State (Polity)

7/27/2019 State (Polity)

1/12

State (polity) 1

State (polity)

The frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes'Leviathan

A state is a compulsory political organization with a

centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the

legitimate use of force within a certain geographical

territory. Some states are sovereign, while others are

subject to external sovereignty or hegemony (where

ultimate sovereignty lies in another state).[1]

The

denomination state is also employed to federated states

that are members of a federal union, which is the

sovereign state.

Many human societies have been governed by states for

millennia, however for most of pre-history people lived in

stateless societies. The first states arose about 10,000

years ago at the same time as agriculture,patriarchy

[citation needed], slavery, and organized religion.

Over time, a variety of different forms developed,

employing a variety of justifications for their existence

(such as divine right, the theory of the social contract,

etc.). Today, however, the modern nation-state is the

predominant form of state which people are subject to.

Anarchists oppose the existence of the state, based on the

belief that the state is inherently an instrument of

domination and repression, no matter who is in control of

it, and that it is unnecessary for organizing human

relations. They propose instead that humans organize

themselves into stateless societies, based on free association and cooperation, instead of statist authoritarianism.

Definitional issues

There is no academic consensus on the most appropriate definition of the state.[2]

The term "state" refers to a set of

different, but interrelated and often overlapping, theories about a certain range of political phenomena.[3]

The act of

defining the term can be seen as part of an ideological conflict, because different definitions lead to different theories

of state function, and as a result validate different political strategies.[4]

The most commonly used definition is Max Weber's, which describes the state as a compulsory political organization

with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain territory.[][]

General categories of state institutions include administrative bureaucracies, legal systems, and military or religious

organizations.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a state is "a an organized political community under one government; a

commonwealth; a nation. b such a community forming part of a federal republic, esp the United States of America".

Confounding the definitional problem is that "state" and "government" are often used as synonyms in common

conversation and even some academic discourse. According to this definitional schema, the states are nonphysical

persons of international law, governments are organizations of people.[5]

The relationship between a government and

its state is one of representation and authorized agency.[6]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_of_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commonwealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxford_English_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Religioushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Militaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legal_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monopoly_of_the_legitimate_use_of_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Centralizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Weberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phenomenahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consensushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Authoritarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cooperationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Free_association_%28communism_and_anarchism%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_repressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dominationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anarchistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nation-statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_contracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Divine_righthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organized_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slaveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patriarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stateless_societieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pre-historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereign_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federated_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hegemonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monopolyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Centralized_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ALeviathan_by_Thomas_Hobbes.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leviathan_%28book%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Hobbes


2/12


3/12

State (polity) 3

state in relation to society. Often the nature of quasi-autonomous organizations is unclear, generating debate among

political scientists on whether they are part of the state or civil society. Some political scientists thus prefer to speak

of policy networks and decentralized governance in modern societies rather than of state bureaucracies and direct

state control over policy.[11]

Theories of state functionMost political theories of the state can roughly be classified into two categories. The first are known as "liberal" or

"conservative" theories, which treat capitalism as a given, and then concentrate on the function of states in capitalist

society. These theories tend to see the state as a neutral entity separated from society and the economy. Marxist

theories on the other hand, see politics as intimately tied in with economic relations, and emphasize the relation

between economic power and political power. They see the state as a partisan instrument that primarily serves the

interests of the upper class.

Anarchist

IWW poster "Pyramid of the Capitalist System"(c. 1911), depicting an

anti-capitalist perspective on statist/capitalist social structures

Anarchism is a political philosophy whichconsiders the state immoral, unnecessary, and

harmful and instead promotes a stateless society,

or anarchy.

Anarchists believe that the state is inherently an

instrument of domination and repression, no

matter who is in control of it. Anarchists note that

the state possesses the monopoly on the legal use

of force. Unlike Marxists, anarchists believe that

revolutionary seizure of state power should not be

a political goal. They believe instead that the state

apparatus should be completely dismantled, and

an alternative set of social relations created,

which are not based on state power at all.

Various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques

Ellul, have identified the State and political power

as the Beast in the Book of Revelation, while

atheist anarchists, such as Mikhail Bakunin have

more often pointed out the relationships of

Church and State and analyzed it's legimimacy

both appeals to and ultimately substitutes the

God-idea in practice.[12]

Marxist perspective

Marx and Engels were clear in that the communist goal was a classless society in which the state would have

"withered away".[13]

Their views are scattered throughout the Marx/Engels Collected Works and address past or the

then extant state forms from an analytical or tactical viewpoint, not future social forms, speculation about which is

generally anathema to groups considering themselves Marxist but who, not having conquered the existing state

power(s) are not in the situation of supplying the institutional form of an actual society. To the extent that it makes

sense, there is no single "Marxist theory of state", but rather many different "Marxist" theories that have been

developed by adherents of Marxism.[14][15][16]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marxism%23Dispute_that_the_Soviet_Union_was_Marxisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marxism%23Dispute_that_the_Soviet_Union_was_Marxisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Utopian_socialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marx/Engels_Collected_Workshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stateless_communismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classless_societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Engelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl_Marxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Bakuninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atheisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Beast_%28Revelation%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Ellulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Ellulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian_anarchismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stateless_societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anarchismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3APyramid_of_Capitalist_System.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industrial_Workers_of_the_Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Capitalism


4/12

State (polity) 4

Marx's early writings portrayed the state as "parasitic", built upon the superstructure of the economy, and working

against the public interest. He also wrote that the state mirrors class relations in society in general, acts as a regulator

and repressor of class struggle, and acts as a tool of political power and domination for the ruling class. The

Communist Manifesto claimed that the state is nothing more than "a committee for managing the common affairs of

the bourgeoisie.

For Marxist theorists, the role of the non-socialist state is determined by its function in the global capitalist order.Ralph Miliband argued that the ruling class uses the state as its instrument to dominate society by virtue of the

interpersonal ties between state officials and economic elites. For Miliband, the state is dominated by an elite that

comes from the same background as the capitalist class. State officials therefore share the same interests as owners

of capital and are linked to them through a wide array of social, economic, and political ties.

Gramsci's theories of state emphasized that the state is only one of the institutions in society that helps maintain the

hegemony of the ruling class, and that state power is bolstered by the ideological domination of the institutions of

civil society, such as churches, schools, and mass media.[17]

Pluralism

Pluralists view society as a collection of individuals and groups, who are competing for political power. They then

view the state as a neutral body that simply enacts the will of whichever groups dominate the electoral process.[18]

Within the pluralist tradition, Robert Dahl developed the theory of the state as a neutral arena for contending

interests or its agencies as simply another set of interest groups. With power competitively arranged in society, state

policy is a product of recurrent bargaining. Although pluralism recognizes the existence of inequality, it asserts that

all groups have an opportunity to pressure the state. The pluralist approach suggests that the modern democratic

state's actions are the result of pressures applied by a variety of organized interests. Dahl called this kind of state a

polyarchy.

Pluralism has been challenged on the ground that it is not supported by empirical evidence. Citing surveys showing

that the large majority of people in high leadership positions are members of the wealthy upper class, critics of

pluralism claim that the state serves the interests of the upper class rather than equitably serving the interests of all

social groups.

Contemporary Critical Perspectives

Jrgen Habermas believed that the base-superstructure framework, used by many Marxist theorists to describe the

relation between the state and the economy, was overly simplistic. He felt that the modern state plays a large role in

structuring the economy, by regulating economic activity and being a large-scale economic consumer/producer, and

through its redistributive welfare state activities. Because of the way these activities structure the economic

framework, Habermas felt that the state cannot be looked at as passively responding to economic class interests.

Michel Foucault believed that modern political theory was too state-centric, saying "Maybe, after all, the state is no

more than a composite reality and a mythologized abstraction, whose importance is a lot more limited than many of

us think." He thought that political theory was focusing too much on abstract institutions, and not enough on the

actual practices of government. In Foucault's opinion, the state had no essence. He believed that instead of trying to

understand the activities of governments by analyzing the properties of the state (a reified abstraction), political

theorists should be examining changes in the practice of government to understand changes in the nature of the state.

Heavily influenced by Gramsci, Nicos Poulantzas, a Greek neo-Marxist theorist argued that capitalist states do not

always act on behalf of the ruling class, and when they do, it is not necessarily the case because state officials

consciously strive to do so, but because the 'structural' position of the state is configured in such a way to ensure that

the long-term interests of capital are always dominant. Poulantzas' main contribution to the Marxist literature on the

state was the concept of 'relative autonomy' of the state. While Poulantzas' work on 'state autonomy' has served to

sharpen and specify a great deal of Marxist literature on the state, his own framework came under criticism for its
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Structuralismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neo-Marxismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nicos_Poulantzashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michel_Foucaulthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Welfare_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%BCrgen_Habermashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polyarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interest_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Dahlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pluralism_%28political_theory%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=False_consciousnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hegemonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interlocking_directoratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph_Milibandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bourgeoisiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Communist_Manifestohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Base_and_superstructure


5/12

State (polity) 5

'structural functionalism.'[citation needed]

State autonomy (institutionalism)

State autonomy theorists believe that the state is an entity that is impervious to external social and economic

influence, and has interests of its own.

"New institutionalist" writings on the state, such as the works of Theda Skocpol, suggest that state actors are to an

important degree autonomous. In other words, state personnel have interests of their own, which they can and do

pursue independently of (at times in conflict with) actors in society. Since the state controls the means of coercion,

and given the dependence of many groups in civil society on the state for achieving any goals they may espouse,

state personnel can to some extent impose their own preferences on civil society.

G. William Domhoff claims that "The idea of the American state having any significant degree of autonomy from

the owners and managers of banks, corporations, and agribusinesses is a theoretical mistake based in empirical

inaccuracies," and cites empirical studies showing a high degree of overlap between upper-level corporate

management and high-level positions in government.

Theories of state legitimacy

States generally rely on a claim to some form of political legitimacy in order to maintain domination over their

subjects.[19][20]

Divine right

The rise of the modern state system was closely related to changes in political thought, especially concerning the

changing understanding of legitimate state power. Early modern defenders of absolutism such as Thomas Hobbes

and Jean Bodin undermined the doctrine of the divine right of kings by arguing that the power of kings should be

justified by reference to the people. Hobbes in particular went further and argued that political power should be

justified with reference to the individual, not just to the people understood collectively. Both Hobbes and Bodin

thought they were defending the power of kings, not advocating democracy, but their arguments about the nature of

sovereignty were fiercely resisted by more traditional defenders of the power of kings, like Sir Robert Filmer in

England, who thought that such defenses ultimately opened the way to more democratic claims.[citation needed]

Rational-legal authority

Max Weber identified three main sources of political legitimacy in his works. The first, legitimacy based on

traditional grounds is derived from a belief that things should be as they have been in the past, and that those who

defend these traditions have a legitimate claim to power. The second, legitimacy based on charismatic leadership is

devotion to a leader or group that is viewed as exceptionally heroic or virtuous. The third is rational-legal authority,

whereby legitimacy is derived from the belief that a certain group has been placed in power in a legal manner, and

that their actions are justifiable according to a specific code of written laws. Weber believed that the modern state is

characterized primarily by appeals to rational-legal authority.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rational-legal_authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sir_Robert_Filmerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Divine_right_of_kingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Bodinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Hobbeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legitimacy_%28political%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interlocking_directoratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Empiricalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agribusinesseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corporationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=G._William_Domhoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theda_Skocpolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism


6/12

State (polity) 6

Etymology

The word state and its cognates in other European languages (stato in Italian, Estado in Spanish, tat in French,

Staatin German) ultimately derive from the Latin status, meaning "condition" or "status."[21]

With the revival of the Roman law in the 14th century in Europe, this Latin term was used to refer to the legal

standing of persons (such as the various "estates of the realm" - noble, common, and clerical), and in particular the

special status of the king. The word was also associated with Roman ideas (dating back to Cicero) about the "statusrei publicae", the "condition of public matters". In time, the word lost its reference to particular social groups and

became associated with the legal order of the entire society and the apparatus of its enforcement.[22]

In English, "state" is a contraction of the word "estate", which is similar to the old French estatand the modern

French tat, both of which signify that a person has status and therefore estate. The highest estates, generally those

with the most wealth and social rank, were those that held power.[]

The early 16th century works of Machiavelli (especially The Prince) played a central role in popularizing the use of

the word "state" in something similar to its modern sense.[23]

HistoryThe earliest forms of the state emerged whenever it became possible to centralize power in a durable way.

Agriculture and writing are almost everywhere associated with this process: agriculture because it allowed for the

emergence of a class of people who did not have to spend most of their time providing for their own subsistence, and

writing (or the equivalent of writing, like Inca quipus) because it made possible the centralization of vital

information.

The first known states were created in Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, the Inca civilization), and others,

but it is only in relatively modern times that states have almost completely displaced alternative "stateless" forms of

political organization of societies all over the planet. Roving bands of hunter-gatherers and even fairly sizable and

complex tribal societies based on herding or agriculture have existed without any full-time specialized state

organization, and these "stateless" forms of political organization have in fact prevailed for all of the prehistory and

much of the history of the human species and civilization.

Initially states emerged over territories built by conquest in which one culture, one set of ideals and one set of laws

have been imposed by force or threat over diverse nations by a civilian and military bureaucracy. Currently, that is

not always the case and there are multinational states, federated states and autonomous areas within states.

Since the late 19th century, virtually the entirety of the world's inhabitable land has been parcelled up into areas with

more or less definite borders claimed by various states. Earlier, quite large land areas had been either unclaimed or

uninhabited, or inhabited by nomadic peoples who were not organised as states. However, even within present-day

states there are vast areas of wilderness, like the Amazon Rainforest, which are uninhabited or inhabited solely or

mostly by indigenous people (and some of them remain uncontacted). Also, there are states which do not hold de

facto control over all of their claimed territory or where this control is challenged. Currently the international

community comprises around 200 sovereign states, the vast majority of which are represented in the United

Nations.[citation needed]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereign_stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uncontacted_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amazon_Rainforesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stateless_societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nomadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autonomous_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federated_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multinational_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herdinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tribal_societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gathererhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stateless_societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_China%23Ancient_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quipuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Princehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machiavellihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Frenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Res_publicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cicerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estates_of_the_realmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_law


7/12

State (polity) 7

Pre-historic stateless societies

For most of human history, people have lived in stateless societies, characterized by a lack of concentrated authority,

and the absence of large inequalities in economic and political power.

The anthropologist Robert L. Carneiro comments:

"For 99.8 percent of human history people lived exclusively in autonomous bands and villages. At the

beginning of the Paleolithic [i.e. the stone age], the number of these autonomous political units must have been

small, but by 1000 B.C. it had increased to some 600,000. Then supra-village aggregation began in earnest,

and in barely three millenia the autonomous political units of the world dropped from 600,000 to 157. In the

light of this trend, the continued decrease from 157 to 1 seems not only inescapable but close at hand".[24]

The anthropologist Tim Ingold writes:

"It is not enough to observe, in a now rather dated anthropological idiom, that hunter gatherers live in 'stateless

societies', as though their social lives were somehow lacking or unfinished, waiting to be completed by the

evolutionary development of a state apparatus. Rather, the principal of their socialty, as Pierre Clastres has put

it, is fundamentally againstthe state."

The Neolithic period

During the Neolithic period, human societies underwent major cultural and economic changes, including the

development of agriculture, the formation of sedentary societies and fixed settlements, increasing population

densities, and the use of pottery and more complex tools.

Sedentary agriculture led to the development of property rights, patriarchal societies, domestication of plants and

animals, and larger family sizes. It also provided the basis for the centralized state form[25]

by producing a large

surplus of food, which created a more complex division of labor by enabling people to specialize in tasks other than

food production. Early states were characterized by highly stratified societies, with a privileged and wealthy ruling

class that was subordinate to a monarch. The ruling classes began to differentiate themselves through forms of

architecture and other cultural practices that were different from those of the subordinate laboring classes.

In the past, it was suggested that the centralized state was developed to administer large public works systems (such

as irrigation systems) and to regulate complex economies. However, modern archaeological and anthropological

evidence does not support this thesis, pointing to the existence of several non-stratified and politically decentralized

complex societies.

The state in ancient Eurasia

Mesopotamia is generally considered to be the location of the earliest civilization or complex society, meaning that it

contained cities, full-time division of labor, social concentration of wealth into capital, unequal distribution of

wealth, ruling classes, community ties based on residency rather than kinship, long distance trade, monumentalarchitecture, standardized forms of art and culture, writing, and mathematics and science. It was the world's first

literate civilization, and formed the first sets of written laws. By the middle of the 4th millennium B.C., most

Mesopotamian settlements were fortified, signifying that organized warfare was common.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Warfarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fortifiedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lawshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Literatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kinshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Income_inequalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Income_inequalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Capital_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Division_of_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Citieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Complex_societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_stratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Division_of_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domesticationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patriarchalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Property_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Clastreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hunter_gatherershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tim_Ingoldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millenniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stone_agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paleolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_L._Carneirohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthropologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_inequalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stateless_societies


8/12

State (polity) 8

The state in classical antiquity

Painting of Roman Senators encircling Julius Caesar

Although primitive state-forms existed before the

rise of the Ancient Greek empire, the Greeks were

the first people known to have explicitly

formulated a political philosophy of the state, and

to have rationally analyzed political institutions.

Prior to this, states were described and justified in

terms of religious myths.[26]

Several important political innovations of

classical antiquity came from the Greek

city-states and the Roman Republic. The Greek

city-states before the 4th century granted

citizenship rights to their free population, and in

Athens these rights were combined with a directly democratic form of government that was to have a long afterlife in

political thought and history.

The Feudal state

During Medieval times in Europe, the state was organized on the principle of feudalism, and the relationship

between lord and vassal became central to social organization. Feudalism led to the development of greater social

hierarchies.[27]

The formalization of the struggles over taxation between the monarch and other elements of society (especially the

nobility and the cities) gave rise to what is now called the Standestaat, or the state of Estates, characterized by

parliaments in which key social groups negotiated with the king about legal and economic matters. These estates of

the realm sometimes evolved in the direction of fully-fledged parliaments, but sometimes lost out in their struggles

with the monarch, leading to greater centralization of lawmaking and military power in his hands. Beginning in the

15th century, this centralizing process gives rise to the absolutist state.

The modern state

Cultural and national homogenization figured prominently in the rise of the modern state system. Since the absolutist

period, states have largely been organized on a national basis. The concept of a national state, however, is not

synonymous with nation state. Even in the most ethnically homogeneous societies there is not always a complete

correspondence between state and nation, hence the active role often taken by the state to promote nationalism

through emphasis on shared symbols and national identity.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nationalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nation_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_absolutismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estates_of_the_realmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estates_of_the_realmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standestaathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vassalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feudalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Direct_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Athenian_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Athenian_democracy%23Citizenship_in_Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AKarl_Theodor_von_Piloty_Murder_of_Caesar_1865.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julius_Caesar


9/12

State (polity) 9

References

Notes

[1] For example the Vichy France (1940-1944) officially referred to itself as l'tat franais.

[2][2] Cudworth et al, 2007: p. 1

[3][3] Barrow, 1993: pp. 9-10

[4][4] Barrow, 1993: pp. 10-11

[5] Robinson, E. H. 2013. The Distinction Between State and Government (http://www.edwardheath. net/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/

State_and_Government. pdf). The Geography Compass 7(8): pp. 556-566.

[6] Crawford, J. (2007) The Creation of States in International Law. Oxford University Press.

[7] Sartwell, 2008: p. 25 (http://books. google. com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C& pg=PA25)

[8] Flint & Taylor, 2007: p. 137

[9] Sartwell, 2008: p. 24 (http://books. google. com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C& pg=PA24)

[10] Maleevi, 2002: p. 16 (http://books. google. com/books?id=Lc_nMFoGcYkC& pg=PA16)

[11][11] --

[12] http://dwardmac. pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1. html

[13] Frederick Engels - Socialism: Utopian and Scientific. 1880 (http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index. htm)

Full Text. FromHistorical Materialism: "State interference in social relations becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then

dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of production. TheState is not "abolished". It dies out...Socialized production upon a predetermined plan becomes henceforth possible. The development of

production makes the existence of different classes of society thenceforth an anachronism. In proportion as anarchy in social production

vanishes, the political authority of the State dies out. Man, at last the master of his own form of social organization, becomes at the same time

the lord over Nature, his own master free."

[14] Flint & Taylor, 2007: p. 139

[15] Joseph, 2004: p. 15 (http://books.google. com/books?id=ic5UOphbKHsC& pg=PA15)

[16][16] Barrow, 1993: p. 4

[17] Joseph, 2004: p. 44 (http://books.google. com/books?id=ic5UOphbKHsC& pg=PA44:)

[18] Vincent, 1992: pp. 47-48 (http://books. google. com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC& pg=PA47)

[19] Maleevi, 2002: p. 85 (http://books. google. com/books?id=Lc_nMFoGcYkC& pg=PA85)

[20] Dogan, 1992: pp. 119-120 (http://books. google. com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC& pg=PA119)

[21] Hay, 2001: p. 1469 (http://books. google. com/books?id=lSmU3aXWIAYC& pg=PA1469)

[22][22] Skinner, 1989:

[23] Bobbio, 1989: pp.57-58 (http://books. google. com/books?id=4AE8ur83g8AC& pg=PA57)

[24] Robert L. Carneiro, "Political expansion as an expression of the principle of competitive exclusion", p. 219 in: Ronald Cohen and Elman R.

Service (eds.), Origins of the State: The Anthropology of Political Evolution. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978.

[25] Scott, 2009: p. 29 (http://books. google. com/books?id=oiLYu2-uc8IC& pg=PT29)

[26] Nelson, 2006: p. 17 (http://books. google. com/books?id=cvtYZmiOjT8C& pg=PA17)

[27] ... see also pp. 54-... (http://books. google. com/books?id=7OgODkcZgIIC& pg=PA54) where Jones discusses problems with common

conceptions of feudalism.

Bibliography

Barrow, Clyde W. (1993). Critical Theories of State: Marxist, Neo-Marxist, Post-Marxist(http://books.google.

com/books?id=t3zo8mCl580C). University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-13714-7.

Bobbio, Norberto (1989).Democracy and Dictatorship: The Nature and Limits of State Power(http://books.

google.com/books?id=4AE8ur83g8AC). University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-1813-5.

Cudworth, Erika (2007). The Modern State: Theories and Ideologies (http://books.google.com/

books?id=Pr8tAAAAYAAJ). Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2176-7.

Dogan, Mattei (1992). "Conceptions of Legitimacy" (http://books.google.com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC&

pg=PA116). In Paynter, John et al.Encyclopedia of government and politics. Psychology Press.

ISBN 978-0-415-07224-3.

Flint, Colin & Taylor, Peter (2007).Political Geography: World Economy, Nation-State, and Locality (http://

books.google.com/books?id=GXz9xHdHeZcC) (5th ed.). Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-196012-1.

Hay, Colin (2001). "State theory" (http://books.google.com/books?id=lSmU3aXWIAYC&pg=PA1469). In

Jones, R.J. Barry.Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries P-Z. Taylor & Francis.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lSmU3aXWIAYC&pg=PA1469http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-13-196012-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=GXz9xHdHeZcChttp://books.google.com/books?id=GXz9xHdHeZcChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07224-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC&pg=PA116http://books.google.com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC&pg=PA116http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2176-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=Pr8tAAAAYAAJhttp://books.google.com/books?id=Pr8tAAAAYAAJhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-8166-1813-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=4AE8ur83g8AChttp://books.google.com/books?id=4AE8ur83g8AChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-299-13714-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=t3zo8mCl580Chttp://books.google.com/books?id=t3zo8mCl580Chttp://books.google.com/books?id=7OgODkcZgIIC&pg=PA54http://books.google.com/books?id=cvtYZmiOjT8C&pg=PA17http://books.google.com/books?id=oiLYu2-uc8IC&pg=PT29http://books.google.com/books?id=4AE8ur83g8AC&pg=PA57http://books.google.com/books?id=lSmU3aXWIAYC&pg=PA1469http://books.google.com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC&pg=PA119http://books.google.com/books?id=Lc_nMFoGcYkC&pg=PA85http://books.google.com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC&pg=PA47http://books.google.com/books?id=ic5UOphbKHsC&pg=PA44:http://books.google.com/books?id=ic5UOphbKHsC&pg=PA15http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Historical_Materialismhttp://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htmhttp://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.htmlhttp://books.google.com/books?id=Lc_nMFoGcYkC&pg=PA16http://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C&pg=PA24http://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C&pg=PA25http://www.edwardheath.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/State_and_Government.pdfhttp://www.edwardheath.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/State_and_Government.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France


10/12

State (polity) 10

pp. 14691475. ISBN 978-0-415-24352-0.

Joseph, Jonathan (2004). Social theory: an introduction (http://books.google.com/books?id=ic5UOphbKHsC).

NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4277-8.

Maleevi, Sinia (2002).Ideology, legitimacy and the new state: Yugoslavia, Serbia and Croatia (http://books.

google.com/books?id=Lc_nMFoGcYkC). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-5215-3.

Nelson, Brian T. (2006). The making of the modern state: a theoretical evolution (http://books.google.com/

books?id=cvtYZmiOjT8C). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-7189-0.

Rueschemeyer, Dietrich; Skocpol, Theda; Evans, Peter B. (1985).Bringing the State Back In (http://books.

google.com/books?id=sYgTwHQbNAAC). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31313-9.

Salmon, Trevor C. (2008).Issues in international relations (http://books.google.com/

books?id=ayz0kWKhKacC). Taylor & Francis US. ISBN 978-0-415-43126-2.

Sartwell, Crispin (2008).Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political theory (http://books.google.

com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C). SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7447-1.

Scott, James C. (2009). The art of not being governed: an anarchist history of upland Southeast Asia (http://

books.google.com/books?id=oiLYu2-uc8IC). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15228-9.

Skinner, Quentin (1989). "The state" (http:/

/

books.

google.

com/

books?id=1QrSKH_Q5M8C&

pg=PA90). InBall, T; Farr, J.; and Hanson, R.L.Political Innovation and Conceptual Change. Cambridge University Press.

pp. 90131. ISBN 0-521-35978-3.

Vincent, Andrew (1992). "Conceptions of the State" (http://books.google.com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC&

pg=PA48). In Paynter, John et al.Encyclopedia of government and politics. Psychology Press.

ISBN 978-0-415-07224-3.

Further reading

Barrow, Clyde W. (2002). "The Miliband-Poulantzas Debate: An Intellectual History" (http://books.google.

com/books?id=occGXv3T0ycC&pg=PA3). In Aronowitz, Stanley & Bratsis, Peter.Paradigm lost: state theory

reconsidered. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-3293-0.

Bottomore, T. B., ed. (1991). "The State" (http://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&

pg=PA520).A Dictionary of Marxist thought(2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1.

Bratsis, Peter (2006).Everyday Life and the State (http://books.google.com/books?id=mh_zAAAAMAAJ).

Paradigm. ISBN 978-1-59451-219-3.

Faulks, Keith (2000). "Classical Theories of the State and Civil Society" (http://books.google.com/

books?id=_fjCczhvWj0C&pg=PA32).Political sociology: a critical introduction. NYU Press.

ISBN 978-0-8147-2709-6.

Feldbrugge, Ferdinand J. M., ed. (2003). The law's beginning (http://books.google.com/

books?id=DG_HMgPYMlMC). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-13705-9.

Fisk, Milton (1989). The state and justice: an essay in political theory (http://books.google.com/

books?id=UVv1oS3afmIC). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38966-2.

Friedeburg, Robert von (2011). State Forms and State Systems in Modern Europe (http://nbn-resolving.de/

urn:nbn:de:0159-2010102576). Institute of European History,.

Green, Penny & Ward, Tony (2009). "Violence and the State" (http://books.google.com/

books?id=ZhxIDseBcpcC&pg=PA116). In Coleman, Roy et al. State, Power, Crime. SAGE.

ISBN 978-1-4129-4805-0.

Hall, John A., ed. (1994). The state: critical concepts (Vol. 1 & 2) (http://books.google.com/

books?id=EFmfJlNFEKgC). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-08683-7.

Hansen, Thomas Blom & Stepputat, Finn, ed. (2001). States of imagination: ethnographic explorations of the

postcolonial state (http://books.google.com/books?id=pk9W2W6LCpIC). Duke University Press.

ISBN 978-0-8223-2798-1.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-2798-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=pk9W2W6LCpIChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08683-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=EFmfJlNFEKgChttp://books.google.com/books?id=EFmfJlNFEKgChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4805-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=ZhxIDseBcpcC&pg=PA116http://books.google.com/books?id=ZhxIDseBcpcC&pg=PA116http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Institute_of_European_Historyhttp://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2010102576http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2010102576http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38966-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=UVv1oS3afmIChttp://books.google.com/books?id=UVv1oS3afmIChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13705-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=DG_HMgPYMlMChttp://books.google.com/books?id=DG_HMgPYMlMChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-2709-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=_fjCczhvWj0C&pg=PA32http://books.google.com/books?id=_fjCczhvWj0C&pg=PA32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-1-59451-219-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=mh_zAAAAMAAJhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18082-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&pg=PA520http://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&pg=PA520http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-3293-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=occGXv3T0ycC&pg=PA3http://books.google.com/books?id=occGXv3T0ycC&pg=PA3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07224-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC&pg=PA48http://books.google.com/books?id=_MdR_fvPxZoC&pg=PA48http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-521-35978-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=1QrSKH_Q5M8C&pg=PA90http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15228-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=oiLYu2-uc8IChttp://books.google.com/books?id=oiLYu2-uc8IChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7447-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0Chttp://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43126-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=ayz0kWKhKacChttp://books.google.com/books?id=ayz0kWKhKacChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-521-31313-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=sYgTwHQbNAAChttp://books.google.com/books?id=sYgTwHQbNAAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-7189-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=cvtYZmiOjT8Chttp://books.google.com/books?id=cvtYZmiOjT8Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5215-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=Lc_nMFoGcYkChttp://books.google.com/books?id=Lc_nMFoGcYkChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-4277-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=ic5UOphbKHsChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24352-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Number


11/12

State (polity) 11

Hoffman, John (1995).Beyond the state: an introductory critique (http://books.google.com/

books?id=TG6OQgAACAAJ). Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-1181-5.

Hoffman, John (2004). Citizenship beyond the state (http://books.google.com/books?id=nHu8uwrBO6gC).

SAGE. ISBN 978-0-7619-4942-8.

Jessop, Bob (1990). State theory: putting the Capitalist state in its place (http://books.google.com/

books?id=HcxBBhXjAUcC). Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-00735-9.

Jessop, Bob (2009). "Redesigning the State, Reorienting State Power, and Rethinking the State" (http://books.

google.com/books?id=U5_HatyUydwC&pg=PA41). In Leicht, Kevin T. & Jenkins, J. Craig.Handbook of

Politics: State and Society in Global Perspective. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-68929-6.

Lefebvre, Henri (2009). Brenner, Neil & Elden, Stuart, ed. State, space, world: selected essays (http://books.

google.com/books?id=5cYnB3KsqdkC). University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-5317-1.

Long, Roderick T. & Machan, Tibor R. (2008).Anarchism/minarchism: is a government part of a free country?

(http://books.google.com/books?id=PUev30VZ04kC). Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-6066-8.

Mann, Michael (1994). "The Autonomous Power of the State: It's Origins, Mechanisms, and Results" (http://

books.google.com/books?id=EFmfJlNFEKgC&pg=PA331). In Hall, John A. The State: critical concepts,

Volume 1. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-08680-6. Oppenheimer, Franz (1975). The state (http://books.google.com/books?id=_dJXaqobz4AC). Black Rose

Books. ISBN 978-0-919618-59-6.

Poulantzas, Nicos & Camiller, Patrick (2000). State, power, socialism (http://books.google.com/

books?id=ejTYwLoZtY4C). Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-274-4.

Sanders, John T. & Narveson, Jan (1996).For and against the state: new philosophical readings (http://books.

google.com/books?id=7k_gBlYQwOcC). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-8165-5.

Scott, James C. (1998). Seeing like a state: how certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed

(http://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07815-2.

Taylor, Michael (1982). Community, anarchy, and liberty (http://books.google.com/

books?id=eI9xYg7CwiwC). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27014-4. Zippelius, Reinhold (2010).Allgemeine Staatslehre, Politikwissenschaft(16th ed.). C.H. Beck, Munich.

ISBN 978-3-406-60342-6.

Uzgalis, William (May 5, 2007). "John Locke" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/index.html). Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/index.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-3-406-60342-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27014-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=eI9xYg7CwiwChttp://books.google.com/books?id=eI9xYg7CwiwChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07815-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8165-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=7k_gBlYQwOcChttp://books.google.com/books?id=7k_gBlYQwOcChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-274-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=ejTYwLoZtY4Chttp://books.google.com/books?id=ejTYwLoZtY4Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-919618-59-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=_dJXaqobz4AChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08680-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=EFmfJlNFEKgC&pg=PA331http://books.google.com/books?id=EFmfJlNFEKgC&pg=PA331http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6066-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=PUev30VZ04kChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-5317-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=5cYnB3KsqdkChttp://books.google.com/books?id=5cYnB3KsqdkChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-387-68929-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=U5_HatyUydwC&pg=PA41http://books.google.com/books?id=U5_HatyUydwC&pg=PA41http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-271-00735-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=HcxBBhXjAUcChttp://books.google.com/books?id=HcxBBhXjAUcChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-4942-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=nHu8uwrBO6gChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1181-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=TG6OQgAACAAJhttp://books.google.com/books?id=TG6OQgAACAAJ


12/12

Article Sources and Contributors 12

Article Sources and ContributorsState (polity) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=575411545 Contributors: (, 01011000, 119, 172, 193.133.134.xxx, 2001:630:E4:42F5:FFFF:FFFF:FFDA:18F1,203.109.250.xxx, [email protected], Acalamari, Adam Faanes, Afluent Rider, Ahoerstemeier, Alaexis, Alansohn, Allard, AllenFerguson, Altenmann, Amead, Anarchysm, Andrelvis,

Andres, Andrewa, Andrewrp, Angela, AntanO, Anthony Appleyard, Aprock, Arctic Kangaroo, Armanos, Arsenikk, Astharoth1, Aussie23, Austinplante, Autumnalmonk, Avatarxs, Azizesin,

BD2412, Babbler, Backslash Forwardslash, Balthazarduju, Bart133, Beland, Betterusername, Beyond silence, Big Adamsky, Bigrabid, Bilky asko, Blue-Haired Lawyer, BlueSunRed, Bo,

Bobdobbs1723, Bobo192, Boleyn3, Boneyard90, Bongwarrior, BradBeattie, Braswiki, Bretonbanquet, Brianga, BritishWatcher, Byelf2007, C mon, CWY2190, Canthusus, Cantus, Capricorn42,

CaputIpsiusRegni, Carolmooredc, Carterab, Caverd, Cdc, CesarB, Charles Matthews, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Chrisnoscrub047, Chrylis, Chuljin, Clarin, Clicketyclack, Closedmouth,

Comarade, CommonsDelinker, Confiteordeo, Conversion script, Coolcaesar, Cooltrainer Hugh, Corticopia, Crito2161, D-Rock, Damian Yerrick, DanielDemaret, Darth Panda, Dave souza,David91, Deadlock, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Des Grant, Desiphral, Dgw, Discospinster, Dl2000, DocWatson42, Doctors without suspenders, Docu, Dominic, Donama, Donner60, Dpaajones,

Dudeman0114, Dupes, Dvavasour, E Pluribus Anthony, EPM, ERTBen, Eclecticology, Ed Poor, EdGl, Edward, Edwardjacobs123, Eleassar, Electionworld, Elena Emanova, Elfred, Elkman,

Enbob89, EoGuy, Euchiasmus, Everyking, Evilphoenix, Explicit, Exterminator21, FETuriousness, Fabartus, Fang 23, Felizdenovo, Feto34, Flix11, Frank G Anderson, FreplySpang, Friginator,

Fryed-peach, Full Shunyata, Func, FunnyYetTasty, Fvw, GDonato, Gabi S., Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Geo-Loge, Geoff Plourde, Gilliam, Glenn, Golbez, Grace Note, Graham87, Grant65,

Green Giant, Gurch, Gusvel, Guy Peters, Gwikiman, Haemo, Hairy Dude, HalfShadow, Hephaestos, Herr Lennartz, HkQwerty, Hmains, Hogeye, Horsehorse, Huaiwei, Hunnjazal, IVinshe, Ida

Shaw, Ideal gas equation, Ihcoyc, Ike9898, Instantnood, Interiot, Iota, Irgendwer, IronMaidenRocks, Isiod, Isnow, Isotope23, Ixfd64, J. W. Love, J.delanoy, JBurnham, JForget, JLMadrigal,

JPaestpreornJeolhlna, JaGa, Jackson Peebles, Janejellyroll, Jao, JaviP96, Jcoughenour, Jd4v15, Jdevine, Jdsteakley, Jer10 95, Jerryseinfeld, Jerzy, Jfruh, Jhonni, Jiang, JimVC3, JimWae,

Jimothytrotter, Jimp, Jj137, Jjshapiro, Jnestorius, Johan Magnus, John D. Croft, John of Reading, John1121, Johnbod, Jojit fb, JokerXtreme, Jon Roland, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josterhage, Joy,

Jrtayloriv, Juakali, Juiced lemon, Jusjih, KPH2293, Kaustuv, Kaze no Kae, Kelly Martin, Kempweb, Kenny sh, Kevlar67, Khalid Mahmood, Khoikhoi, Kimse, Kind87me, Ksanyi, Kukini, Kzzl,

La goutte de pluie, Lacarids, Lam-ang, Lapla, Lectert, Leoave, Leptictidium, Leucosticte, Levineps, Lexor, Lezek, Liftarn, Ligulem, Lihaas, LinguistAtLarge, Lismet, Littlealien182, Liu Tao,

Llydawr, Lokys dar Vienas, Lordmaster913, Lordmetroid, Lorian, Loupeter, Lowellian, Lquilter, Lsm59, Lucinos, Luckas Blade, Lunkwill, Lycurgus, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MK8, Mac, Mack2,

Madashell, Madmedea, Malhonen, Man vyi, Mangrove22, Marauder40, MarkSutton, Martarius, Maurice Carbonaro, Maurreen, Max Naylor, Maximaximax, McSly, Mccready, Mdotley, Meno25,

Mesoderm, Michael Hardy, Michaelwuzthere, Michkalas, Midnitecry7, Miesianiacal, Mikeblas, Mircea85, Mistakefinder, Mitth'raw'nuruodo, Mkruijff, Modulatum, Moe Epsilon, Mogism,

Moonlight123104, Moonraker, Moralist, Morethom, Mrevan, Music+mas, Mygerardromance, Mystborne, N2e, NULL, Nakon, NawlinWiki, Ncmvocalist, Ndaco, NewEnglandYankee,

Newmanbe, NickW557, Nicolas Eynaud, Nigholith, Night w, Nightgown22, Nikodemos, Niri.M, Nirvana2013, Nk, Numbermaniac, Nuno Tavares, Old Moonraker, OpticalEnigma, Outback the

koala, PBS, PGWG, Paedia, Pajz, Pasixxxx, Paul-L, Paul111, Paulc206, Pax:Vobiscum, Pearle, Pethan, Petri Krohn, Philip Trueman, Picus viridis, PierreAbbat, Pinkpig123, Piotrus, Pmanderson,

Pochsad, Postdlf, Postmodern Beatnik, Pretzelpaws, Princelyddd, Privacy, Quixoto, Qureus1, Qutezuce, R'n'B, R.O.C, RJC, RJII, RainbowOfLight, Ranveig, RashersTierney, RayBirks,

Razorflame, Readin, Redaktor, Reddi, Reenem, Remy B, Rettetast, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Richhoncho, Roadrunner, Robdurbar, Robertgrass, Robofish, RoyBoy, Ruhrjung, Sandy Scott,

Santiago84, Saswann, Savidan, Sbjhg1234, Scndlbrkrttmc, Sekicho, Shibboleth, Shirulashem, Shizhao, Shoreranger, Sindinero, Singhalawap, Sj, Skiller li l, Slawojarek, Smeira,

Snickeringshadow, Solarra, Somedifferentstuff, SpookyMulder, Staszek Lem, Statesareours, Stephen Bain, Str1977, TXiKi, Tachyon502, Tarquin, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anome, The

Cowdestroyer, The Primal Crux Radicals, The undertow, Thingg, Tiffany The Emo Girl, Timir2, Timwi, Titoxd, Tjic, Tobias Conradi, Touchdown Titans!, Tpbradbury, Tregoweth, Trevor

MacInnis, Trongphu, Tseno Maximov, Tzartzam, Univer, Unlikelynick, Uriah923, Useight, VX, VandalCruncher, Velho, Vera Cruz, VolatileChemical, Vzbs34, WGee, WOSlinker,

WadeSimMiser, Wanjung, Warfieldian, Wavelength, Wayiran, Waywardson13, Wdyoung, Wereon, Wetman, Weyes, Whhalbert, WikHead, Wikieditor06, Wikiloop, Winchelsea,

Windowshacker66, Winhunter, Wknight94, Wolfdog, Woohookitty, Xezbeth, Xiao Li, Xmarquez, Xp54321, Yakoo, Yidisheryid, Yohan euan o4, Yonghokim, Yooden, Yuje, Yvwv, Zabaznov,

Zachlipton, Zfr, Zyarb, , ,, 558 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leviathan_by_Thomas_Hobbes.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Denniss, Dodo,Erkan Yilmaz, Interpretix, JMCC1, Kajk, Lotje, Mattes, Pfctdayelise, Richard001, Suruena, Thegreenj, Theredmonkey, Tom Reedy, 9 anonymous edits

File:Pyramid of Capitalist System.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.pngLicense: Public Domain Contributors: Artist not credited.Published by International Pub. Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

File:Karl Theodor von Piloty Murder of Caesar 1865.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karl_Theodor_von_Piloty_Murder_of_Caesar_1865.jpgLicense: PublicDomain Contributors: Cristiano64, Jdsteakley, Leyo, Mattes, Szczebrzeszynski

License

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

State (Polity)

Documents

Transcript of State (Polity)