjgo rgturos fs jht afssgs `hr f sgihom pfss tjrhuaj tjg scfnngr tuegs. Ft tjks phkot tjg

afsgs cfy gxkt tjg stfid hr cfdg f tjkrm hr gvgo f `hurtj pfss efid tjrhuaj chrg tuegs

mgpgomkoa ho tjg `krg-tueg‛s oucegr h` pfssgs. ]jg ùrofig pkpg fom tjg rgst h` tjg ehkngr tuegs

frg ihcpngtgny surrhuomgm ey wftgr koskmg tjg sjgnn. ]jg sjgnn ks gktjgr :2% ùnn h` wftgr ’ `hrcfdkoa stgfc ’ hr ihcpngtgny `knngm wktj wftgr ’ `hr agogrftkoa jht wftgr. ]jgy frg ifnngm `krg-

tueg ehkngrs egifusg tjg `krg trfvgns koskmg tjg tuegs.

@krg-tueg ehkngrs jfvg mhhrs tjft swkoa hpgo th gxphsg tjg koskmg h` tjg `krg-tuegs `hr

kospgitkho fom ingfokoa. ]jks wfs fo kcphrtfot `gfturg efid wjgo chst ehkngrs wgrg `krgm wktj

ihfn hr whhm. ]jg shht tjft `hrcgm koskmg tjg tuegs `rhc tjhsg ùgns jfm th eg erusjgm

(„puoijgm–) ho f rgaunfr efsks hr tjg jgft trfos`gr g``kikgoiy whunm su``gr. @krg-tueg ehkngrs fnsh

jfm (fom ihotkoug th jfvg) jfom-jhngs fom cfojhngs `hr wftgrskmg kospgitkhos fom wfsjhuts. F

wftgr jhsg ifo eg mkrgitgm tjrhuaj tjgsg hpgokoas th wfsj hut tjg cuid tjft sgttngs ko tjg egnny

h` tjgsg ehkngrs - eut htjgrwksg tjgrg ks oh gfsy hr rgnkfeng wfy th cgijfokifnny ingfo tjg jfrm

sifng tjft wknn gvgotufnny `hrc ho tjg hutskmg h` tjg ùrofig pkpg fom tjg rgst h` tjg ehkngr tuegs.

@krg-tueg ehkngrs wgrg hog h` tjg cfko goakogs egjkom tjg Komustrkfn Ugvhnutkho, prhvkmkoa jkaj prgssurg stgfc th phwgr `fithrkgs. Rgrjfps egifusg tjgy wgrgo‛t fs inhsgny


5/80

wftijgm fs stgfc nhihchtkvgs (wjgrg tjg goakoggr fom `krgcfo wgrg nktgrfnny rkajt ogxt th tjg

ehkngr) fom oht fs wgnn uomgrsthhm ey tjhsg ko ijfrag h` cfkotgofoig, f argft oucegr h` ehkngr

fiikmgots hiiurrgm ’ usufnny fs f rgsunt h` nhw wftgr, jucfo grrhr hr futhcftki sf`gty mgvkigstjft mkm oht whrd. Jhw cfoy fiikmgots8 Jgrg‛s f sjhidkoa stftkstki< Ko tjg nftg gkajtggo

juomrgms fom gfrny okogtggo juomrgms, kt ks gstkcftgm tjft 72,222 pghpng mkgm gfij ygfr `rhc

ehkngr fom prgssurg vgssgn rgnftgm fiikmgots ko Ohrtj Fcgrkif fnhog.

Ko 6;60, f nhihchtkvg goakoggr fmfptgm f ehkngr th phwgr f trfithr tjft usgm egot tuegs

kostgfm h` strfkajt tuegs. ]jg ehkngr jfm th eg ihcpfit fom tjg egot tuegs `kt okigny ko tjg scfnnfnnhttgm spfig. Fohtjgr eka pnus wfs tjft tjg egot tuegs jgnm up vgry wgnn th tjg ihostfot „sjhid–

h` ihnm `ggm-wftgr. ]jks ks egifusg egot tuegs jfm tjg feknkty th „`ngx– fs tjgy gxpfomgm fom

ihotrfitgm wjgrgfs `krg-tueg ehkngrs mkm oht. ]jg afshnkog goakog turogm hut th eg cuij chrg

prfitkifn `hr phwgrkoa trfithrs - eut tjg egot tueg ehkngr nkvgm ho. ]jks mgskao wfs vgry mk``grgot`rhc f `krg-tueg.

]jg egot tuegs wgrg (fom typkifnny frg) kostfnngm egtwggo fo uppgr stgfc mruc fom f

nhwgr cum mruc wktj fmmktkhofn mhwo-ihcgrs fs oggmgm th kosurg prhpgr wftgr ikriunftkho. Kotjks typg ehkngr (fdf „egot-tueg–, „`ngx-tueg– hr „sgrpgotkog tueg–) tjg `krg (tjg rfmkfot `nfcg)

fom rgsuntkoa jht afssgs sihur tjg hutskmg h` tjg tuegs fs tjgy pfss `rhc tjg ihceustkhoijfcegr, tjrhuaj tjg tuegs fom hut tjg stfid. @krgskmg ingfokoa wfs chrg mk``kiunt wktj tjg egot

tueg mgskao eut fs cgotkhogm tjks wfs egihckoa ngss h` f ihoigro wktj tjg rksg ko ingfogr

eurokoa `ugns nkdg ofturfn afs fom mkgsgn.

]jgrg wfs ngss jgft trfos`gr sur`fig ko tjg egot tueg ehkngrs. ]h ihcpgosftg `hr tjg

g``gits h` shht fom sifng, `krg-tueg cfou`fiturgrs jfm fnwfys fmmgm chrg jgftkoa sur`fig th cfdg

up `hr tjg stgfmy mginkog ko g``kikgoiy hvgr tkcg. ]jks cfmg tjg `krg-tuegs eka fom eundyihcpfrgm th tjks ogw mgskao tjft jfm fehut jfn` tjg jgftkoa sur`fig (7 squfrg `ggt fs hpphsgm th

62 squfrg `ggt `hr f `krg-tueg). ]jg egot tueg ehkngr wfs chrg ihcpfit eut wktj fnn tjg egoms fomscfnngr tueg mkfcgtgrs kt wfs fnsh vgry mk``kiunt th rgchvg tjg jfrm sifng tjft `hrcgm koskmg tjgtuegs. Ckous tjg feknkty th cgijfokifnny ingfo tjg wftgrskmg, egot tueg ehkngrs jfm f nht ngss

wftgrskmg jgftkoa sur`fig th `hun (sifng) eg`hrg nhss ko g``kikgoiy fom hvgrjgftkoa egifcg f

prhengc.


6/80

Qjkng `krg-tueg fom egot tueg ehkngrs ihunm prhvkmg jkaj prgssurg stgfc (mg`kogm fs

foytjkoa hvgr 67 RYK) `hr chst komustrkfn fppnkiftkhos, tjgrg wfs f arhwkoa mgcfom `hr nhw

prgssurg stgfc - gspgikfnny `hr tjg ihc`hrt jgftkoa h` nfrag euknmkoas fom rgskmgoigs ko tjg

cgtrhphnktfo ohrtjgfstgro Woktgm Ytftgs. Ey ohw, puenki pgrigptkho jgnm tjft nhw prgssurg stgfc

wfs kojgrgotny sf`gr tjfo jkaj prgssurg stgfc. Chrghvgr, k` tjg stgfc pkpgs wgrg nfrag gohuaj,

lust f `gw phuoms pgr squfrg koij h` stgfc prgssurg ihunm gfskny jgft f tfnn euknmkoa. ]jg GcpkrgYtftg Euknmkoa ko Ogw [hrd Ikty, `hr gxfcpng, ks jgftgm ey stgfc ehkngrs tjft hpgrftg egtwggo 6

fom 9 RYKA.

]jg FYCG Ihmg `hr prgssurg vgssgn mgskao h` nhw prgssurg stgfc ehkngrs wgrg (fom stknn

frg) cuij ngss strkoagot tjfo `hr jkaj prgssurg stgfc. Ifst krho wfs f ahhm cgtfn th cfdg nhw

prgssurg stgfc ehkngrs hut h` `hr `hur rgfshos< Kt wfs rgnftkvgny ijgfp. Kt ihunm eg ifst koth

sjfpgs. Kts tgoskng strgoatj wfs strhoa gohuaj `hr kt th eg usgm `hr nhw prgssurg stgfc (fntjhuaj

oht jkaj prgssurg stgfc). Fom ifst krho wfs chrg rgskstfot th hxyago ihrrhskho tjfo stggn. ]jks

nfst phkot wfs kcphrtfot egifusg wjgo foy stgfc ehkngr ihhns h`` kt wknn suid ko fkr mug th tjg

vfiuuc irgftgm - fom fkr nfmgo hxyago wknn ngfm th wftgrskmg hxyago ihrrhskho ko ehkngrs.

Hxyago sifvgoakoa ijgckifns fom htjgr strftgakgs jfvg skoig eggo mgvgnhpgm th cktkaftg hxyago

ihrrhskho ko stgfc ehkngrs, eut efid eg`hrg tjgsg ijgckifns wgrg mgvgnhpgm fom ko agogrfn usg,

ifst krho ehkngrs egifcg f wkmgny fiigptgm ijhkig `hr nhw prgssurg stgfc jgft.

Ifst krho ehkngrs frg cfmg ey puttkoa thagtjgr sgitkhos tjft frg ehntgm fom afsdgt

thagtjgr wktj okppngs fom pusj rhms th `hrc f ihcpngtg ehkngr. ]jgsg ehkngrs frg prgvfngot ko tjgohrtjgfstgro Woktgm Ytftgs wjgrg chst ifst krho ehkngr cfou`fiturgrs frg nhiftgm. Ifst krho

sgitkhofns ifo fnsh eg jfom truidgm mhwo koth efsgcgots hog f sgitkho ft f tkcg, wjkij wfs

shcgtjkoa tjft egot tueg fom `krg-tueg ehkngrs wgrg oht mgskaogm th mh. Ifst krho ks, h` ihursg, f

`fr ngss muitkng cgtfn tjfo stggn fom hog ahhm tjgrcfn sjhid ifo gfskny irfid hog hr chrgsgitkhos. ]jg sgitkhos, fnegkt iucegrshcg fom jgfvy, ifo eg rgpnfigm fntjhuaj kt ks vgry nfehr

kotgoskvg. ]h agt th f ngfdkoa hr irfidgm sgitkho, fnn tjg sgitkhos ko `rhot h` kt ’ hr egjkom kt -

cust eg mksfssgcengm `krst. Qjkng ifst krho ehkngrs prhvkmgm f``hrmfeng nhw prgssurg stgfc ehkngrs (fom nhw prgssurg jht wftgr ehkngrs) `hr tjg rgskmgotkfn/ihccgrikfn jgftkoa cfrdgt, tjks

mgskao, nkdg tjg `krg-tueg fom egot tueg eg`hrg kt, dgpt tjg cum fom sifng prgtty cuij jkmmgo `rhc

vkgw. Ho tjg erkajt skmg, tjg mkrty skmg h` ehkngrs whunm oht rgcfko ko tjg mfrd `hr cuij nhoagr.


7/80

Ihppgr `ko tueg ehkngrs ifo eg hpgogm up fom kospgitgm lust nkdg f Uktg ehkngr eut tjgrg

ks f vgry eka mk``grgoig egtwggo tjg twh jgft gxijfoagrs. Qjkng Uktg jfs f efod h` stggn tuegs

feshrekoa ehtj rfmkfot fom ihovgitkvg jgft, ihppgr `ko tueg ehkngrs rgny ho lust hog rhw h` tuegs

th mh tjg sfcg lhe. ]jg fchuot h` jgft feshregm ks rhuajny tjg sfcg `hr ehtj mgskaos - tjg

supgrijfragm ihppgr `ko gxijfoagr‛s rfpkm hog-rhw jgft feshrptkho fehut gqufn th tjg chrg

arfmufn feshrptkho ey 1-: rhws h` stggn tuegs ko f Uktg. Ihcpfrgm th Uktg, fom chst htjgrmgskaos, ihppgr `ko tueg jgft gxijfoagrs frg tjg jfrgs h` tjg ehkngr whrnm. ]jks ks egifusg ihppgr

`ko tuegs jfvg f `fr argftgr fchuot h` jgftkoa sur`fig pgr squfrg koij ho tjg jht afs skmg tjfo

htjgr mgskaos. Fnn tjft ihoigotrftgm gogray cust eg rgchvgm ’ fom vgry qukidny ’ hr tjg ihppgr

`ko tueg(s) wknn hvgrjgft fom `fkn. @krg f ihppgr `ko tueg ehkngr tjft ks `unn h` wftgr fom tjg tuegs

wknn euro up. Qjy8 Egifusg lust jfvkoa wftgr ko tjg ehkngr ifooht rgchvg tjg gogray feshregm

qukidny gohuaj. Kt cust jfvg `nhw.

F Uktg ehkngr ifo `krg wktj oh wftgr `nhw ft fnn - fom oh mfcfag wknn hiiur. Kt wknn skcpny

ihcg up th tgcpgrfturg fom turo h``. ]jft ks f vgry `hrakvkoa mgskao ko f whrnm wjgrg

cgijfokifn systgcs tjft rgny ho chvkoa pfrts ifo fom mhgs `fkn. Uktg stgfc ehkngrs ’ ko `fit

fnchst fnn stgfc ehkngrs - hpgrftg wktj f `kxgm wftgr nkog wktj oh wftgr `nhw. Ihppgr `ko tueg

ehkngrs ifo‛t mh tjks egifusg tjgy cust jfvg `nhw. Fom oht lust foy `nhw< 1 `ggt pgr sgihom ks

rgihccgomgm, sh fo gxtrf jg`ty pucp usufnny sgpfrftg `rhc tjg systgc pucp ks rgqukrgm. ]jg

rgfsho `hr 1 `ggt pgr sgihom8 Ngss `nhw fom tjg tuegs cfy sifng4 chrg `nhw fom tjg tuegs cfy

grhmg ho tjg koskmg, fnn mug th tjg ckogrfn jfrmogss `huom ko wftgr ’ tjg sfcg ckogrfns tjft sifng

up chst ehkngrs fom wftgr jgftgrs.

]jg ihppgr `ko tueg jgft gxijfoagr ifo whrd wgnn fs nhoa fs gvgrytjkoa frhuom kt

whrds pgr`gitny. Wo`hrtuoftgny cgijfokifn tjkoas wktj chvkoa pfrts mho‛t whrd `hrgvgr. Yhhogr

hr nftgr f `nhw swktij pfmmng stkids hr f pucp ihupnkoa ergfds fom eg`hrg yhu dohw kt yhu jfvg f

euknmkoa wktj oh jgft. @hr chst ehkngrs tjft who‛t eg f prhengc. [hu ifnn f pnucegr, jg `kxgs tjg prhengc fom yhu jfvg jgft fafko. K` tjg sfcg sigofrkh jfppgos th f ihppgr tueg ehkngr, tjg

rgsunts frg chrg nkdgny th eg succgm up tjks wfy< „[hu oggm f ogw ehkngr–.


8/80

Ihomgoskoa ehkngrs `krst fppgfrgm ko Gurhpg fom jfvg egihcg ihccgrikfnny fiigptgm ko

tjg Woktgm Ytftgs hony ko tjg nfst 62-67 ygfrs. ]jgy frg strkitny `hr mhcgstki fom jymrhoki wftgr

jgftkoa ’ oh stgfc - fom agogrfnny ifooht `krg ho `ugns htjgr tjfo prhpfog hr ofturfn afs. ]jgy

frg ifnngm ihomgoskoa ehkngrs egifusg wjgo tjg jht afssgs `rhc tjg prhmuits h` ihceustkho

strkdg ihnm wftgr efidgm jgftkoa sur`figs, tjg chksturg ko tjgsg afssgs ihomgosgs hut, cuij nkdg

jht ergftj fafkost f ihnm pfog h` anfss. Qjgo tjks jfppgos, nftgot jgft ks rgngfsgm fom tjkskoirgfsgs tjg g``kikgoiy h` tjg ehkngr. Qktj tjg iurrgot anut h` „arggo– tgijohnhay, NGGMY

igrtk`kgm euknmkoas, ogw ahvgrocgot g``kikgoiy rgaunftkhos fom rgeftg prharfcs `hr „chrg

g``kikgot– gqukpcgot ’ kt sjhunm ihcg fs oh surprksg tjft ihomgoskoa ehkngrs jfvg egihcg tjg

ogw mfrnkoa h` tjg jymrhoki ehkngr cfrdgt. Eut frg ihomgoskoa ehkngrs truny rgvhnutkhofry fom f

eka stgp `hrwfrm8

Wotkn ihomgoskoa ehkngrs ifcg frhuom, ihomgoskoa f ehkngr wfs tjg nfst tjkoa yhu wfotgm

th mh. Ihomgoskoa ’ hr „rfko koskmg tjg ehkngr– wfs efm ogws `hr f oucegr h` rgfshos<

]jg fikms ko tjg ihomgosftkho whunm mgstrhy `grrhus fom gvgo oho-`grrhus cgtfns

nkdg ihppgr rftjgr qukidny.

Ihomgoskoa wfs efm `hr ihceustkho, h`tgo ngfmkoa th wgt shht tjft nhwgrgm

g``kikgoiy fom pnuaagm up tjg afs skmg h` tjg jgft gxijfoagr. 9) Ihomgoskoa

ihunm oht hony mgstrhy tjg ehkngr eut tjg stfid fs wgnn. =) Nhwgr stfid

tgcpgrfturgs ihunm rgmuig tjg ofturfn mrf`t th wjgrg tjg prhmuits h` ihceustkho

ihunm spknn efid koth tjg ehkngr rhhc.

AUHQ]J FOM YRGIKFNK\F]KHO

]jg ekaagst ijfoag ko ehkngr mgskao ifcg wktj tjg mgvgnhpcgot h` tjg cgcerfog tueg

wfnn ko tjg nftg 6;72s fom gfrny 6;02s. Ygfcngss tuegs wgrg wgnmgm thagtjgr ko f tueg sjhp,

uskoa f stggn cgcerfog efr egtwggo tjg tuegs, fom cfmg koth f nfrag tueg pfogn. ]jks gnkckoftgmtjg oggm `hr rg`rfithry `hr dggpkoa tjg `krg koskmg tjg `krg ehx, rgmuigm ihostruitkho ihst,


9/80

sjhrtgogm grgitkho sijgmungs, fom koirgfsgm tjg skzg h` tjg ehkngrs. ]jg rfmkfot ehkngr mgskaos

ihunm ohw rgfij up th =,222,222 phuoms h` stgfc pgr jhur. Nftgr tjg komustry mgvgnhpgm tjg

nfragst h` tjg ehkngr mgskaos, tjg uokvgrsfn prgssurg fom supgrirktkifn ehkngrs. ]jgsg stgfc-agogrftkoa egjgchtjs ihunm ohw rgfij hvgr 6,922 cgafwftts h` gngitrkikty hr ;,222,222 phuoms

h` stgfc pgr jhur.

Murkoa tjg pfst 622 ygfrs, tjg stgfc-agogrftkoa komustry jfs chmk`kgm hr mgvgnhpgm

ehkngrs spgik`kifnny suktgm `hr fom ko rgsphosg th komustry oggms. @hr gxfcpng, frhuom tjg nftg

6;=2s cfoy cgmkifn, komustrkfn, ihnngag, fom ahvgrocgot `fiknktkgs wfotgm tjg feknkty th agogrftgtjgkr hwo stgfc fom gngitrkikty. Ko rgsphosg th tjks oggm, tjg pfidfag hr sjhp-fssgcengm ehkngrs

wgrg mgvgnhpgm. F pfidfag ehkngr ks f prg-goakoggrgm stgfc-agogrftkoa ehkngr tjft rfoags ko skzg

fom stgfc ifpfikty (typkifnny `rhc 62,222 th 022,222 ne/jr) euknt ko f sjhp fom sjkppgm ey rfkn hr

efrag. Cfoy ihcpfokgs cfou`fiturgm tjgsg scfnn sjhp-fssgcengm ehkngrs.

Fohtjgr gxfcpng ks ehkngrs `hr tjg punp fom pfpgr komustry, wjkij jfvg eggo frhuom f

vgry nhoa tkcg fom egafo wktj tjg drf`t rgihvgry prhigss mgvgnhpgm ko Mfozkoa, Agrcfoy, ko

6:79. Ko 6;21, tjg drf`t rgihvgry prhigss wfs kotrhmuigm ko Ohrtj Fcgrkif. ]jg punp fom pfpgrkomustry oggmgm f ehkngr tjft ihunm agogrftg nfrag qufotktkgs h` stgfc fom gngitrkikty th jgnp ruo

tjgkr mrkgrs, jgnp tjgc eg gogray sgn`-su``kikgot, fom, chst kcphrtfotny, jgnp tjgc cfdg scgnt.Wskoa tjg mgskaos mgsirkegm fehvg, tjg ehkngr cfou`fiturgrs mgvgnhpgm tjg "rgihvgry" ehkngr.

]jg rgihvgry ehkngr's ùrofig frgf ks mgskaogm th cgnt tjg shmkuc sfnts ko enfid nkquhr (tjg eyprhmuit ng`t hvgr `rhc tjg punp-cfdkoa prhigss). Enfid nkquhr mrhpngts `fnn hoth tjg ijfr egm

hr ùrofig `nhhr h` tjg ehkngr, fom tjg chntgo kohrafoki ijgckifns, hr scgnt, rgcfkos ho tjg

ùrofig `nhhr fom `nhws ey arfvkty tjrhuaj tjg scgnt sphut hpgokoas koth f mksshnvkoa tfod. ]jg

scgnt wknn tjgo eg rgihvgrgm ey tjg pfpgr cknn `hr usg ko punp prhigsskoa. ]wh suij mgskaos wgrgIhceustkho Goakoggrkoa's ijgckifn rgihvgry ehkngr, ifnngm tjg P5U (vgrtkifn 5 mruc rgihvgry

ehkngr), fom Efeihid & Qknihx's prhigss rgihvgry ehkngr, ifnngm skcpny f RU ehkngr.

OGQ EHKNGU MGYKAOY

]jg stgfc-agogrftkoa komustry fnsh jfm th mgvgnhp ogw ehkngrs ko rgsphosg th oho-

ihccgrikfn hr komustry mgcfoms. Ey tjg nftg 6;12s fom gfrny 6;:2s, tjg arhwkoa mksphsfn ihsts

`hr nfom`knns, tjg pfssfag h` tjg Ruenki Wtknkty Ugaunfthry Rhnkikgs Fit h` 6;1:, fom fo koirgfsgmmgcfom `hr gngitrki phwgr ko tjg Woktgm Ytftgs ngm th tjg mgvgnhpcgot h` fntgroftkvg ùgn ’ eurokoa

ehkngrs.

Cfoy mk``grgot typgs h` ehkngrs egafo th eg mgskaogm th euro fntgroftkvg ùgns suij fsrgùsg (trfsj), whhm, fom ekhcfss (vkog inkppkoas, ngfvgs, arfssgs, efcehh, fom suafr ifog hr

efafssg). F ehkngr uskoa `nukmkzgm egm tgijohnhay wfs fnsh mgskaogm fs fo fntgroftkvg cgtjhm h`

eurokoa shnkm ùgns suij fs ihfn. Gfij fntgroftkvg ùgn ’ eurokoa ehkngr jfs tjg efski ihcphogotsh` kts prgmgigsshrs. ]jg ehkngr cfou`fiturgrs hony chmk`kgm tjg ùgn koput gqukpcgot hr chmk`kgm

tjg efski ehkngr pfrts th fiihcchmftg tjg trfos`gr h` fmmktkhofn fkr, fsj, hr tjg ùgn ktsgn`.

Ugùsg, whhm, fom ekhcfss ehkngrs frg skcknfr th tjg utknkty rfmkfot ehkngrs fom komustrkfn

ehkngrs tjft euro ihfn. ]jgy `fnn koth tjg iftgahry h` "wfstg-th-gogray" ehkngrs. ]jgy mk``gr hony


10/80

ko tjg typg h` rgùsg, whhm, hr ekhcfss tjgy euro, fom tjg ùgn tjgy euro cfy vfry mgpgomkoa ho

tjg tkcg h` tjg ygfr (g.a., futuco cfy erkoa chrg ngfvgs).

Mug th tjg cfoy vfrkfengs h` tjg ùgn, tjg nhwgr ùrofig govkrhocgot ks ihostfotny

ijfoakoa. ]jgrg frg twh efski cgtjhms h` eurokoa rgùsg< cfss eurokoa, wjkij usgs tjg rgùsg fs

rgigkvgm, fom prgpfrgm rgùsg hr rgùsg-mgrkvgm ùgn (UM@), `hr wjkij tjg rgùsg ks sgpfrftgm fomshrtgm, wktj tjg rgcfkokoa oho-rgiyingm cftgrkfn ahkoa th tjg ehkngr. ]jg eurokoa h` gktjgr cfss

rgùsg hr UM@ ifo ifusg sgrkhus ihrrhskho ho tjg tueg wfnn sur`fig. Ijhhskoa tjg rkajt rg`rfithry

cftgrkfn `hr tjg nhwgr ùrofig wfnns ks irktkifn `hr g``kikgot ehkngr hpgrftkho fom tueg prhtgitkho.

@nukmkzgm egm ehkngrs jfvg chst h` tjg efski ihcphogots h` fnn ehkngrs (stgfc mruc,

tuegs, gihohckzgrs, supgr-jgftgrs, gti.). Jhwgvgr, kts efski mgskao ks mk``grgot `rhc chst htjgr

ehkngr mgskaos. F `nukmkzgm egm ehkngr, mgpgomkoa ho tjg ehkngr cfou`fiturgr, cfy jfvg iyinhogs(oht th eg ihoùsgm wktj f iyinhog eurogr), ùgn ijutgs, hvgr-egm eurogrs, ihnngitkho jhppgrs,

ihceustkho ijfcegrs, fom strkppgr ihhngrs.

]jhuaj tjg tgijohnhay h` afsk`kiftkho jfs eggo frhuom skoig tjg 6;52s, kts usg fs fofntgroftkvg ùgn ’ eurokoa cgtjhm h` agogrftkoa gngitrkikty fom phwgr egafo ko tjg nftg 6;12s. ]jg

`nukmkzgm egm ehkngr usgs f prhigss ey wjkij shnkm ùgns frg suspgomgm ko fo upwfrm-`nhwkoa afshr fkr strgfc ft tjg ehtthc h` tjg uokt. ]jg eurokoa ùgn gxksts ko f `nukm-nkdg stftg tjft jfs f jkaj

jgft trfos`gr eut wktj nhwgr rgmuigm gcksskhos. Nkdg tjg rgùsg ehkngr, tjg nhwgr ùrofig wfnns

cust eg prhtgitgm `rhc tjg govkrhocgot irgftgm ey tjg eurokoa h` tjg ùgn.

KP. Y]GFC

QJF] KY Y]GFC8

F egttgr uomgrstfomkoa h` tjg prhpgrtkgs h` stgfc cfy eg fijkgvgm ey uomgrstfomkoa tjgagogrfn chngiunfr fom fthcki struiturg h` cfttgr, fom fppnykoa tjks dohwngmag th kig, wftgr fom

stgfc.

F chngiung ks tjg scfnngst fchuot h` foy gngcgot hr ihcphuom suestfoig stknn phssgsskoa

fnn tjg ijgckifn prhpgrtkgs h` tjft suestfoig wjkij ifo gxkst. Chngiungs tjgcsgnvgs frg cfmg up

h` gvgo scfnngr pfrtkings ifnngm fthcs, wjkij mg`kog tjg efski gngcgots suij fs jymrhago fomhxyago. ]jg spgik`ki ihcekoftkhos h` tjgsg fthcki gngcgots prhvkmg ihcphuom suestfoigs. Hog

suij ihcphuom ks rgprgsgotgm ey tjg ijgckifn `hrcunf J5H, jfvkoa chngiungs cfmg up h` twh

fthcs h` jymrhago fom hog fthc h` hxyago.

]jg rgfsho wftgr ks sh pngotkùn ho tjg gfrtj ks egifusg jymrhago fom hxyago frg fchoast

tjg chst feuomfot gngcgots ko tjg uokvgrsg. Ifreho ks fohtjgr gngcgot h` skaok`kifot feuomfoig,fom ks f dgy ihcphogot ko fnn hrafoki cfttgr. Chst ckogrfn suestfoigs ifo gxkst ko tjg tjrgg

pjyskifn stftgs (shnkm, nkqukm fom vfphr) wjkij frg rg`grrgm th fs pjfsgs. Ko tjg ifsg h` J5H, tjg

tgrcs kig, wftgr fom stgfc frg usgm th mgohtg tjg tjrgg pjfsgs rgspgitkvgny.


11/80

]jg chngiunfr frrfoagcgot h` kig, wftgr, fom stgfc ks stknn oht ùnny uomgrsthhm, eut kt ks

ihovgokgot th ihoskmgr tjg chngiungs fs ehomgm thagtjgr ey gngitrkifn ijfrags (rg`grrgm th fs tjg

jymrhago ehom). ]jg mgargg h` gxiktftkho h` tjg chngiungs mgtgrckogs tjg pjyskifn stftg (hr pjfsg) h` tjg suestfoig.

Y]GFC

Fs tjg tgcpgrfturg koirgfsgs fom tjg wftgr fpprhfijgs kts ehknkoa ihomktkho, shcgchngiungs fttfko gohuaj dkogtki gogray th rgfij vgnhiktkgs tjft fnnhw tjgc th chcgotfrkny gsifpg

`rhc tjg nkqukm koth tjg spfig fehvg tjg sur`fig, eg`hrg `fnnkoa efid koth tjg nkqukm. @urtjgr

jgftkoa ifusgs argftgr gxiktftkho fom tjg oucegr h` chngiungs wktj gohuaj gogray th ngfvg tjg

nkqukm koirgfsgs. Fs tjg wftgr ks jgftgm th kts ehknkoa phkot, eueengs h` stgfc `hrc wktjko kt fomrksg th ergfd tjrhuaj tjg sur`fig.

Ihoskmgrkoa tjg chngiunfr frrfoagcgot h` nkqukms fom vfphrs, kt ks nhakifn tjft tjg mgosktyh` stgfc ks cuij ngss tjfo tjft h` wftgr, egifusg tjg stgfc chngiungs frg ùrtjgr fpfrt `rhc hog

fohtjgr. ]jg spfig kccgmkftgny fehvg tjg wftgr sur`fig tjus egihcgs `knngm wktj ngss mgosg

stgfc chngiungs.

Qjgo tjg oucegr h` chngiungs ngfvkoa tjg nkqukm sur`fig ks chrg tjfo tjhsg rg-gotgrkoa,tjg wftgr `rggny gvfphrftgs. Ft tjks phkot kt jfs rgfijgm ehknkoa phkot hr kts sfturftkho

tgcpgrfturg, fs kt ks sfturftgm wktj jgft gogray. K` tjg prgssurg rgcfkos ihostfot, fmmkoa chrg

jgft mhgs oht ifusg tjg tgcpgrfturg th rksg foy ùrtjgr eut ifusgs tjg wftgr th `hrc sfturftgm

stgfc. ]jg tgcpgrfturg h` tjg ehknkoa wftgr fom sfturftgm stgfc wktjko tjg sfcg systgc ks tjgsfcg, eut tjg jgft gogray pgr uokt cfss ks cuij argftgr ko tjg stgfc.

Ft ftchspjgrki prgssurg tjg sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg ks 622²I. Jhwgvgr, k` tjg prgssurg kskoirgfsgm, tjks wknn fnnhw tjg fmmktkho h` chrg jgft fom fo koirgfsg ko tgcpgrfturg wktjhut f

ijfoag h` pjfsg.

]jgrg`hrg, koirgfskoa tjg prgssurg g``gitkvgny koirgfsgs ehtj tjg gotjfnpy h` wftgr, fom

tjg sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg. ]jg rgnftkhosjkp egtwggo tjg sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg fom tjg prgssurgks dohwo fs tjg stgfc sfturftkho iurvg (sgg @kaurg 5.5.6).


12/80

Qftgr fom stgfc ifo ihgxkst ft foy prgssurg ho tjks iurvg, ehtj egkoa ft tjg sfturftkhotgcpgrfturg. Ytgfc ft f ihomktkho fehvg tjg sfturftkho iurvg ks dohwo fs supgrjgftgm stgfc<

]gcpgrfturg fehvg sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg ks ifnngm tjg mgargg h` supgrjgft h` tjg stgfc.

Qftgr ft f ihomktkho egnhw tjg iurvg ks ifnngm sue-sfturftgm wftgr.

K` tjg stgfc ks feng th `nhw `rhc tjg ehkngr ft tjg sfcg rftg tjft kt ks prhmuigm, tjg

fmmktkho h` `urtjgr jgft skcpny koirgfsgs tjg rftg h` prhmuitkho. K` tjg stgfc ks rgstrfkogm `rhc

ngfvkoa tjg ehkngr, fom tjg jgft koput rftg ks cfkotfkogm, tjg gogray `nhwkoa koth tjg ehkngr wknn egargftgr tjfo tjg gogray `nhwkoa hut. ]jks gxigss gogray rfksgs tjg prgssurg, ko turo fnnhwkoa tjg

sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg th rksg, fs tjg tgcpgrfturg h` sfturftgm stgfc ihrrgnftgs th kts prgssurg.

Y]GFC< ]JG GOGUA[ @NWKM

Kt ks usg`un th kotrhmuig tjg thpki h` stgfc ey ihoskmgrkoa kts cfoy usgs fom egog`kts, eg`hrg gotgrkoa fo hvgrvkgw h` tjg stgfc pnfot hr foy tgijokifn gxpnfoftkhos. Ytgfc jfs ihcg f

nhoa wfy `rhc kts trfmktkhofn fsshikftkhos wktj nhihchtkvgs fom tjg Komustrkfn Ugvhnutkho. Ytgfc

thmfy ks fo kotgarfn fom gssgotkfn pfrt h` chmgro tgijohnhay. Qktjhut kt, hur `hhm, tgxtkng,ijgckifn, cgmkifn, phwgr, jgftkoa fom trfosphrt komustrkgs ihunm oht gxkst hr pgr`hrc fs tjgy mh.

Ytgfc prhvkmgs f cgfos h` trfosphrtkoa

ihotrhnnfeng fchuots h` gogray `rhc f igotrfn,

futhcftgm ehkngr jhusg, wjgrg kt ifo eg g``kikgotny

fom gihohckifnny agogrftgm, th tjg phkot h` usg.

]jgrg`hrg fs stgfc chvgs frhuom f pnfot kt ifogqufnny eg ihoskmgrgm th eg tjg trfosphrt fom

prhvkskho h` gogray.

@hr cfoy rgfshos, stgfc ks hog h` tjg chst

wkmgny usgm ihcchmktkgs `hr ihovgykoa jgftgogray. Kts usg ks phpunfr tjrhuajhut komustry `hr f

erhfm rfoag h` tfsds `rhc cgijfokifn phwgr

prhmuitkho th spfig jgftkoa fom prhigssfppnkiftkhos.

Y]GFC @WOMFCGO]FNY

Ytgfc ks tjg vfphr pjfsg h` wftgr fom ks agogrftgm ey fmmkoa chrg jgft tjfo rgqukrgm th

cfkotfko kts nkqukm pjfsg ft f akvgo prgssurg.

]jg prgpfrftkho h` tjks ijfptgr ks fsskaogm th ]I 0.6, Jymrhoki fom Ytgfc Gqukpcgot


13/80

fom Yystgcs. Yurg, ifuskoa tjg nkqukm th ijfoag th vfphr wktjhut foy `urtjgr koirgfsg ko

tgcpgrfturg.

]gcpgrfturg ks tjg tjgrcfn stftg h` ehtj nkqukm fom vfphr ft foy akvgo prgssurg. ]jg

vfnugs sjhwo ko ]feng 6 frg `hr mry sfturftgm stgfc. ]jg vfphr tgcpgrfturg ifo eg rfksgm

ey fmmkoa chrg jgft, rgsuntkoa ko supgrjgftgm stgfc, wjkij ks usgm (6) wjgrg jkajgrtgcpgrfturgs frg rgqukrgm, (5) ko nfrag mkstrkeutkho systgcs th ihcpgosftg `hr jgft nhssgs

fom th gosurg tjft stgfc ks mgnkvgrgm ft tjg mgskrgm sfturftgm prgssurg fom tgcpgrfturg,fom (9) th gosurg tjft tjg stgfc ks mry fom ihotfkos oh gotrfkogm nkqukm tjft ihunm mfcfag

shcg turekog-mrkvgo gqukpcgot.

Gotjfnpy h` tjg nkqukm j` (sgoskeng jgft) ks tjg fchuot h` jgft ko Etu rgqukrgm th rfksg tjg

tgcpgrfturg h` f phuom h` wftgr `rhc 95²@ th tjg ehknkoa phkot ft tjg prgssurg komkiftgm.

Gotjfnpy h` gvfphrftkho j`a (nftgot jgft h` vfphrkzftkho) ks tjg fchuot h` jgft rgqukrgm th

ijfoag f phuom h` ehknkoa wftgr ft f akvgo prgssurg th f phuom h` stgfc ft tjg sfcg prgssurg. ]jks sfcg fchuot h` jgft ks rgngfsgm wjgo tjg vfphr ks ihomgosgm efid th f

nkqukm.

Gotjfnpy h` tjg stgfc ja (thtfn jgft) ks tjg ihcekogm gotjfnpy h` nkqukm fom vfphr fomrgprgsgots tjg thtfn jgft fehvg 95²@ ko tjg stgfc.

Ypgik`ki vhnucg, tjg rgikprhifn h` mgoskty, ks tjg vhnucg h` uokt cfss fom komkiftgs tjg

vhnucgtrki spfig tjft 6 ne h` stgfc hr wftgr hiiupkgs.

Fo uomgrstfomkoa h` tjg fehvg jgnps gxpnfko shcg h` tjg `hnnhwkoa uokqug prhpgrtkgs fomfmvfotfags h` stgfc<

Chst h` tjg jgft ihotgot h` stgfc ks sthrgm fs nftgot jgft, wjkij pgrckts nfrag qufotktkgs

h` jgft th eg trfosckttgm g``kikgotny wktj nkttng ijfoag ko tgcpgrfturg. Egifusg tjgtgcpgrfturg h` sfturftgm stgfc ks prgssurg-mgpgomgot, f ogankakeng tgcpgrfturg rgmuitkho

hiiurs `rhc tjg rgmuitkho ko prgssurg ifusgm ey pkpg `rkitkho nhssgs fs stgfc `nhws

tjrhuaj tjg systgc. ]jks hiiurs rgafrmngss h` tjg kosunftkho g``kikgoiy, fs nhoa fs tjg ehkngr cfkotfkos tjg koktkfn prgssurg fom tjg stgfc trfps rgchvg tjg ihomgosftg.

Ihovgrsgny, ko f jymrhoki systgc, kofmgquftg kosunftkho ifo skaok`kifotny rgmuig `nukm

tgcpgrfturg. • Ytgfc, fs fnn `nukms, `nhws `rhc frgfs h` jkaj prgssurg th frgfs h` nhw

prgssurg fom ks feng th chvg tjrhuajhut f systgc wktjhut fogxtgrofn gogray shurig. Jgft mksskpftkho ifusgs tjg vfphr th ihomgosg, wjkij irgftgs f

rgmuitkho ko prgssurg ifusgm ey tjg mrfcftki ijfoag ko spgik`ki vhnucg (6022


14/80

JKY]HU[ FOM KCRHU]FOIG

Fo fghnkpkng (hr fghnkpyng, hr ghnkpkng), fnsh dohwo fs f Jgrh

goakog, ks f skcpng enfmgngss rfmkfn stgfc turekog wjkij spkos wjgo tjg

igotrfn wftgr ihotfkogr ks jgftgm. ]hrqug ks prhmuigm ey stgfc lgts

gxktkoa tjg turekog, cuij nkdg f tkp lgt hr rhidgt goakog. Ko tjg 6st igoturyIG, Jgrh h` Fngxfomrkf mgsirkegm tjg mgvkig, fom cfoy shurigs akvg jkc

tjg irgmkt `hr kts kovgotkho.

]jg fghnkpkng Jgrh mgsirkegm ks ihoskmgrgm th eg tjg `krst

rgihrmgm stgfc goakog hr rgfitkho stgfc turekog. ]jg ofcg ’

mgrkvgm `rhc tjg Arggd whrm Ζ Ἵ θδθυ fom Nftko whrm pknf ’

trfosnftgs th "tjg efnn h` Fghnus", Fghnus egkoa tjg Arggd ahm h` tjgfkr fom wkom.

Rrg-mftkoa Jgrh's wrktkoas, f mgvkig ifnngm fo fghnkpkng wfsmgsirkegm ko tjg 6st igotury EI ey Pktruvkus ko jks trgftksg Mg

frijktgiturf4 jhwgvgr, kt ks uoingfr wjgtjgr kt ks tjg sfcg mgvkig hr f

prgmgigsshr, fs tjgrg ks oh cgotkho h` foy rhtftkoa pfrts.

]rfosphrtftkho wfs hog h` tjhsg kcphrtfot egog`kikfrkgs. Ey tjg gfrny 6:22s, jkaj- prgssurg stgfc goakogs jfm egihcg ihcpfit gohuaj th chvg egyhom tjg `fithry, prhcptkoa tjg

`krst stgfc-phwgrgm nhihchtkvg th jkt tjg rfkns ko Erktfko ko 6:2=. @hr tjg `krst tkcg ko jksthry,ahhms wgrg trfosphrtgm hvgr nfom ey shcgtjkoa htjgr tjfo tjg cusing h` cfo hr fokcfn.

@fithrkgs tjft stknn rgnkgm ho wkom hr wftgr phwgr th mrkvg tjgkr cfijkogs murkoa tjg KomustrkfnUgvhnutkho wgrg iho`kogm th igrtfko nhifngs. Ytgfc cgfot tjft `fithrkgs ihunm eg euknt foywjgrg,

oht lust fnhoa `fst-`nhwkoa rkvgrs.

Rrkoikpfn usgs/ fppnkiftkho h` stgfc

Y]GFC @HU RUHIGYY JGF]KOA

Ytgfc ks nfragny usgm `hr tjg purphsg h` prhigss jgftkoa. Wskoa stgfc `hr prhigsskoajgftkoa h``grs cuntkpng egog`kts hvgr htjgr jgftkoa cgmkf. Oucgrhus egog`kts, skcpnkikty h` tjg

systgc fom jkaj g``kikgoiy fom rgnkfeknkty cfdg stgfc tjg `krst ijhkig `hr prhigss jgftkoa.

Ytgfc ifo eg usgm gktjgr `hr mkrgit jgftkoa hr komkrgit jgftkoa.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_turbinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_jethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruviushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_architecturahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_architecturahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_architecturahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_architecturahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruviushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_jethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_turbine


15/80

f. Mkrgit jgftkoa Ko mkrgit jgftkoa, stgfc ks mkrgitny

kolgitgm ko tjg suestfoig wjkij ks th eg

jgftgm. Ifrg sjhunm eg tfdgo tjft prhpgr

ckxkoa tfdgs pnfig th gosurg uok`hrcjgftkoa. Kt ks fnsh gssgotkfn th tfdg ifrgtjft oh tgcpgrfturg hvgrsjhhts frg

hesgrvgm. Ypfrag pkpgs sjhunm eg usgm th

gosurg tjft stgfc mhgs oht gsifpg th tjggovkrhocgot wktjhut jgftkoa tjg

prhmuit.

Ko pjfrcfigutkifn hr `hhm fom egvgrfags

komustry, stgfc h` jkajgst purkty (sf`g th eg ihosucgm ey jucfos) sjhunm fnwfys

eg usgm `hr mkrgit jgftkoa purphsgs.

e. Komkrgit Jgftkoa]jg komkrgit cgtjhm h` jgftkoa usgs

stgfc th jgft tjg prhmuit wktj tjg jgnp h`

jgft gxijfoagrs sh tjft tjg prhmuit mhgsoht ihcg pjyskifnny ko ihotfit wktj

stgfc. ]jg komkrgit jgftkoa ifo eg mhog

tjrhuaj usg h` vfrkhus jgftkoa gqukpcgotsuij fs ihhdgrs, lfidgtgm vgssgns, pnftg

typg hr sjgnn fom tueg typg jgft gxijfoagrs.

Y]GFC @HU F]HCK\F]KHO

]jg prhigss h` fthckzftkho gosurgs f egttgrihceustkho h` ùgns. ]jg whrm fthckzftkho nktgrfnny

cgfos ergfdkoa ko th tkoy pfrtkings. Ko eurogrs,

stgfc ks usgm `hr tjg purphsg h` fthckzkoa tjg ùgn.]jks gosurgs f nfragr sur`fig frgf h` tjg ùgn

fvfknfeng `hr tjg ihceustkho.

Fs f rgsunt h` fthckzftkho, shht `hrcftkho ks

ckokckzgm fom hvgrfnn g``kikgoiy h` ihceustkho

ahgs up.


16/80

Y]GFC @HU RHQGU AGOGUF]KHO

]jg vgry `krst ihccgrikfnigotrfn gngitrkifn agogrftkoa stftkhos ko

Ogw [hrd fom Nhomho, ko 6::5, fnsh

usgm rgikprhiftkoa stgfc goakogs.

@hr mgifmgs, stgfc ks egkoa usgm `hr

tjg purphsg h` phwgr agogrftkho ko`hrc h` gngitrkikty. ]jg stgfc phwgr

pnfots whrd ho tjg Ufodkog Iying. Ko

Ufodkog iying, supgrjgftgm stgfc ks

agogrftgm fom tjgo tfdgo th stgfcturekog. ]jg stgfc mrkvgs tjg turekog

wjkij ko turo agogrftgs tjg gngitrkikty.

]jg usgm stgfc ks fafko ihovgrtgm ko thwftgr uskoa f ihomgosgr. ]jks

rgihvgrgm wftgr ks fafko `gm efid th

tjg ehkngr th agogrftg stgfc.

]jg g``kikgoiy h` tjg phwgr pnfot ks

mkrgitny mgpgomgot ho mk``grgoig

egtwggo prgssurg fom tgcpgrfturg h`stgfc ft tjg kongt fom hutngt h` turekog.

Jgoig, usg h` jkaj tgcpgrfturg fom jkaj prgssurg stgfc ks fmvksfeng. Jgoig, phwgragogrftkho pnfots frg chst g``kikgot wjgo supgrjgftgm stgfc ks usgm. Fs jkaj prgssurg ks

kovhnvgm, wftgr tueg ehkngrs frg usgm `hr stgfc agogrftkho.

Y]GFC @HU JWCKMK@KIF]KHO

Cfkotfkokoa juckmkty ks firuikfn fspgit h` JPFI systgcs fs

juckmkty nhwgr hr jkajgr tjfo

mgskrgm jfs fmvgrsg g``gits ho

jucfos, cfijkogs fom cftgrkfns.Juckmkty nhwgr tjfo mgskrgm ckajt

ngfm th mrykoa h` cuius cgcerfogswjkij untkcftgny rgsunts korgspkrfthry mkstrgss.

Nhw juckmkty fnsh ngfms thkoirgfsgm stftki gngitrkikty prhengcs

wjkij ckajt mfcfag tjg ihstny

gqukpcgot.


17/80

Ytgfc ifo eg usgm `hr tjg purphsg h` juckmk`kiftkho.

Wskoa stgfc `hr tjg purphsg h` juckmk`kiftkho h``grs fmmgm fmvfotfags hvgr htjgr cgmkf.]jgrg frg mk``grgot typgs h` juckmk`kgrs `rhc gvfphrftkoa juckmk`kgrs th untrfshoki hogs th sukt

mk``grgot fppnkiftkhos.

Y]GFC @HU MU[KOA

Rrhmuit mrykoa ks fohtjgr fppnkiftkho h` stgfc wjgrg stgfc ks usgm th rgchvg chksturg

`rhc tjg prhmuit. Ihovgotkhofnny, jht fkr ks usgm `hr prhmuit mrykoa. Wskoa stgfc th mry cfdgs

tjg systgc skcpng, gfsy th ihotrhn mrykoa rftgs fom ihcpfit. ]jg hvgrfnn ifpktfn kovgstcgot ksfnsh nhw.

Ho tjg htjgr jfom, usg h` stgfc ks ijgfpgr ho hpgrftkhofn efsks ihcpfrgm th jht fkr. Kt ks fnsh f

sf`gr fntgroftkvg. ]jg usg h` stgfc `hr mrykoa purphsg fnsh gosurgs f egttgr prhmuit qufnkty wjgoihcpfrgm wktj jht fkr.

RHQGU AGOGUF]KHO

F stgfc/tjgrcfn phwgr stftkho usgs jgft gogray agogrftgm `rhc eurokoa ihfn th prhmuiggngitrkifn gogray. ]jks typg h` phwgr stftkho ks wkmgny usgm frhuom tjg whrnm.

]jks phwgr stftkho usgs tjg Ufodkog iying. ]jks ks tjg iying h` tjg stgfc prhmuigm ko tjg ehkngr, fom tjgo tfdgo th tjg Ytgfc turekog (prkcg chvgr). @rhc tjg turekog tjg stgfc ks ihhngm

efid th wftgr ko tjg Ihomgosgr, tjg rgsuntkoa wftgr ks `gm efid koth tjg ehkngr th rgpgft tjg iying.

Egifusg h` tjg feuomfoig h` `ugn (ihfn), tjks dkom h` phwgr stftkho ifo eg usgm th

prhmuig nfrag fchuots h` gngitrkifn gogray. Ko chst ihuotrkgs tjgsg phwgr stftkhos frg usgm

fs efsg nhfm phwgr stftkhos. ]jks ks egifusg stgfc phwgr stftkhos frg snhw th stfrt fom ifooht egusgm th iftgr `hr pgfd nhfms tjft agogrfnny hiiur `hr f sjhrt murftkho.

]jgsg phwgr stftkhos (thagtjgr wktj ouingfr phwgr stftkhos) frg dgpt ruookoa vgry inhsg

th `unn g``kikgoiy `hr 5= jhurs f mfy (uongss tjgy frg egkoa cfkotfkogm). ]jgy jfvg typkifn nk`g h`

92 th =2 ygfrs (fntjhuaj chst ahvgrocgots jfvg rgmuigm tjks oucegr th 97 ygfrs).

Rrhs & Ihos


18/80

Y]GFC JGF]KOA

Jgftkoa wktj Ytgfc

Ytgfc ks hog h` tjg chst ihccho fom g``gitkvg jgft trfos`gr cgmkucs usgm ko komustry, eut kt ks oht tjg hony cgmkuc fvfknfeng. Htjgr `nukms suij fs jht wftgr fom hkn frg fnsh usgm `hr

komkrgit jgftkoa ko jgft gxijfoagrs. ]jg `hnnhwkoa sgrkgs h` frtkings wknn `hius ho tjg fmvfotfags

h` uskoa stgfc ihcpfrgm th jht wftgr hr hkn `hr jgftkoa.

Jgftkoa wktj Jht Qftgr hr Hkn

Jgft trfos`gr `rhc f nkqukm cgmkuc suij fs jht wftgr hr hkn utknkzgs tjg cgmkuc‛ssgoskeng jgft. ]jg nkqukm ks suppnkgm ft gngvftgm tgcpgrfturgs th tjg jgft gxijfoagr. Fs tjg nkqukm

akvgs h`` tjgrcfn gogray, kts tgcpgrfturg mgirgfsgs, gxktkoa tjg gxijfoagr ft f nhwgr tgcpgrfturg.

]jg fchuot h` gogray rgngfsgm pgr uokt h` jgft trfos`gr cgmkuc ks rgnftkvgny nhw (typkifnny

frhuom 61 difn/da, hr 92 Etu/ne).


19/80

Jgftkoa wktj Ytgfc

Ytgfc ks suppnkgm ko f afsghus stftg th tjg jgft gxijfoagr. Jgft trfos`gr wktj sfturftgm

stgfc utknkzgs tjg nftgot jgft h` stgfc, rgngfskoa f nfrag fchuot h` gogray fs kt ihomgosgs(ijfoags th tjg nkqukm stftg). Nkqukm ihomgosftg gxkts tjg jgft gxijfoagr ft inhsg th sfturftgm

stgfc tgcpgrfturgs. ]jg fchuot h` gogray rgngfsgm pgr uokt h` stgfc ks jkaj (up th 79; difn/da,

hr ;12 Etu/ne, fom jkajgr wktj vfiuuc stgfc).

Fmvfotfags fom mksfmvfotfags h` stgfc<

Ytgfc h``grs tjg `hnnhwkoa fmvfotfags<

Ytgfc `nhws tjrhuaj tjg systgc uofkmgm ey gxtgrofn gogray shurigs suij fs cfps. Egifusg h` kts nhw mgoskty, stgfc ifo eg usgm ko tfnn euknmkoas wjgrg wftgr systgcs irgftg

gxigsskvg prgssurg. ]grckofn uokts ifo eg fmmgm hr rgchvgm wktjhut cfdkoa efski ijfoags th tjg mgskao. Ytgfc ihcphogots ifo eg rgpfkrgm hr rgpnfigm ey inhskoa tjg stgfc suppny, wktjhut tjg

mk``kiuntkgs fsshikftgm wktj mrfkokoa. Ytgfc ks tgcpgrfturg-prgssurg mgpgomgot4 tjgrg`hrg, tjg systgc tgcpgrfturg ifo eg

ihotrhnngm ey vfrykoa gktjgr stgfc prgssurg hr tgcpgrfturg. Ytgfc ifo eg mkstrkeutgm tjrhuajhut f jgftkoa f jgftkoa systgc wktj nkttng ijfoag ko

tgcpgrfturg.

YWCCFU[ H@ EGOG@K]Y

Wtknkzkoa nftgot jgft (stgfc jgftkoa) `hr jgft trfos`gr ks `fr chrg g``gitkvg tjfo utknkzkoa

sgoskeng jgft (jht wftgr hr hkn jgftkoa), fs f cuij jkajgr fchuot h` gogray ks rgngfsgm ko fsjhrtgr pgrkhm h` tkcg. ]jks h``grs tjg `hnnhwkoa egog`kts


20/80

Rrhpgrty Fmvfotfag

Ufpkm gvgo jgftkoa tjrhuaj nftgotjgft trfos`gr

Kcprhvgm prhmuit qufnkty fom prhmuitkvkty

Rrgssurg ifo ihotrhn tgcpgrfturg ]gcpgrfturg ifo eg qukidny fom prgiksgny gstfenksjgm

Jkaj jgft trfos`gr ihg``kikgotYcfnngr rgqukrgm jgft trfos`gr sur`fig frgf, gofenkoa rgmuigmkoktkfn gqukpcgot hutnfy

P. JHQ Y]GFC KY AGOGUF]GM8

F ehkngr koihrphrftgs f `krgehx hr `urofig ko hrmgr th euro tjg `ugn fom agogrftg jgft.]jg agogrftgm jgft ks trfos`grrgm th wftgr th cfdg stgfc, tjg prhigss h` ehknkoa. ]jks prhmuigssfturftgm stgfc ft f rftg wjkij ifo vfry fiihrmkoa th tjg prgssurg fehvg tjg ehknkoa wftgr.


21/80

PK. EHKNGU HRGUF]KHO (JHQ K] QHUDY8)

QHUDKOA H@ F RHQGU RNFO] EHKNGU

Ehkngr ko f phwgr pnfot jfs twh ùoitkhos< ]jg Ihceustkho systgc ihovgrts gogray

ko ihfn th Jgft fom Qftgr fom stgfc systgc ihovgrts tjg jgft th stgfc ft jkaj prgssurgs fom

tgcpgrfturgs.

Ihceustkho Yystgc

Ehkngrs euro ihfns th prhmuig stgfc. Eurokoa ihfn kovhnvgs ùgn prgpfrftkho, prhvkmkoa

tjg ogigssfry ihceustkho fkr fom rgchvfn h` tjg `nug afsgs fom fsj.

Ihfn Yystgc

Ihfn rgigkvgm `rhc tjg ckogs ks sthrgm ko tjg ihfn yfrm fmlfigot th tjg phwgr pnfot. Kt ks

tjgo ihovgygm ho f mfkny efsks th tjg ehkngr fom sthrgm ko f ihfn sknh. Ihfn `ggmgrs ihotkouhusny`ggm tjg rgqukrgm fchuot h` ihfn th tjg ihfn punvgrkzgrs.

Ihfn Runvgrkzgrs arkom tjg ihfn th f vgry `kog phwmgr th cfdg kt euro gfskny. Runvgrkzgs

jfvg stggn rhnngrs hr stggn efnns wjkij irusj tjg ihfn egtwggo tjgc koth f `kog phwmgr. ]jks phwmgr ks gfsy th euro. Ihfn ihotfkos chksturg. Jht fkr `rhc tjg Rrkcfry Fkr @fos mrkgs tjg

ihfn ko tjg punvgrkzgrs. ]jks cfdgs tjg eurokoa gfsy fom g``kikgot. ]jks fkr fnsh ifrrkgs tjg mry

ihfn phwmgr `rhc tjg punvgrkzgrs th tjg eurogrs ko tjg ehkngr ùrofig. Ko tjg eurogrs tjg ihfn

phwmgr ks ckxgm wktj tjg rgqukrgm fchuot h` ihceustkho fkr fom eurogm ko tjg ùrofig.

Ihfn @nhw ko f Ehkngr


22/80

FKU Y[Y]GC

Ihrrgit fchuot h` fkr ks tjg chst gssgotkfn koargmkgot `hr Ihceustkho. Chrg fkr hr ngss fkr

ehtj cfdgs tjg ihceustkho prhigss kog``kikgot.

@hrigm Mrf`t @fo suppnkgs chst h` tjg ihceustkho fkr. ]jks `fo tfdgs fkr `rhc tjgftchspjgrg fom enhws kt koth tjg ùrofig tjrhuaj fkr muits. ]jg fkr jgftgr jgfts tjg fkr eg`hrg kt

gotgrs tjg ùrofig.

Fkr Jgftgr utknkzgs tjg jgft h` tjg jht `nug afsgs tjft ngfvg tjg ehkngr th jgft tjg

ihceustkho fkr. Jht fkr kcprhvgs tjg g``kikgoiy h` ihceustkho. ]jg fkr jgftgr whrds ho tjgrgagogrftkvg prkoikpng. Ytggn pnftgs fntgroftkvgny pnfigm ko tjg jht `nug afs pftj fom tjgo ko tjg fkr

pftj jgfts tjg ihnm fkr gotgrkoa tjg fkr jgftgr.

@NWG AFY Y[Y]GC

Ihfn euros ko tjg ùrofig akvkoa hut jgft fom `hrckoa `nug afsgs.

]jg jht `nug afsgs `rhc tjg ùrofig frg mrfwo hut ey tjg komuigm mrf`t `fo. ]jg afsgs pfss tjrhuaj tjg vfrkhus jgftkoa sur`figs h` tjg ehkngr, tjg gngitrhstftki prgikpktfthr fom

mksijfrags th tjg ftchspjgrg ft tjg thp h` tjg stfid. Komuigm Mrf`t @fo prhvkmgs tjg gogray `hr

tjks `nhw h` `nug afsgs. ]jg komuigm mrf`t `fo ks ohrcfnny nhiftgm fmlfigot th tjg Ytfid.

Gngitrhstftki Rrgikpktfthrs ifpturg tjg `ny fsj ko tjg `nug afsgs wktjhut ngttkoa tjgc hutkoth tjg ftchspjgrg. Jkaj vhntfag gngitrhmgs pnfigm ko tjg afs pftj khokzgm tjg fsj pfrtkings

wjkij ihnngits ho ihnngitkoa gngitrhmgs fom `fnns koth fsj jhppgrs.

Ytfid hr tjg Ijkcogy mkspgrsgs tjg jht afsgs fom foy htjgr pfrtkings ft f argft jgkajt.

]jg jgkajt gofengs f vgry nfrag mkspgrskho frgf fom rgaunftgs gcksskho ihoigotrftkhos ft arhuomngvgns th tjg ngvgn fiigptfeng th jucfos fom vgagtftkho. Ytfid jgkajts `hr nfrag phwgr pnfots frg

frhuom 572 th 5:2 cgtgrs.

]jg `hrigm mrf`t `fo fom tjg komuigm mrf`t `fo hpgrftg ko suij f wfy tjft tjg fkr prgssurg

ko tjg ùrofig ks ft zgrh prgssurg k.g.< ft ftchspjgrki prgssurg. ]jks ks ifnngm tjg ‚Efnfoigm Mrf`t

systgc‛.


23/80

FKU FOM @NWG AFY Y[Y]GC KO F EHKNGU

FYJ Y[Y]GC

Fsj ks tjg kogrt cfttgr ko ihfn fom ks tjg rgskmug f`tgr ihceustkho. ]jks jfs th eg ihnngitgm

fom mksphsgm h`` wktjhut ngttkoa kt hut koth tjg ftchspjgrg. F pfrt h` tjg fsj, frhuom 67 %ihnngits fs ehtthc fsj ft tjg ehtthc h` tjg `urofig. ]jg htjgr pfrt ihnngits fs `ny fsj ko tjg

gngitrhstftki prgikpktfthrs. ]jg ihnngitgm fsj ks tjgo trfosphrtgm th mksphsfn yfrms hr sthrfag sknhs.

QF]GU FOM Y]GFC Y[Y]GC

]jg ehkngr agogrftgs jkaj prgssurg stgfc ey trfos`grrkoa tjg jgft h` ihceustkho kovfrkhus jgft trfos`gr sgitkhos. Phnucg h` hog uokt cfss h` stgfc ks tjhusfom tkcgs tjft h` wftgr.Qjgo wftgr ks ihovgrtgm th stgfc ko f inhsgm vgssgn tjg prgssurg wknn koirgfsg. Ehkngr usgs tjks

prkoikpng th prhmuig jkaj prgssurg stgfc.

Ihovgrskho h` Qftgr th Ytgfc gvhnvgs ko tjrgg stfags

Jgftkoa tjg wftgr `rhc ihnm ihomktkho th ehknkoa phkot hr sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg ’

sgoskeng jgft fmmktkho.


24/80

Qftgr ehkns ft sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg th prhmuig stgfc - Nftgot jgft fmmktkho.

Jgftkoa stgfc `rhc sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg th jkajgr tgcpgrfturg ifnngm Yupgrjgftkoa th

koirgfsg tjg phwgr pnfot hutput fom g``kikgoiy.

YGOYKENG JGF] FMMK]KHO

@ggm Qftgr Rucp

]jg `krst stgp ks th agt f ihostfot suppny h` wftgr ft jkaj prgssurg koth tjg ehkngr. Ykoigtjg ehkngr ks fnwfys ft f jkaj prgssurg. Ehkngr `ggm wftgr pucp pucps tjg wftgr ft jkaj

prgssurg koth tjg ehkngr `rhc tjg `ggm wftgr tfod. ]jg pucp ks fdko th tjg jgfrt ko tjg jucfo

ehmy.

Rrg-Jgftkoa

@ggm wftgr jgftgrs, uskoa gxtrfitgm stgfc `rhc tjg turekog, fmms f pfrt h` tjg sgoskengjgft gvgo eg`hrg tjg wftgr gotgrs tjg ehkngr.

Gihohckzgr

Chst h` tjg sgoskeng jgft ks feshregm ko tjg gihohckzgr. ]jgsg frg f sgt h` ihkns cfmg`rhc stggn tuegs nhiftgm ko tjg tfkn gom h` f ehkngr. ]jg jht afsgs ngfvkoa tjg ehkngr `urofig jgft

tjg wftgr ko tjg ihkns. ]jg wftgr tgcpgrfturg ks snkajtny ngss tjfo tjg sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg.

@rhc tjg gihohckzgr tjg wftgr ks `gm th tjg mruc.


25/80

Rrg-Jgftkoa & Gihohckzgr

NF]GO] JGF] FMMK]KHO

Mruc

]jg mruc ktsgn` ks f nfrag iynkomrkifn vgssgn tjft ùoitkhos fs tjg sthrfag fom `ggmkoa phkot

`hr wftgr fom tjg ihnngitkho phkot `hr wftgr fom stgfc ckxturg. ]jks ks tjg nfragst fom chst

kcphrtfot prgssurg pfrt ko tjg ehkngr fom wgkajs ko tjg rfoag 572 thos `hr 022 CQ phwgr pnfots.

Qftgr Qfnns

Ehknkoa tfdgs pnfig ko tjg wftgr wfnns wjkij frg wftgr `knngm tuegs tjft `hrc tjg wfnns h`tjg ùrofig. Qftgr wfnns agt tjg wftgr `rhc tjg mhwoihcgrs wjkij frg nfrag pkpgs ihoogitgm th

tjg mruc. ]jg mhwoihcgrs fom tjg wftgr wfnn tuegs `hrc tjg twh ngas h` f wftgr ihnuco.

Fs tjg wftgr jgfts up ko tjg ùrofig f pfrt h` tjg wftgr ko tjg wftgr-wfnn tuegs egihcgsstgfc. ]jks wftgr stgfc ckxturg jfs f nhwgr mgoskty tjfo tjg wftgr ko tjg mhwoihcgrs. ]jks

mgoskty mk``grgoig irgftgs f ikriunftkho h` wftgr `rhc tjg mruc, tjrhuaj tjg mhwoihcgrs, wftgr

wfnns fom efid th tjg mruc. Ytgfc ihnngits ft tjg uppgr jfn` h` tjg mruc. ]jg stgfc ks tjgo sgotth tjg ogxt sgitkhos.


26/80

]jg tgcpgrfturg ko tjg mruc, mhwoihcgrs fom wftgr wfnn ks ft tjg sfturftkho

tgcpgrfturg.

QF]GUQFNNY

YWRGUJGF]/UGJGF]

Yupgrjgftgr

Ytgfc `rhc tjg mruc pfssgs th tjg supgrjgftgr ihkns pnfigm ko tjg `nug afs pftj. ]jg

stgfc tgcpgrfturg koirgfsgs `rhc tjg sfturftkho tgcpgrfturg tknn tjg cfxkcuc rgqukrgm `hrhpgrftkho. ]jg supgrjgftgm stgfc tjgo `kofnny ahgs th tjg turekog. @kofn supgrjgftgr tgcpgrfturgs

frg ko tjg Ufoag h` 7=2 th 712 ²I `hr nfrag phwgr pnfots fom supgrjgftgm stgfc prgssurgs frg

frhuom 617 efr.


27/80

Ugjgftgr

Ytgfc `rhc tjg gxjfust h` tjg `krst stfag turekog ahgs efid th tjg ehkngr `hr rgjgftkoa fom

ks rgturogm th tjg sgihom stfag. Ugjgftgr ihkns ko tjg `nug afs pftj mhgs tjg rgjgftkoa h` tjg

rgturogm stgfc. ]jg rgjgft stgfc ks ft f cuij nhwgr prgssurg tjfo tjg supgr jgftgm stgfc eut tjg`kofn rgjgftgr tgcpgrfturg ks tjg sfcg fs tjg supgrjgftgm stgfc tgcpgrfturg. Ugjgftkoa th jkaj

tgcpgrfturgs kcprhvgs tjg hutput fom g``kikgoiy h` tjg Rhwgr Rnfot. @kofn rgjgftgr tgcpgrfturgs

frg ohrcfnny ko tjg rfoag h` 702 th 022 ²I. Ugjgft stgfc prgssurgs frg ohrcfnny frhuom =7 efr.

]jg fehvg frg tjg cflhr wftgr fom stgfc ikriukt ktgcs ko f ehkngr fom frg ihnngitkvgny

ifnngm tjg ‚prgssurg pfrts‛.


28/80

PKK. EHKNGU Y[Y]GCY

]jg ehkngr systgc ihcprksgs h`<

`ggm wftgr systgc

stgfc systgc

@ugn systgc.

]jg `ggm wftgr systgc prhvkmgs wftgr th tjg ehkngr fom rgaunftgs kt futhcftkifnny th cggt

tjg stgfc mgcfom. Pfrkhus vfnvgs prhvkmg fiigss `hr cfkotgofoig fom rgpfkr.

]jg stgfc systgc ihnngits fom ihotrhns tjg stgfc prhmuigm ko tjg ehkngr. Ytgfc ks mkrgitgmtjrhuaj f pkpkoa systgc th tjg phkot h` usg. ]jrhuajhut tjg systgc, stgfc prgssurg ks rgaunftgmuskoa vfnvgs fom ijgidgm wktj stgfc prgssurg afuags.

]jg ùgn systgc koinumgs fnn gqukpcgot usgm th prhvkmg ùgn th agogrftg tjg ogigssfry jgft.

]jg gqukpcgot rgqukrgm ko tjg ùgn systgc mgpgoms ho tjg typg h` ùgn usgm ko tjg systgc.


29/80

@GGMQF]GU Y[Y]GC

]jg wftgr suppnkgm th tjg ehkngr tjft ks ihovgrtgm koth stgfc ks ifnngm `ggm wftgr. ]jg

twh shurigs h` `ggm wftgr frg<

Ihomgosftg hr ihomgosgm stgfc rgturogm `rhc tjg prhigssgs

Cfdgup wftgr (trgftgm rfw wftgr) wjkij cust ihcg `rhc hutskmg tjg ehkngr rhhc fom

pnfot prhigssgs.

6. @ggmwftgr jgftgr

Ehkngr g``kikgoiy ks kcprhvgm ey tjg gxtrfitkho h` wfstg jgft `rhc spgot stgfc th prgjgft

tjg ehkngr `ggmwftgr. Jgftgrs frg sjgnn fom tueg jgft gxijfoagrs wktj tjg `ggmwftgr ho tjg tueg

skmg (koskmg) fom stgfc ho tjg sjgnn skmg (hutskmg). ]jg jgftgr inhsgst th tjg ehkngr rgigkvgs tjg

jhttgst stgfc. ]jg ihomgosgm stgfc ks rgihvgrgm ko tjg jgftgr mrfkos fom pucpgm `hrwfrm th tjgjgftgr kccgmkftgny upstrgfc, wjgrg kts jgft vfnug ks ihcekogm wktj tjft h` tjg stgfc `hr tjft

jgftgr. Wntkcftgny tjg ihomgosftg ks rgturogm th tjg ihomgosftg sthrfag tfod hr ihomgosgr jht

wgnn.

5. Mgfgrfthrs

@ggmwftgr h`tgo jfs hxyago mksshnvgm ko kt, wjkij ihcgs `rhc fkr ko-ngfdfag `rhc tjg

ihomgosgr, pucp sgfns, hr `rhc tjg ihomgosftg ktsgn`. ]jg hxyago ks cgijfokifnny rgchvgm ko f

mgfgrfthr. Mgfgrfthrs ùoitkho ho tjg prkoikpng tjft hxyago ks mgirgfskoany shnueng fs tjgtgcpgrfturg ks rfksgm. ]jks ks mhog ey pfsskoa f strgfc h` stgfc tjrhuaj tjg `ggmwftgr.

Mgfgrfthrs frg agogrfnny f ihcekoftkho h` sprfy fom trfy typg. Hog prhengc wktj tjg ihotrhn h`

mgfgrfthrs ks gosurkoa su``kikgot tgcpgrfturg mk``grgoig egtwggo tjg koihckoa wftgr tgcpgrfturg

fom tjg strkppkoa stgfc. K` tjg tgcpgrfturg ks thh inhsg, oht gohuaj stgfc wknn eg fvfknfeng th

strkp tjg hxyago `rhc tjg cfdg-up wftgr.

9. Gihohckzgrs

Gihohckzgrs frg tjg nfst stfag h` tjg `ggmwftgr systgc. ]jgy frg mgskaogm th gxtrfit jgft

vfnug `rhc tjg gxjfust afsgs th jgft tjg stgfc stknn ùrtjgr fom kcprhvg tjg g``kikgoiy h` tjg

ehkngr. ]jgy frg skcpng `koogm tueg jgft gxijfoagrs. Oht fnn ehkngrs jfvg gihohckzgrs. Wsufnny

tjgy frg `huom hony ho wftgr tueg ehkngrs uskoa `hsskn ùgn fs fo gogray ihosgrvftkho cgfsurg.

F `ggmwftgr gihohckzgr rgmuigs stgfc ehkngr ùgn rgqukrgcgots ey trfos`grrkoa jgft `rhc

tjg `nug afs th koihckoa `ggmwftgr. Kt ks fpprhprkftg wjgo kosu``kikgot jgft trfos`gr sur`fig gxksts

wktjko tjg ehkngr th rgchvg ihceustkho jgft.


30/80

Y]GFC Y[Y]GC

6. Ytgfc fom cum mrucs

F ehkngr systgc ihosksts h` f stgfc mruc fom f cum mruc. ]jg stgfc mruc ks tjg uppgr

mruc h` f wftgr tueg ehkngr wjgrg tjg sgpfrftkho h` wftgr fom stgfc hiiurs. @ggmwftgr gotgrs tjg ehkngr stgfc mruc `rhc tjg gihohckzgr hr `rhc tjg `ggmwftgr jgftgr trfko k` tjgrg ks oh

gihohckzgr. ]jg ihnmgr `ggmwftgr jgnps irgftg tjg ikriunftkho ko tjg ehkngr.

]jg stgfc hutngt nkog ohrcfnny tfdgs h`` `rhc tjks mruc th f nhwgr mruc ey f sgt h` rksgr

fom mhwoihcgr tuegs. ]jg nhwgr mruc ifnngm tjg cum mruc, ks f tfod ft tjg ehtthc h` tjg ehkngr

tjft gqufnkzgs mkstrkeutkho h` wftgr th tjg agogrftkoa tuegs fom ihnngits shnkms suij fs sfnts

`hrcgm `rhc jfrmogss fom sknkif hr ihrrhskho prhmuits ifrrkgm koth tjg ehkngr.

Ko tjg ikriunftkho prhigss, tjg ihnmgr wftgr, wjkij ks hutskmg tjg jgft trfos`gr frgf, skodsfom gotgrs tjg cum mruc. ]jg wftgr ks jgftgm ko tjg jgft trfos`gr tuegs th `hrc stgfc. ]jg

stgfc-wftgr ckxturg ks ngss mgosg tjfo wftgr fom rksgs ko tjg rksgr tuegs th tjg stgfc mruc. ]jg

stgfc mruc ihotfkos kotgrofn gngcgots `hr `ggmwftgr gotry, ijgckifn kolgitkho, enhwmhworgchvfn, ngvgn ihotrhn, fom stgfc-wftgr sgpfrftkho. ]jg stgfc eueengs mksgoafag `rhc tjg ehkngr

wftgr ko tjg rksgr tuegs fom stgfc `nhws hut `rhc tjg thp h` tjg mruc tjrhuaj stgfc sgpfrfthrs.

5. Ehkngr ]uegs

Ehkngr tuegs frg usufnny `ferkiftgm `rhc jkaj-strgoatj ifreho stggn. ]jg tuegs frg wgnmgmth `hrc f ihotkouhus sjggt hr wfnn h` tuegs. H`tgo chrg tjfo hog efod h` tuegs ks usgm, wktj tjg

efod inhsgst th tjg jgft shurigs prhvkmkoa tjg argftgst sjfrg h` jgft trfos`gr. ]jgy wknn fnsh tgom

th eg tjg chst susigptkeng th `fknurg mug th `nhw prhengcs hr ihrrhskho/mgphsktkho prhengcs.

9. Yupgrjgftgrs

]jg purphsg h` tjg supgrjgftgr ks th rgchvg fnn chksturg ihotgot `rhc tjg stgfc ey

rfkskoa tjg tgcpgrfturg h` tjg stgfc fehvg kts sfturftkho phkot. ]jg stgfc ngfvkoa tjg ehkngr ks

sfturftgm, tjft ks, kt ks ko gquknkerkuc wktj nkqukm wftgr ft tjg ehkngr prgssurg (tgcpgrfturg).

]jg supgrjgftgr fmms gogray th tjg gxkt stgfc h` tjg ehkngr. Kt ifo eg f skoang efod hr

cuntkpng efods hr tuegs gktjgr ko f jhrkzhotfn hr vgrtkifn frrfoagcgot tjft ks suspgomgm ko tjgihovgitkvg hr rfmkftkho zhog h` tjg ehkngr. ]jg fmmgm gogray rfksgs tjg tgcpgrfturg fom jgft

ihotgot h` tjg stgfc fehvg sfturftkho phkot. Ko tjg ifsg h` turekogs, gxigsskvg chksturg ko tjg

stgfc ifo fmvgrsgny f``git tjg g``kikgoiy fom kotgarkty h` tjg turekog. Yupgrjgftgm stgfc jfs f

nfragr spgik`ki vhnucg fs tjg fchuot h` supgrjgft koirgfsgs. ]jks ogigssktkgs nfragr mkfcgtgr

pkpgnkogs th ifrry tjg sfcg fchuot h` stgfc. Mug th tgcpgrfturgs, jkajgr fnnhy stggn ks usgm. Kt kskcphrtfot tjft tjg stgfc ks h` jkaj purkty fom nhw chksturg ihotgot sh tjft oho-vhnftkng

suestfoigs mh oht euknm up ko tjg supgrjgftgr.

=. Fttgcpgrfthrs

Fttgcpgrftkho ks tjg prkcfry cgfos h` ihotrhnnkoa tjg mgargg h` supgrjgft ko f

supgrjgftgm ehkngr. Fttgcpgrftkho ks tjg prhigss h` pfrtkfnny mgsupgrjgftkoa stgfc ey tjg


31/80

ihotrhnngm kolgitkho h` wftgr koth tjg supgrjgftgm stgfc `nhw. ]jg mgargg h` supgrjgft wknn

mgpgom ho tjg stgfc nhfm fom tjg jgft fvfknfeng, akvgo tjg mgskao h` tjg supgrjgftgr. Ko hrmgr th

fijkgvg tjg prhpgr ihotrhn h` supgrjgft tgcpgrfturg fo fttgcpgrfthr ks usgm.

F mkrgit ihotfit fttgcpgrfthr kolgits f strgfc h` jkaj purkty wftgr koth tjg supgrjgftgm

stgfc. Kt ks usufnny nhiftgm ft tjg gxkt h` tjg supgrjgftgr, eut cfy eg pnfigm ko fo kotgrcgmkftg phsktkho. Wsufnny, ehkngr `ggmwftgr ks usgm `hr fttgcpgrftkho. ]jg wftgr cust eg `rgg h` oho-

vhnftkng shnkms th prgvgot helgitkhofeng euknm up h` shnkms ko tjg cfko strgfc tuegs fom ho turekog

enfmgs.

7. Ihomgosftg Yystgcs

Fntjhuaj oht f pfrt h` tjg ehkngr, ihomgosftg ks usufnny rgturogm th tjg ehkngr fs pfrt h`

tjg `ggmwftgr. Fiihrmkoany, hog cust tfdg koth fiihuot tjg fchuot fom qufnkty h` tjg ihomgosftg

wjgo ifniunftkoa ehkngr trgftcgot pfrfcgtgrs. ]jgsg wknn koinumg jgft gxijfoagrs, prhigss

gqukpcgot, `nfsj tfods, fom sthrfag tfods.

Jgft gxijfoagrs frg tjg pnfigs ko tjg systgc wjgrg tjg stgfc ks usgm th jgft f prhigss hrfkr ey komkrgit ihotfit. ]jg stgfc gotgrs fs supgrjgftgm hr sfturftgm fom cfy ngfvg fs

supgrjgftgm, sfturftgm, hr fs nkqukm wftgr, mgpgomkoa ho tjg koktkfn stgfc ihomktkhos fom tjg

mgskao nhfm h` tjg gxijfoagr.

@WGN Y[Y]GC

@ugn `ggm systgcs pnfy irktkifn rhng ko tjg pgr`hrcfoig h` ehkngrs. ]jgkr prkcfry ùoitkhos

koinumg trfos`grrkoa tjg ùgn koth tjg ehkngr fom mkstrkeutkoa tjg ùgn wktjko tjg ehkngr th prhchtguok`hrc fom ihcpngtgr ihceustkho. ]jg typg h` ùgn ko`nugoigs tjg hpgrftkhofn `gfturgs h` f ùgn

systgc.]jg ùgn `ggm systgc `hrcs tjg chst skaok`kifot ihcphogot h` tjg ehkngr systgc.

6. @ggm systgc `hr afsghus ùgns

Afsghus ùgns frg rgnftkvgny gfsy th trfosphrt fom jfomng. Foy prgssurg mk``grgoig wknn

ifusg afs th `nhw, fom chst afsghus ùgns ckx gfskny wktj fkr. Egifusg ho-sktg sthrfag h` afsghus

ùgn ks typkifnny oht `gfskeng, ehkngrs cust eg ihoogitgm th f ùgn shurig suij fs ofturfn afs

pkpgnkog. @nhw h` afsghus ùgns th f ehkngr ifo eg prgiksgny ihotrhnngm uskoa f vfrkgty h` ihotrhnsystgcs. ]jgsg systgcs agogrfnny koinumg futhcftki vfnvgs tjft cgtgr afs `nhw tjrhuaj f eurogr

fom koth tjg ehkngr efsgm ho stgfc hr jht wftgr mgcfom.

]jg purphsg h` tjg eurogr ks th koirgfsg tjg stfeknkty h` tjg `nfcg hvgr f wkmg rfoag h`

`nhw rftgs ey irgftkoa f `fvhrfeng ihomktkho `hr ùgn kaoktkho fom gstfenksjkoa fgrhmyofckiihomktkhos tjft gosurg ahhm ckxkoa egtwggo tjg prkcfry ihceustkho fkr fom tjg ùgn. Eurogrs frg

tjg igotrfn gngcgots h` fo g``gitkvg ihceustkho systgc.


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5. @ggm systgc `hr shnkm ùgns

Yhnkm ùgns frg cuij chrg mk``kiunt th jfomng tjfo afsghus fom nkqukm ùgns. Rrgpfrkoa tjgùgn `hr ihceustkho ks agogrfnny ogigssfry fom cfy kovhnvg tgijokqugs suij fs irusjkoa hr

sjrgmmkoa. Eg`hrg ihceustkho ifo hiiur, tjg komkvkmufn ùgns pfrtkings cust eg trfosphrtgm `rhc

f sthrfag frgf th tjg ehkngr. Cgijfokifn mgvkigs suij fs ihovgyhrs, fuagrs, jhppgrs, snkmg aftgs,vkerfthrs, fom enhwgrs frg h`tgo usgm `hr tjks purphsg. ]jg cgtjhm sgngitgm mgpgoms prkcfrkny ho

tjg skzg h` tjg komkvkmufn ùgns pfrtkings fom tjg prhpgrtkgs fom ijfrfitgrkstkis h` tjg ùgn.

F eurogr ks mg`kogm fs f mgvkigs hr arhup h` mgvkigs `hr tjg kotrhmuitkho h` ùgn fom fkr

koth f ùrofig ft tjg rgqukrgm vgnhiktkgs, tureungoig, fom ihoigotrftkho th cfkotfko kaoktkho fom

ihceustkho h` ùgn wktjko tjg ùrofig. Eurogrs `hr afsghus ùgns frg ngss ihcpngx tjfo tjhsg `hrnkqukm hr shnkm ùgns egifusg ckxkoa h` afs fom ihceustkho fkr ks rgnftkvgny skcpng ihcpfrgm th

fthckzkoa nkqukm ùgns hr mkspgrskoa shnkm ùgn pfrtkings.

PKKK.

INFYYK@KIF]KHO H@ Y]GFC EHKNGUY

F. EFYGM HO RUGYYWUG

Nhw prgssurg Ytgfc Ehkngr

F stgfc ehkngr ko wjkij stgfc ks agogrftgm ft prgssurg ngss tjfo 67 psk hr f ehkngr ko wjkij

jht wftgr ks agogrftgm ft prgssurg oht gxiggmkoa 602 psk fom/hr tgcpgrfturg oht gxiggmkoa

572h @.

52tj igotury ehkngrs koirgfsg stgfc tgcpgrfturg ey koirgfskoa prgssurg. CJK's nhw prgssurgstgfc ehkngr mgvkigs usg pftgotgm KostfEhkngr fom Ehkngr@rgg tgijohnhakgs. ]jgsg tgijohnhakgs

fnnhw CJK mgvkigs th agogrftg komustry ngfmkoa 6922²I stgfc wktjhut koirgfskoa prgssurg

egyhom 6 ftchspjgrg.

Nhw Rrgssurg Hpgrftkhos - Fnn CJK stgfc mgvkigs hpgrftg ft f nhw prgssurg h` 6

ftchspjgrg. Hur mgvkigs ifo sifng tgcpgrfturg fom hutput wktjhut gvgr koirgfskoa prgssurg.

Oh Igrtk`kiftkhos Ugqukrgm ’ Ehkngr@rgg tgijohnhay cgfos tjft fnn h` CJK's stgfc ehkngrs

hpgrftg ft nhw prgssurg. Oh ehkngr igrtk`kiftkhos hr prgssurg vgssgn igrtk`kiftkho frg rgqukrgm.

Jkaj ]gcpgrfturg Mry Ytgfc - Hur nhwgst tgcpgrfturg stgfc mgvkigs frg jhttgr tjfo jkaj

prgssurg stgfc. Qg h``gr stgfc tgcpgrfturgs r̀hc 922²I up th 6922²I ho stfomfrm prhmuitkho chmgns.

Oh Mgvkig Kmnkoa - Ytgfc wjgo yhu oggm kt. Egifusg CJK's stgfc ehkngrs frg nhw prgssurg,

tjgy mho't oggm th euknm up prgssurg th agt th tgcpgrfturg fom cfkotfko hpgrftkho murkoa nhw

mgcfom pgrkhms.

Oh Ihceustkho - Hur nhw prgssurg stgfc ehkngrs mho't gcpnhy foy ihceustkho prhigss,

rgsuntkoa ko oh OHZ gcksskhos fom arggogr hpgrftkhos.

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Chmunfr Mgskao- Hur ehkngrs frg scfnn. ]jg HFE-= cgfsurgs ko ft 6`t_9 fom wgkajs ngss

tjfo 92da. Ihcekog tjg scfnn `hhtprkot fom pnua fom pnfy hpgrftkhos, fom tjg HFE ks quktg

phsskeny tjg chst vgrsftkng shurig h` mry supgrjgftgm stgfc ho tjg cfrdgt.

Qjkng mry stgfc kso't hptkcfn `hr gvgry fppnkiftkho, kt ks fo gxignngot rgpnfigcgot `hr cfoy.

Qktj f jkaj gogray ihotgot fom nhw chksturg ihotgot, mry stgfc ks kmgfn `hr fppnkiftkhos suij fsstgfc mrykoa, prhigss usgs fom htjgr fppnkiftkhos sggdkoa th fvhkm trfmktkhofn ehkngr kssugs fom

igrtk`kiftkhos.

Jkaj prgssurg Ytgfc Ehkngr

F stgfc ehkngr ko wjkij stgfc ks agogrftgm ft prgssurg gxiggmkoa 67 psk hr f ehkngr ko

wjkij jht wftgr ks agogrftgm ft prgssurg gxiggmkoa 602 psk fom/hr tgcpgrfturg gxiggmkoa

572h @.

Gfij iueki cgtgr h` Jkaj Rrgssurg Ehkngr prhmuigs 52 stgfc/tkid. Jkaj RrgssurgEhkngrs usg chrg tjfo twkig tjg ùgn h` Nhw Rrgssurg Ehkngrs, fom f cfxkcuc

tgcpgrfturg h` 62222I rftjgr tjfo 7222I. Nfragr Rrgssurg Ehkngrs frg ngss g``kikgot ko tjgsjhrt tgrc4 tfdkoa chrg tkcg fom ùgn th jgft up, eut fnnhw `hr chrg ihcpfit, phwgrùnmgskaos. Nhw Rrgssurg Ehkngrs frg rgihccgomgm `hr typkifn usg uongss `krgehxgs, krho, hr

spfig frg ft f prgckuc. Ihcpfrkoa f Jkaj Rrgssurg fom Nhw Rrgssurg ehkngr ft f

cfxkcuc tgcpgrfturg, ruookoa ihostfotny, tjg Nhw Rrgssurg Ehkngr ks 6:% chrg

g``kikgot ft uskoa kts ùgn.

E. EFYGM HO @WGN

Afsghus @ugn

F stgfc ehkngr ks `krgm ey afs. ]jg afs usgm cfy eg ofturfn afs, prhpfog afs, gti.Nkqukm @ugn

F stgfc ehkngr ks `krgm ey hkn. ]jg hkn usgm cfy eg jgfvy hkn dohwo fs Euodgr I egifusg

h` nhw ùgn ihst.

Yhnkm @ugn]jks typg h` stgfc ehkngr ks `krgm ey ihfn, whhm, rglgitgm prhmuit, gti

Gngitrki @ugn

]jks typg h` stgfc ehkngr ks `krgm ey gngitrkikty. Wsufnny usgm `hr rgsgfrij nfehrfthry, `hhmkomustrkgs, fom htjgrs wjgrg schdg phnnutkho ks prhjkektgm.

I. EFYGM HO CF]GUKFN

Ytggn

Ifst Krho

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M. EFYGM HO ]WEG ][RG

@krg tueg ehkngr

Mg`koktkho<

Ko `krg-tueg ehkngrs, ihceustkho afsgs pfss tjrhuaj tjg koskmg h` tjg tuegs wktj wftgr

surrhuomkoa tjg hutskmg h` tjg tuegs. ]jg fmvfotfags h` f `krg-tueg ehkngr frg kts skcpng

ihostruitkho fom ngss rkakm wftgr trgftcgot rgqukrgcgots.

]jg mksfmvfotfags frg tjg gxigsskvg wgkajt-pgr-phuom h` stgfc agogrftgm, gxigsskvg tkcg

rgqukrgm th rfksg stgfc prgssurg egifusg h` tjg rgnftkvgny nfrag vhnucg h` wftgr, fom kofeknkty th

rgsphom qukidny th nhfm ijfoags, fafko, mug th tjg nfrag wftgr vhnucg.

]jg chst ihccho `krg-tueg ehkngrs usgm ko `fiknkty jgftkoa fppnkiftkhos frg h`tgo rg`grrgm th

fs ''sihtij'' hr ''sihtij cfrkog'' ehkngrs, fs tjks ehkngr typg wfs ihcchony usgm `hr cfrkog sgrvkig egifusg h` kts ihcpfit skzg (`krg-ehx kotgarfn wktj ehkngr sgitkho).

]jg ofcg "`krg-tueg" ks vgry mgsirkptkvg. ]jg `krg, hr jht `nug afsgs `rhc tjg eurogr, ks ijfoogngm

tjrhuaj tuegs tjft frg surrhuomgm ey tjg `nukm th eg jgftgm. ]jg ehmy h` tjg ehkngr ks tjg prgssurgvgssgn fom ihotfkos tjg `nukm. Ko chst ifsgs, tjks `nukm ks wftgr tjft wknn eg ikriunftgm `hr jgftkoa

purphsgs hr ihovgrtgm th stgfc `hr prhigss usg. Gvgry sgt h` tuegs tjft tjg `nug afs trfvgns

tjrhuaj, eg`hrg kt cfdgs f turo, ks ihoskmgrgm f "pfss." Yh, f tjrgg-pfss ehkngr wknn jfvg tjrgg sgtsh` tuegs wktj tjg stfid hutngt nhiftgm ho tjg rgfr h` tjg ehkngr. F `hur-pfss ehkngr wknn jfvg `hur

sgts fom tjg stfid hutngt ft tjg `rhot.

@krg-tueg Ehkngr Afs @nhw

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Rfrts<

]jg kcfag sjhws tjg skcpngst `hrc h` fo kotgrofnny `krgm vgrtkifn `krg-tueg ehkngr. Kt mhgs

oht rgqukrg jgfvy `huomftkho fom rgqukrgs vgry scfnn `nhhr frgf.

Iynkomrkifn sjgnn<

]jg sjgnn ks vgrtkifn fom kt fttfijgm th tjg ehtthc h` tjg ùrofig. Argftgr phrtkho h` tjg

sjgnn ks ùnn h` wftgr wjkij surrhuoms tjg ùrofig fnsh. Ugcfkokoa phrtkho ks stgfc spfig. ]jg

sjgnn cfy eg h` fehut 6.57 cgtrgs mkfcgtgr fom 5.2 cgtgrs jgkajt.

Irhss-tuegs<

Hog hr chrg irhss tuegs frg gktjgr rkvgtgm hr `nfoagm th tjg ùrofig th koirgfsg tjgjgftkoa sur`fig fom th kcprhvg tjg wftgr ikriunftkho.

@urofig (`krg ehx)

Ihceustkho h` ihfn tfdgs pnfig ko tjg ùrofig (`krg ehx).

Arftg<Kt ks pnfigm ft tjg ehtthc h` `krg ehx fom ihfn ks `gm ho kt `hr eurokoa.


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@krg mhhr<

Ihfn ks `gm th tjg arftg tjrhuaj tjg `krg mhhr.

Ijkcogy (hr stfid)<

]jg ijkcogy (stfid) pfssgs `rhc tjg thp h` tjg `krgehx tjrhuaj tjg thp h` tjg sjgnn.

Cfojhng<

Kt ks prhvkmgm ho tjg thp h` tjg sjgnn th gofeng f cfo th gotgr koth kt fom kospgit fom rgpfkr

tjg ehkngr `rhc koskmg kt. Kt ks fnsh, cgfot `hr ingfokoa tjg kotgrkhr h` tjg ehkngr sjgnn fom

gxtgrkhr h` tjg ihceustkho ijfcegr fom stfid (ijkcogy).

Jfom jhngs<

]jgsg frg prhvkmgm ko tjg sjgnn hpphsktg th tjg goms h` gfij irhss tueg `hr ingfokoa tjgirhss tueg.

Fsjkpt<

Kt ks prhvkmg `hr ihnngitkoa tjg fsj mgphskt, wjkij ifo eg rgchvgm fwfy ft kotgrvfns.

Qhrdkoa<

]jg ùgn (ihfn) ks `gm koth tjg arftg tjrhuaj tjg `krg jhng fom ks eurot. ]jg fsjpkt pnfigm

egnhw tjg arftg ihnngit tjg fsjgs h` tjg eurokoa ùgn. ]jg ihceustkho afs `nhws `rhc tjg

ùrofig, pfssgs frhuom tjg irhss tuegs fom gsifpgs th tjg ftchspjgrg tjrhuaj tjg ijkcogy.

Qftgr ahgs ey ofturfn ikriunftkho mug th ihovgitkho iurrgots, `rhc tjg nhwgr gom h` tjg irhss

tueg fom ihcgs hut `rhc tjg jkajgr gom. ]jg whrdkoa prgssurg h` tjg skcpng vgrtkifn ehkngrmhgs oht gxiggm 12 O/ic5.

]ypgs h` @krg ]ueg Ehkngr

YKCRNG PGU]KIFN

F vgrtkifn ehkngr ks f typg h` `krg-tueg hr wftgr-tueg ehkngr wjgrg tjg ehkngr efrrgn ks

hrkgotgm vgrtkifnny kostgfm h` tjg chrg ihccho jhrkzhotfn hrkgotftkho. Pgrtkifn ehkngrs wgrg usgm

`hr f vfrkgty h` stgfc- phwgrgm vgjkings fom htjgr chekng cfijkogs, koinumkoa gfrny stgfc

nhihchtkvgs.

IHIJUFO

]jks ks hog h` tjg rgigot vgrtkifn typg h` ehkngr, jfvkoa f ùnny spjgrkifn ùrofig. Mug th

kts sjfpg tjg ehkngr ks fnsh dohwo fs spjgrhkm. ]jg cfko `gfturg h` tjg ehkngr ks tjft tjg ùrofig h`

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tjg ehkngr ks surrhuomgm ey wftgr fom tjgrg`hrg tjgrg ks oh rgqukrgcgot h` rg`rfithry cftgrkfn. Kt

ks f skoang pjfsg pfss ehkngr, wjkij cgfos tjft tjg jht afsgs pfss lust tjrhuaj tjg jhrkzhotfn tueg

stfid eg`hrg ahkoa th tjg gxjfust. Ycfnn ehrg tuegs fnhoa wktj tjg rgtfrmgrs frg usgm th gosurg

egttgr jgft trfos`gr, jkajgr g``kikgoiy fom ingfogr tuegs mug th tureungot afs `nhw.

NHIHCH]KPG

F nhihchtkvg ehkngr jfs tjrgg cfko ihcphogots< f mhueng-wfnngm `krgehx4 f jhrkzhotfn,iynkomrkifn "ehkngr efrrgn" ihotfkokoa f nfrag oucegr h` scfnn `nug-tuegs4 fomf schdgehx wktj ijkcogy, `hr tjg gxjfust afsgs. ]jg ehkngr efrrgn ihotfkos nfragr `nug-tuegs th

ifrry tjg supgrjgftgr gngcgots, wjgrg prgsgot. @hrigm mrfuajt ks prhvkmgm ko tjg nhihchtkvg

ehkngr ey kolgitkoa gxjfustgm stgfc efid koth tjg gxjfust vkf f enfst pkpg ko tjg schdgehx.

Nhihchtkvg-typg ehkngrs frg fnsh usgm ko trfitkho goakogs, stgfc rhnngrs, phrtfeng

goakogs fom shcg htjgr stgfc rhfm vgjkings. ]jg kojgrgot strgoatj h` tjg ehkngr cgfos kt ks usgm

fs tjg efsks `hr tjg vgjking< fnn tjg htjgr ihcphogots, koinumkoa tjg wjggns, frg chuotgm ho erfidgts fttfijgm th tjg ehkngr. Kt ks rfrg th `kom supgrjgftgrs mgskaogm koth tjks typg h` ehkngr, fom

tjgy frg agogrfnny cuij scfnngr (fom skcpngr) tjfo rfknwfy nhihchtkvg typgs.

]jg nhihchtkvg-typg ehkngr ks fnsh f ijfrfitgrkstki h` tjg hvgr typg stgfc wfaho, tjg stgfc-

phwgrgm `hrg-ruoogr h` tjg truid. Ko tjks ifsg, jhwgvgr, jgfvy akrmgr `rfcgs cfdg up tjg nhfm-

egfrkoa ijfssks h` tjg vgjking, fom tjg ehkngr ks fttfijgm th tjks.

NFOIFYJKUG

]jg Nfoifsjkrg ehkngr ks skcknfr th tjg Ihroksj, eut jfs twh nfrag `nugs ihotfkokoa tjg

`krgs. Kt wfs tjg kovgotkho h` Qknnkfc @fkrefko ko 6:==, `rhc f tjghrgtkifn ihoskmgrftkho h` tjgtjgrchmyofckis h` chrg g``kikgot ehkngrs tjft ngm jkc th koirgfsg tjg `urofig arftg frgf rgnftkvgth tjg vhnucg h` wftgr.

Nftgr mgvgnhpcgots fmmgm Afnnhwfy tuegs (f`tgr tjgkr kovgothr, pftgotgm ko

6:=:), irhsswksg wftgr tuegs firhss tjg `nug, tjus koirgfskoa tjg jgftgm sur`fig frgf. Fs tjgsg frg

sjhrt tuegs h` nfrag mkfcgtgr fom tjg ehkngr ihotkougs th usg f rgnftkvgny nhw prgssurg, tjks ks stknn

oht ihoskmgrgm th eg f wftgr-tueg ehkngr. ]jg tuegs frg tfpgrgm, skcpny th cfdg tjgkr kostfnnftkhotjrhuaj tjg `nug gfskgr.

IHUOKYJ

]jg gfrnkgst `hrc h` `krg-tueg ehkngr wfs Ukijfrm ]rgvktjkid's "jkaj-prgssurg" Ihroksj ehkngr. ]jks ks f nhoa jhrkzhotfn iynkomgr wktj f skoang nfrag `nug ihotfkokoa tjg `krg. ]jg `krgktsgn` wfs ho fo krho arftkoa pnfigm firhss tjks `nug, wktj f sjfnnhw fsjpfo egogftj th ihnngit tjg

oho-ihceustkeng rgskmug. Fntjhuaj ihoskmgrgm fs nhw-prgssurg (pgrjfps 57 psk) thmfy, tjg usg h`

f iynkomrkifn ehkngr sjgnn pgrckttgm f jkajgr prgssurg tjfo tjg gfrnkgr "jfystfid" ehkngrsh` Ogwihcgo's mfy. Fs tjg `urofig rgnkgm ho ofturfn mrfuajt (fkr `nhw), f tfnn ijkcogy wfs

rgqukrgm ft tjg `fr gom h` tjg `nug th goihurfag f ahhm suppny h` fkr (hxyago) th tjg `krg.

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@hr g``kikgoiy, tjg ehkngr wfs ihcchony goifsgm egogftj ey f erkid-euknt ijfcegr. @nug afsgs

wgrg rhutgm tjrhuaj tjks, hutskmg tjg krho ehkngr sjgnn, f`tgr pfsskoa tjrhuaj tjg `krg-tueg fom sh

th f ijkcogy tjft wfs ohw pnfigm ft tjg `rhot `fig h` tjg ehkngr.

Kcfags h` `krg tueg ehkngrs

Qftgr ]ueg Ehkngr

Mg`koktkho<

F wftgr tueg ehkngr ks f typg h` ehkngr ko wjkij wftgr ikriunftgs ko tuegs jgftgm

gxtgrofnny ey tjg `krg. @ugn ks eurogm koskmg tjg `urofig, irgftkoa jht afs wjkij jgfts wftgr ko tjg

stgfc-agogrftkoa tuegs. Ko scfnngr ehkngrs, fmmktkhofn agogrftkoa tuegs frg sgpfrftg ko tjg


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ùrofig, wjkng nfragr utknkty ehkngrs rgny ho tjg wftgr-`knngm tuegs tjft cfdg up tjg wfnns h` tjg

ùrofig th agogrftg stgfc.

]jg jgftgm wftgr tjgo rksgs koth tjg stgfc mruc. Jgrg, sfturftgm stgfc ks mrfwo h`` tjg

thp h` tjg mruc. Ko shcg sgrvkigs, tjg stgfc wknn rggotgr tjg ùrofig tjrhuaj f supgrjgftgr th

egihcg supgrjgftgm. Yupgrjgftgm stgfc ks mg`kogm fs stgfc tjft ks jgftgm fehvg tjg ehknkoa phkot ft f akvgo prgssurg. Yupgrjgftgm stgfc ks f mry afs fom tjgrg`hrg usgm th mrkvg turekogs,

skoig wftgr mrhpngts ifo sgvgrgny mfcfag turekog enfmgs.

Ihhn wftgr ft tjg ehtthc h` tjg stgfc mruc rgturos th tjg `ggmwftgr mruc vkf nfrag-ehrg

'mhwoihcgr tuegs', wjgrg kt prg-jgfts tjg `ggmwftgr suppny. (Ko nfrag utknkty ehkngrs, tjg

`ggmwftgr ks suppnkgm th tjg stgfc mruc fom tjg mhwoihcgrs suppny wftgr th tjg ehtthc h` tjg

wftgrwfnns). ]h koirgfsg gihohcy h` tjg ehkngr, gxjfust afsgs frg fnsh usgm th prg-jgft tjg fkr

enhwo koth tjg ùrofig fom wfrc tjg `ggmwftgr suppny. Yuij wftgrtueg ehkngrs ko tjgrcfn phwgr

stftkhos frg fnsh ifnngm stgfc agogrftkoa uokts.

]jg hnmgr `krg-tueg ehkngr mgskao, ko wjkij tjg wftgr surrhuoms tjg jgft shurig fom afsgs

`rhc ihceustkho pfss tjrhuaj tuegs wktjko tjg wftgr spfig, ks f cuij wgfdgr struiturg fom ks

rfrgny usgm `hr prgssurgs fehvg 5.= CRf (972 psk). F skaok`kifot fmvfotfag h` tjg wftgrtueg

ehkngr ks tjft tjgrg ks ngss ijfoig h` f iftfstrhpjki `fknurg< tjgrg ks oht f nfrag vhnucg h` wftgr ko

tjg ehkngr ohr frg tjgrg nfrag cgijfokifn gngcgots suelgit th `fknurg.

Ko f wftgr-tueg ehkngr, tjg wftgr ks koskmg tjg tuegs fom ihceustkho afsgs pfss frhuom tjghutskmg h` tjg tuegs. F wftgr-tueg mgskao ks tjg gxfit hpphsktg h` f `krg-tueg. Jgrg, tjg wftgr

`nhws tjrhuaj tjg tuegs fom ks goifsgm ko f ùrofig ko wjkij tjg eurogr `krgs. ]jgsg tuegs frg

ihoogitgm th f stgfc mruc fom f cum mruc. ]jg wftgr ks jgftgm fom stgfc ks prhmuigm ko tjg

uppgr mruc.Nfrag stgfc usgrs frg egttgr suktgm `hr tjg wftgr-tueg mgskao. ]jg komustrkfn wftgr-tueg ehkngr

typkifnny prhmuigs stgfc hr jht wftgr prkcfrkny `hr komustrkfn prhigss fppnkiftkhos, fom ks usgm

ngss `rgqugotny `hr jgftkoa fppnkiftkhos. ]jg egst afuag h` wjkij mgskao th ihoskmgr ifo eg `huomko tjg muty ko wjkij tjg ehkngr ks th pgr`hrc.

Ko wftgr tueg ehkngr, ehkngr `ggm wftgr `nhws tjrhuaj tjg tuegs fom gotgrs tjg ehkngr mruc.]jg ikriunftgm wftgr ks jgftgm ey tjg ihceustkho afsgs fom ihovgrtgm koth stgfc ft tjg vfphur

spfig ko tjg mruc. ]jgsg ehkngrs frg sgngitgm wjgo tjg stgfc mgcfom fs wgnn fs stgfc prgssurg

rgqukrgcgots frg jkaj fs ko tjg ifsg h` prhigss iuc phwgr ehkngr / phwgr ehkngrs.

Chst chmgro wftgr ehkngr tueg mgskaos frg wktjko tjg ifpfikty rfoag =,722 ’ 652,222 da/jhur h`stgfc, ft vgry jkaj prgssurgs. Cfoy wftgr tueg ehkngrs ohwfmfys frg h` „pfidfagm– ihostruitkhok` hkn fom /hr afs frg th eg usgm fs ùgn. Yhnkm ùgn `krgm wftgr tueg mgskaos frg fvfknfeng eut

pfidfagm mgskaos frg ngss ihccho.

]jg `gfturgs h` wftgr tueg ehkngrs frg


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@hrigm, komuigm fom efnfoigm mrf`t prhvkskhos jgnp th kcprhvg ihceustkho g``kikgoiy.

Ngss thngrfoig `hr wftgr qufnkty ifnns `hr wftgr trgftcgot pnfot.

Jkajgr tjgrcfn g``kikgoiy ngvgns frg phsskeng

Fppnkiftkho<

]jg feknkty h` wftgrtueg ehkngrs th agogrftg supgrjgftgm stgfc cfdgs tjgsg ehkngrs

pfrtkiunfrny fttrfitkvg ko fppnkiftkhos tjft rgqukrg mry, jkaj-prgssurg, jkaj-gogray stgfc,

koinumkoa stgfc turekog phwgr agogrftkho–.

Hwkoa th tjgkr supgre whrdkoa prhpgrtkgs, tjg usg h` wftgrtueg ehkngrs ks jkajny prg`grrgm kotjg `hnnhwkoa cflhr frgfs<

Pfrkgty h` prhigss fppnkiftkhos ko komustrkgs

Ijgckifn prhigsskoa mkvkskhos Runp fom Rfpgr cfou`fiturkoa pnfots

Ug`kokoa uokts

Egskmgs, tjgy frg `rgqugotny gcpnhygm ko phwgr agogrftkho pnfots wjgrg nfrag qufotktkgs h`

stgfc (rfoakoa up th 722 da/s) jfvkoa jkaj prgssurgs k.g. fpprhxkcftgny 60 cgafpfsifns

(602 efr) fom jkaj tgcpgrfturgs rgfijkoa up th 772²I frg agogrfnny rgqukrgm. @hr gxfcpng,

tjg Kvfopfj shnfr-phwgr stftkho usgs twh Ugotgij ]ypg-M wftgrtueg ehkngrs.

Ytftkhofry

Chmgro ehkngrs `hr phwgr agogrftkho frg fnchst gotkrgny wftgr-tueg mgskaos, hwkoa th tjgkrfeknkty th hpgrftg ft jkajgr prgssurgs. Qjgrg prhigss stgfc ks rgqukrgm `hr jgftkoa hr fs f

ijgckifn ihcphogot, tjgo tjgrg ks stknn f scfnn okijg `hr `krg-tueg ehkngrs.

Cfrkog

]jgkr feknkty th whrd ft jkajgr prgssurgs jfs ngm th cfrkog ehkngrs egkoa fnchst gotkrgny wftgr-

tueg. ]jks ijfoag egafo frhuom 6;22, fom trfigm tjg fmhptkho h` turekogs `hr prhpunskho rftjgr

tjfo rgikprhiftkoa (k.g. pkstho) goakogs ’ fntjhuaj wftgrtueg ehkngrs wgrg fnsh usgm wktj

rgikprhiftkoa goakogs.

Ufknwfy

]jgrg jfs eggo oh skaok`kifot fmhptkho h` wftgr-tueg ehkngrs `hr rfknwfy nhihchtkvgs. F

jfom`un h` gxpgrkcgotfn mgskaos wgrg prhmuigm, eut ohog h` tjgsg wgrg suiigss`un hr ngm th tjgkr

wkmgsprgfm usg. Chst wftgr-tueg rfknwfy nhihchtkvgs, gspgikfnny ko Gurhpg, usgm tjg Yijckmt

systgc. Chst wgrg ihcphuoms, fom f `gw uok`nhws. ]jg Ohr`hnd fom Qgstgro Ufknwfy's Lfw

Jgory wfs fo gxigptkho, fs kt usgm f stgfc turekog ihcekogm wktj fo gngitrki trfoscksskho.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbine


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Uhfms

Qjkng tjg trfitkho goakog wfs usufnny euknt uskoa kts nhihchtkvg ehkngr fs kts `rfcg, htjgr

typgs h` stgfc rhfm vgjkings suij fs nhrrkgs fom ifrs jfvg usgm f wkmg rfoag h` mk``grgot ehkngr

typgs. Uhfm trfosphrt pkhoggrs Ahnmswhrtjy Aurogy fom Qfntgr Jfoihid ehtj usgm wftgr-tueg

ehkngrs ko tjgkr stgfc ifrrkfags frhuom 6:92.

Chst uomgrtypg wfahos usgm wftgr-tueg ehkngrs. Cfoy cfou`fiturgrs usgm vfrkfots h` tjg

vgrtkifn irhss-tueg ehkngr, koinumkoa Ftdkosho, Infytho, Afrrgtt fom Ygotkogn. Htjgr typgs koinumg

tjg Infrdsho 'tjkceng tueg' fom tjg @hmgo H-typg wfaho's pksthn-sjfpgm ehkngr.

Ytgfc `krg-goakog cfdgrs suij fs Cgrrywgftjgr usufnny usgm wftgr-tueg ehkngrs `hr tjgkrrfpkm stgfc-rfkskoa ifpfikty.

Cfoy stgfc ifrs usgm wftgr-tueg ehkngrs, fom tjg Ehnshvgr Gxprgss Ihcpfoy gvgo cfmg f

wftgr-tueg rgpnfigcgot `hr tjg Ytfongy Ytgfcgr `krg-tueg ehkngr.

QF]GU ]WEG EHKNGU

]ypgs h` Qftgr ]ueg Ehkngr

Nf Chot Ehkngr

F Nf Chot ehkngr ks f typg h` `hrigm ikriunftkho ko wjkij tjg ehkngr wftgr ks ikriunftgmtjrhuaj fo gxtgrofn pucp tjrhuaj nhoa inhsgny spfigm tuegs h` scfnn mkfcgtgr. ]jg cgijfokifn

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_circulation_boilerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_circulation_boilerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_circulation_boiler


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pucp ks gcpnhygm th ko hrmgr th jfvg fo fmgquftg fom phsktkvg ikriunftkho ko stgfc fom jht wftgr

ehkngrs.

Nhg``ngr Ehkngr

]jg ohvgn `gfturg h` tjg Nhg``ngr Ehkngr ks th gvfphrftg wftgr shngny ey cgfos h` supgrjgftgm

stgfc. ]jg `urofig jgft ks suppnkgm hony th gihohcksgr fom supgrjgftgr. Ko htjgr whrms, stgfc ksusgm fs f jgft feshrekoa cgmkuc.

]jg cflhr mk``kiunty gxpgrkgoigm ko Nf-Chot ehkngr ks mgphsktkho h` sfnt fom sgmkcgot ho tjgkoogr sur`figs h` wftgr tuegs. ]jg mgphsktkho rgmuigs tjg jgft trfos`gr, untkcftgny, tjg agogrftkoa

ifpfikty. ]jks mk``kiunty wfs shnvgm ko Nhg``ngr ehkngr ey prgvgotkoa tjg `nhw h` wftgr koth tjg ehkngr tuegs. @ggm wftgr ks gvfphrftgm ko tjg mruc uskoa pfrt h` tjg supgrjgftgm stgfc ihckoahut `rhc tjg wftgr-jgftgr. ]jus hony tjg mry sfturftgm stgfc pfssgs tjrhuaj tjg tuegs. Rhhr `ggm

wftgr ifo, tjgrg`hrg, eg usgm wktjhut foy mk``kiunty ko tjg ehkngr, wjkij ks argft fmvfotfag h` tjks

ehkngr.


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Egosho Ehkngr

]jg prgsgoig h` stgfc eueengs ko ihotfit wktj tjg sur`fig h` tuegs sgrkhusny kcpfkrs jgft

trfoscksskho `rhc tjg `nug afsgs th wftgr. Ey rkskoa tjg ehkngr prgssurg th tjg irktkifn prgssurg h`

stg

steam generating

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