9CHAPTER

IntroductionThe coast is a continually evolving area. Its changes are moreclearly visible near low and sandy shores, where there are newadjustments of the seashore and land surfaces that emerge andare submerged by the sea. Coastline dynamics mainly depend onthe sea’s action (wave action, tides, currents and storms), butthey are also influenced by all those direct and indirect naturaland human activities that intervene on the coastal balancechanging its morphological characteristics. The extraction of inertmaterial from riverbeds and the remediation of banks and moun-tain slopes reduce the flow of sediments at the river mouths whenthey should be naturally distributed along the coast. Urban andproductive settlements in coastal areas as well as land and seatransport infrastructures and protection works invade the sea andthe coastal areas interacting with their natural evolution.

In the previous edition the phenomenon of coastal erosion andthe impacts on the coastline were discussed in detail, even inview of the expected climate change and the relative adjustmentpolicies. Other issues were also mentioned, such as: knowledgeof marine forcing and the territorial structure; response with regardto territorial planning and national and regional action plans. These elements that describe the coastal environment are notsubject to short term change and the updating of information

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THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT CYCLE

AN

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Hydrodynamic processes

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Sediment transport processes

Geomorphological response: cross-shore profile; shoreline

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

CLIMATIC EXPOSURE

Meteomarine forcing agents (wave motion, wind, sea levels)

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Adoption of the ICZMProtocol within theframework of the BarcelonaConvention.

requires a time span of several years. Therefore, this year wethought of giving more attention to other marine and land compo-nents that characterize our coastal habitats. This approach wasalso suggested by the recent adoption of the ICZM (IntegratedCoastal Zone Management) Protocol within the framework of theBarcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environ-ment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean. It was signedduring the diplomatic Conference that took place on January 20-21th 2008 in Madrid. The Protocol was signed by the EuropeanUnion and by 14 States, including Italy. It was subsequentlypublished on the Official Gazette of the European Union of4/2/2009.The ICZM Protocol promotes the definition a national integratedmanagement strategy for all environmental, socioeconomic andcultural issues. The Protocol aims at the protection and sustain-able development of coastal regions of the Mediterranean. Itintends to create a new and more efficient approach to the manyprotection needs of the coastal and island habitats and land-scapes in order to preserve the cultural heritage while developingeconomic activities. Therefore, apart from providing more details on the coastal sedi-mentary dynamics and its balance, this edition will also talk aboutother natural phenomena and the qualification of habitats (suchas dunes and Posidonia banquettes). We will also illustrate someelements of change in the marine and coastal environment (waterquality and marine algae) which are often induced by human actionbut perceived as a problem only in the summer season, due tothe utilization of the beaches for tourism and bathing.

The situationThe Italian coast has a length of 8,353 km, of which 4,863 kmare low sandy or delta coastlines (Tables 9.1 and 9.2). From aphysical point of view, the latter are more vulnerable to sea actionand subject to intense geomorphological dynamics. Indeed, in Italycoastal zone risks are mainly related to erosion phenomena andto storms or floods, which are mostly relevant for low and sandycoasts and for coastal alluvial plains.

In the last century, the coastal system suffered a very stronganthropic process that, in many areas, has considerably changedand altered the natural and environmental features of the territory.Due to their accessibility, low coastal areas are more densely occu-pied by residential settlements and intense business activities(even for tourism) as well as by roads and sea transport infra-structures. Indeed, in Italy more than 300 km of coasts hostcommercial and leisure port facilities. According to surveys carried out by the National Statistics Insti-tute (ISTAT) 16.8 million inhabitants permanently live in the 642coastal municipalities, which represent about 30% of the totalpopulation. This gives an idea of how populated coastal areasactually are in Italy, given that both seasonal and tourism flowsare not included. Coastal urbanization has transformed the evolution of coastlineand has turned the natural phenomenon of coastal erosion intoa serious problem, particularly near urban centres where homes,infrastructures and economic activities are at risk. There are many human activities in coastal zones (industries,tourism, fishing, aquaculture, etc.). Problems arise when theseactivities tend to develop together on the narrow coastal area and

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On the Italian coast, 4,863km of sandy or deltacoastlines are morevulnerable to sea action.

The coastal system suffereda very strong anthropicprocess.

In Italy, over 300 km ofcoasts host commercial orleisure port facilities.

About 30% of the totalpopulation lives in the 642coastal municipalities.

1 Source: ISPRA2 Source: ISPRA

Table 9.2: Distribution of natural coast by type2

Type of coast km %

High 2,824 36.7Low 4,863 63.3

TOTAL 7,687 100

Table 9.1: Distribution of Italian coast by type1

Type of coast km %

Natural 7,687 92.0Artificial 314 3.8Fictitious 352 4.2

TOTAL 8,353 100

come into conflict both with each other and with the protectionof natural environments and landscape. Data on land use collected by the Corine Land Cover 2000,covering an area of 10 km from the coast towards the hinterland,shows that 58.7% of land is used for agriculture and 6.6% is occu-pied by urban centres, industries and road, air and sea transportinfrastructures. In other words, in Italy two thirds (over 65%) ofland within the 10km strip from the shore, is used for human activ-ities and is moulded even by invasive and irreversible humanaction on the environment (Figure 9.1).

As a result, Italy is among the countries having the highest riskof coastal erosion in Europe. Table 9.3 summarizes the analysis of variations in the coasts overthe last 50 years extended to all Italian coasts. It shows that 30%of the shoreline is subject to an intense geomorphological evolu-tion.

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58.7% of land within the 10km strip from the shore isused for agriculture while6.6% is occupied by urbancentres, industries andvarious infrastructures.

Over 65% of land isincluded within the 10 kmstrip from the shore, whichis used for human activitiesand moulded by invasiveand irreversible action onthe environment.

Italy is among the countrieshaving the highest risk ofcoastal erosion.

3 Source: ISPRA

32.4%

6.6%

0.8%

1.6%

58.7%

Agricultural land

Wetlands

Forest and seminatural areas

Water bodies

Artificial areas

Figure 9.1: Land use in Italy within the 10 km strip from theshore3

Moreover, the study showed that only in the low coasts (Table 9.4)out of the 4,863 km of low and delta coasts in Italy 1,170 kmare definitely eroding. In other words, over the last 50 years 24%of sandy coasts suffered an average erosion of over 25m.

The most affected regions are: Sicily (with as many as 313 kmof eroding coast); Calabria (208 km), Apulia (127 km), Sardinia(107 km), Lazio (63 km) and Tuscany (60 km). With regard tocoast length, most decreasing beaches are found in Marche(38.6%), followed by Basilicata (38.1%), Molise (34.7%) andCalabria (32%).Considering the evolutionary trend of Italian shoreline and theconcentration of activities and urban settlements along thecoast, it can be assessed that the area subject to potential floodrisk (RICE - Radium of Influence of Coastal Erosion6) in coastalareas covers 954,379 ha. This is equivalent to 3.17% of thenational sur face and involves 5,276,535 people (9.12% of thewhole population). It is also estimated that 336,746 ha of land

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30% of the coast is subjectto an intensegeomorphological evolution.Furthermore, over the last50 years, 24% of sandycoast has eroded by anaverage of over 25m.

The regions that are mostlyaffected by coast erosionare: Sicily (313 km),Calabria (208 km), Apulia(127 km) and Sardinia (107km).

The area subject topotential flood risk (RICE),in coastal areas, isequivalent to 3.17% of thenational surface andinvolves 9.12% of thepopulation.

4 Source: ISPRA5 Source: ISPRA6 The area of RICE is defined as the locus of points that satisfy at least one ofthe following two conditions: distance from the coast up to 500 meters altitudenot exceeding * 5 meters above sea level. (*) To take account of the errors asso-ciated with the definition of DTM (Digital Terrain Model) and to avoid underesti-mation of areas with altitude of more than 5 m, was considered as the level curvecorresponding to the limit value of 10 m.

Table 9.3: Stable andchanged coast, botherosion and accretion4

COAST km %

TOTAL 8,353 100.0Stable 5,385 64.5Changed 2,448 29.3Unclassified 520 6.2

Changed 2,448 29.3Erosion 1,285 15.4Accretion 1,163 13.9

Table 9.4: Stable andchanged low coast, botherosion and accretion5

COAST km %

TOTAL 4,863 100.0Stable 2,387 49.1Changed 2,227 45.8Unclassified 248 5.1

Changed 2,227 45.8Erosion 1,170 24.1Accretion 1,058 21.7

(1.12% of the national sur face) and 2,133,041 people (3.69%of the total population) are exposed to a medium-high and highrisk. Interventions have taken place over the years to protect erodingshoreline. Hard structures, such as beams and barriers, have beenrealized on long sections of coastline which have not resolved theerosion problem especially in the medium and long term. In manycases they even contributed to increasing the process of artificial-ization and marine/coastal habitat degradation. Figure 9.2 shows the distribution of protection works and harboursover the whole national territory.

An alternative technique to recover eroding coastlines is beachnourishment, which consists in reconstructing the eroded beachby replacing the sand lost by erosion with nourishment material

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Coastal defence works withhard structures have notresolved the erosionproblem.

Distribution of protectionand harbour works over thewhole national territory.

Beach nourishment is analternative technique for therecovery of erodingcoastlines.

7 Source: ISPRA

Figure 9.2: Distribution of harbour and protection works byregion7

Number of regional coastal protection structures

(usually sand). The material is normally taken from land, river ormarine quarries.

In the last few years, the search for new sources of material tobe used for the nourishment of eroding coastlines has focusedon the study of sea bottoms. Indeed, deposits of relict sand (gener-ally referable to paleo-beaches) that can be used for beach nour-ishment are found on the continental shelf. These deposits maybe covered by pelitic sediments of recent deposition, or, alterna-tively, by outcropping sediments) and are located at differentdepths between 30-130 m. Using relict sand deposits has some advantages with respect tousing land quarries, such as: availability of large quantities of sedi-ments (millions of m3); potentially similar composition to the sandon our coastlines; limited effects on the environment and lowercosts (for beach nourishments requiring large volumes of sediment).

The utilization of marine sand deposits for beach nourishment hasbeen a widely used practice for various years both in Europe andin the rest of the world (nourishment of the Coney Island Beach,NY, USA, 1922-23).

In Italy, the first documented activities of beach nourishment usingrelict sands were carried out on the beaches of Cavallino andPellestrina (Venice). The operation involved the dumping of about6,000,000 m3 of sand dredged from a marine sand depositlocated between the mouths of the Rivers Tagliamento and Adigeat a depth of 20 m. In the Tyrrhenian Sea the first experiences regarded the nourish-ment of the Ostia coastline in 1999, conducted by the LazioRegion local authority using sands from a marine deposit off Anzio(Rome). The Lazio Region has started the first programme of relictsand dredging for beach nourishment on a regional scale in 1999.Activities are still going on today sediment from the abovementioned deposit of Anzio and from other two relict sand depositslocated respectively off Montalto di Castro (VT) and Torvaianica(Rome) (Figures 9.3 and 9.4). Other dredging operations for beach nourishment were conductedoffshore Ravenna and Civitanova Marche (AP).

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The search for new beachnourishment material hasfocused on sea beds.

The first nourishmentactivities in Italy werecarried out on the beachesof Cavallino and Pellestrina(Venice).

In the Tyrrhenian Sea, thefirst nourishment wascarried out on the coastlineof Ostia (Rome) in 1999.

Table 9.5 summarizes all relict sand dredging operations for beachnourishment carried out in Italy until 2007.

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8 Source: ISPRA9 Source: ISPRA

Figure 9.3: Overflow plume caused by dredging operations8

Figure 9.4: Some phases of relict sand dredging off Montaltodi Castro (Lazio)9

352

Dredging and nourishmentoperations carried out inItaly.

10 Source: Prepared by ISPRA based on data provided by: Consorzio Venezia Nuovafor the marine sand deposit located between the mouths of the Rivers Tagliamentoand Adige; by the University of Cagliari for the sand deposit off Poetto; by theARPA Emilia Romagna for the sand deposit off Ravenna and by the ICRAM (today’sISPRA) for the remaining data

Table 9.5: Relict sand dredging interventions for beach nouri-shment carried out in Italy until 200710

Relict sand deposits(Location/name/ executive authority)

Dredge execution year

Dredged volumesSand destination

Overflow volumes

Adriatic Sea/ Deposit inthe open sea between themouths of the RiversTagliamento and Adige /Magistrato alle Acque diVenezia

1995 - 19991994 - 19991999 - 20001999 - 20032003 - 2004

7,231,570

Pallestrina coastline (VE)Cavallino (VE)Jesolo (VE)

Jesolo - Cortellazzo (VE)Eraclea (VE)

4,097,1191,921,604565,362351,000296,485

m3 m3

Adriatic Sea / Marine sanddeposit off Ravenna (AreaC1) /Emilia RomagnaRegion

2002 799,850

Misano Adriatico (RN)Riccione sud (RN)Igea Marina (RN)

S. Mauro Pascoli - Savignano (FC)

Gatteo a Mare (FC)

165,300253,75065,200

27,000

28,000Zadina (FC) 43,500

Milano Marittima nord (RA) 176,100Lido di Classe - Foce

Bevano (RA) 41,000

2003 2,039,265

Ostia centro (RM)Ostia levante (RM)

Anzio (RM)Focene nord (RM)

Ladispoli (RM)

409,895554,773191,192

407,942475,463

Tyrrhenian Sea/ Marinesand deposit off Anzio(Site AN) / Lazio Region

1999 950,000 Ostia (RM) 950,000

Tyrrhenian Sea / Marinesand deposit off the Gulf ofCagliari / Cagliari Province

2002 370,000 Poetto (CA) 370,000

Tyrrhenian Sea / Marinesand deposit off Montaltodi Castro (Site A2) / LazioRegion

2004 480,000 Tarquinia (VT) 480,000

Tyrrhenian Sea / Marinesand deposit off Montaltodi Castro (Site A2) / LazioRegion

2005 330,000 Ostia (RM) 330,000

continues

Tyrrhenian Sea / Marinesand deposit off Anzio(Site AZ) / Lazio Region

Table 9.5: Relict sand dredging interventions for beach nouri-shment carried out in Italy until 200710

Although beach nourishment contributes to resolving coastalerosion on a local scale in the short term, it would be appropriateto plan a series of activities aimed at the preservation of thecoastal system’s resilience capacity, particularly with referenceto natural elements that ensure the stability of coastal dynamicssuch as dunal environments. Coastal dunes develop behind the beaches due to the effect ofseveral factors. Three of these are essential: the availability ofsediment in proportion to the width of the beach; the energy of

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It would be appropriate toplan a series of activitiesaimed at the preservationof the coastal system’sresilience capacity,particularly with reference todunal environments thatensure the stability ofcoastal dynamics.

Tyrrhenian Sea / Marinesand deposit off Torva-ianica (Ardea Site C2) /Lazio Region

2006 1,429,000

Terracina Porto Badino -Centro (LT)

Terracina Porto Badino - F. Sisto (LT)

Fondi (LT)

375,000

420,000

634,000

Relict sand deposits(Location/name/ executive authority)

Dredge execution year

Dredged volumesSand destination

Overflow volumes

Adriatic Sea / Marine sanddeposit off CivitanovaMarche (Area B1) /Arenaria s.r.l. for AbruzzoRegion

2006 1,106,039

Pineto Silvi (TE)Martinsicuro (TE)Montesilvano (PE)Francavilla (CH)

Casalbordino (CH)

64,245184,85093,106159,32585,612

m3 m3

Sand storage in MarinaPalmense (AP) 518,901

Adriatic Sea / Marine sanddeposit off Ravenna (AreaC1) and (Area A) / Emilia-Romagna Region

2007 825,349

Misano Adriatico (RN)Riccione sud (RN)

Igea Marina - Rimini nord (RN)

Cesenatico nord (FC)

Milano Marittima nord (RA)

149,000105,065

105,788

78,391

90,108

Punta Marina (RA) 189,869

2007 1,658,000

Terracina Porto Badino-Centro (LT)

Minturno (LT)San Felice Circeo (LT)

Fondi nord (LT)

Formia (LT)

283,000

563,000

432,000150,000

230,000

follows

Lido di Dante (RA) 107,128

Tyrrhenian Sea / Marinesand deposit off Anzio(Site AS) / Lazio Region

dominating winds; the presence of specialized vegetation thatstabilizes sands moved and deposited by the wind. These factorsmust reach a dynamic balance to allow the sediment to accumu-late and consolidate until a more or less stable permanent depositis formed. Dunes can be made of incoherent sand (mobile dunes)or by sediments fixed by specialized vegetation (fixed dunes). Once the vegetation has colonized the Aeolian deposit (Figure 9.5)it not only stabilized the sand but even fertilizes it increasing thehumidity rate. Pioneer plant species are actually able to survivedue to their high tolerance to salinity and high sedimentation rates.Vegetation therefore has a deep influence on the morphology offoredunes that evolves accordingly. Coastal dunes not only have a high landscape value but they alsoplay an essential role to protect the coastal zone increasing itsresilience. In particular, they are able to annul the erosion risksince they act as a sediment reservoir that is able to reduce thebeach. Depending on their characteristics, dunes can also contrastthe inland flooding risk. Due to their height with respect to thesurrounding areas and good filtration capacity, coastal dunes canalso prevent saline intrusions in freshwater aquifers (groundwatertable). Finally, coastal dunes host specific and characteristicecological niches and are therefore extremely important both forthe plant communities and for the animal species associated tothem. For some species they are actually essential ecological corri-dors for the coastal environment. It should not be forgotten that the preservation of dunes andbeaches natural conditions are closely related to those of otherequally important ecosystems, such as humid retrodunal environ-ments, coastal lagoons and lakes, Posidonia oceanica meadowsand other marine phanerogams11.

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11 http://www.apat.gov.it/site/_contentfiles/00140500/140589_R54_2005.pdf

Data provided by the EUCC (1994) show that in the 1990s inCentral and Northern Europe coastal dunes covered areas ofabout 5,300 km2 (about 75% of dunal areas in the last century)of which only about 3,200 km2 (45%) were in integral conditions13.As regards Italy, a study 14 was conducted to compare the currentpresence and distribution of protected habitats listed underAttachment I of Directive 92/43/EC with data reported in theNatura 2000 Data Bank of the Ministry for the Environment,Land and Sea (updated in 2007) in order to find possible vari-ations, lacks and/or inconsistencies and prepare the “Manualeitaliano di interpretazione degli habitat della direttiva92/43/CEE” (Italian Interpretation Manual of habitats describedby Directive 92/43/EEC). The study identified 10 habitats witha clear presence of coastal dunes. Three of them were includedin the list of priority habitats, always according to the same Direc-tive, falling under two different macrocategories of reference:

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In Central and NorthernEurope in the 1990s only45% of coastal dunes werein integral conditions.

12 Source: ISPRA 13 http://www.apat.gov.it/site/_contentfiles/00140500/140589_R54_2005.pdf14 Biondi E., Blasi C., Burrascano S., Casavecchia S., Copiz R., Del Vico E., GaldenziD., Gigante D., Lasen C., Spampinato G., Venanzoni R., Zivkovic L.: Manualeitaliano di interpretazione degli habitat della direttiva 92/43/CEE, 2009http://vnr.unipg.it/habitat/index.jsp

Figure 9.5: Dunal habitat12

“Sea dunes of the Atlantic, North Sea and Baltic coasts” and“Sea dunes of the Mediterranean Coast”. Figures 9.6 and 9.7show the distribution of these habitats in the different Italianregions. It can be noted that most of them exist all along thenational coastline, with some exceptions.

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Figure 9.6: Distribution of habitats falling under the macro-category: “Sea dunes of the Atlantic, North Sea and Balticcoasts” in Italy15

● Datum taken from the Natura 2000 Data Bank of the Ministry for the Environment,Land and Sea (2007), confirmed in Biondi et al. (2009)

● New identifications (Biondi et al., 2009)* Priority habitats (amended by Biondi et al., 2009)

NATURA 2000 code Habitat2110 Shifting embryonic dunes2120 Mobile dunes of the sand bar with presence of

Ammophila arenaria (white dunes)2130* Fixed coastal dunes with herbage (grey dunes)2160 Dunes with presence of Hippophae rhamnoides

15 Source: Ibidem

The only currently available reference that provides a nationalframework of the presence and features of coastal dune systemsis the “Geographical Data Bank of Coastal Dunes in Italy” thatwas realized within the framework of the project on “Aeolicdeposits of Italian coasts and the flow of sediments between

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In Italy, a nationalframework of coastal duneswas produced within theframework of a projectfunded by the Ministry ofEducation, University andResearch.

16 Source: Ibidem

Figure 9.7: Distribution of habitats falling under the macro-category: “Sea dunes of the Mediterranean Coast” in Italy16

● Datum taken from the Natura 2000 Data Bank of the Ministry for the Environment,Land and Sea (2007), confirmed in Biondi et al. (2009)

● Datum taken from the Natura 2000 Data Bank of the Ministry for the Environment,Land and Sea (2007), not confirmed in Biondi et al. (2009)

● New identifications (Biondi et al., 2009)* Priority habitats (amended by Biondi et al., 2009)

NATURA 2000 code Habitat2210 Fixed dunes of the littoral (Crucianellion maritimae)2230 Dunes with Malcolmietalia meadows2240 Dunes with Brachypodietalia meadows and

annual vegetation 2250* Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp.2260 Dunes with Cisto-Lavenduletalia sclerophyllous

scrubs2270* Dunes with Pinus pinea and/or Pinus pinaster

forests

beaches and dunes” funded by the Ministry of Education, Univer-sity and Research. This data bank contains vectorial data on thedistribution and conservation conditions of coastal dunes in allthe Italian regions with respect to their evolutionary trend and theutilization of the littoral in front. In accordance with the EU’sINSPIRE Directive, data are reported on a scale of 1:10.000 andare updated as at 1998-9917. For example, according to resultsproduced by the research, in Lazio none of the regional dunesystems (occupying an area larger than 20 km2 and about 200km of coast) are sufficiently natural. This is due to the high humanimpact and the general withdrawal of the coastline. In EmiliaRomagna, instead, just over 28% of the 130 km of coast isbordered by dune ridges. Of this area, only 0.6 km2 (3%) is occu-pied by active dunes, whose evolution is largely compromised byhuman activities (about 59%). 60% of this area also developsalong eroding coastlines. According to a study conducted by theWWF (2007) along the Peninsula’s coasts, preserved dunesystems are found in: • Tuscany (dunes of the Migliarino San Rossore Park and of the

Tuscan Maremma);• Lazio (dunes of the Circeo National Park);• Veneto (fossil dunes of the Po Delta);• Emilia Romagna (fossil dunes of the Po Delta);• Basilicata (dunes along the Ionic coast);• Apulia (dunes of the Torre Guaceto Natural Reserve);• Sicily (dunes of the Torre Salsa, Vendicari and Capo Passero

Natural Reserves);• Sardinia, which hosts some of the largest dunes in Europe

(dunes of Piscinas-Pistis, important for the endemic vegetationof Juniperus macrocarpa, and dunes of Porto Pino, character-ized by the presence of a spontaneous pine forest of Pinushalepensis).

A widespread and very current phenomenon that involves largesections of the Italian coast is the stranding of seabed vegeta-tion and its compatible management. This is what occurs with themarine phanerogam Posidonia oceanica, an endemic species of

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17 AA.VV., Studi Costieri – Dinamica e difesa dei litorali – gestione integrata dellafascia costiera, n. 11, GNRAC, 166 pp (2006)

the Mediterranean (Figure 9.8) that colonizes large areas of theseabeds forming actual underwater meadows. The meadows areone of the fundamental components of the coastal environment’sbalance and richness and are acknowledged as a priority habitatand thus protected by the Habitat Directive (92/43/EC). The stranding of remains of P. oceanica (dead leaves, rhizomesand fibrous remains) is a natural phenomenon that is annuallyobserved on the coasts, especially after autumn and winter seast-orms. The accumulation of stranded remains, combined with sand,form structures known as “banquettes” (borrowing the Frenchterm). These can reach heights of even 2 metres and develop forhundreds of metres along the coastline, according to its geomor-phological structure. In general, banquettes are mainly made ofPosidonia oceanica leaves since their string-like shape and wayof accumulating contribute to the formation of a very compact andelastic lamellar structure (Figure 9.9). In any case, these aretemporary deposit structures that can easily be deformed by theswell they are submitted to.Banquettes and their sediment fractions carry out an importantrole providing a mechanical protection against erosive phenomenaby preventing the swell’s energy and action thus contributing toensure beach stability. They also both directly and indirectlycontribute to the activity of animal and plant biocoenosis on the

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Autumn and winterseastorms annuallyaccumulate remains ofPosidonia oceanica on ourbeaches.

Figure 9.8: Posidonia oceanicameadow18

Figure 9.9: Lamellar struc-ture of a banquette19

18 Source: M. Magri19 Source: G. Bovina

beach, since leaf degradation products provide great quantitiesof fundamental nutrients for the life cycle of flora and fauna ofthe coastal area. For the above reasons, the SPAMI Protocol ofthe Barcelona Convention has included them in the list of priorityhabitats that should be protected. The sea is a large ecological system in which plant and animalorganisms establish a series of complex relationships andbalances both between each other and with the environment. Butthe effects of human activities are threatening these balancesand the survival of marine species. The utilization of marine and coastal waters has an important roleespecially in industrialized societies. However, it is generally knownthat pollution produced by the discharge of chemical and organicsubstances (deriving from human activities) often generates irre-versible environmental changes that can destroy marine habitats.Currently, microbiological pollution and eutrophication are the maincritical factors for coastal areas but we do not have homogeneousand continuous data on chemical, physical and biological param-eters of marine waters. With the exception of marine areassubmitted to special protection regimes, the effects of pollution,are monitored and faced only for the protection of citizens’ healthand for purposes of tourism activities carried out on the coasts.We still lack of a holistic vision for the protection of marine andcoastal ecosystems. Along the Italian coast there are 4,615 sites where recreationaland bathing activities can be practiced. This places Italy at the topof the list of European countries with the highest number of marinewaters used for this purpose. In order to protect bathers’ healththe quality of beach waters is controlled by a very strict monitoringprogramme that provides for the establishment of chemical andmicrobiological parameters. At the beginning of each bathingseason, the Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Policies publishesa report that summarizes the results of the monitoring programmeon the quality of Italian bathing waters carried out in the previousbathing season. According to the “Bathing Waters 2009” Report,in Italy 5,175 km of coastline was checked of which 4,969 km wassuitable for bathing. This value represents 33.8% of bathing coastin Europe and 55.2% of bathing coast in the Mediterranean area.

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Pollution produced by thedischarge of chemical andorganic substances oftengenerates irreversibleenvironmental changes inmarine habitats.

Italy is among the Europeancountries with the highestnumber of marine bathingwaters.

5,175 km of coastline waschecked, of which 4,969 kmwas suitable for bathing.

According to microbiological parameters, 91.43% of Italian sitesfall within the European guide values, with respect to the averageof 88.6% in other member States. If we consider imperative valuesfixed by European regulations, the suitability percentage of Italiansites is of 92.8%, against a European average of 96.3%. Theabove percentages show the high quality of Italian bathing waters.It should also be taken into account that, for microbiologicalparameters, Italy adopted the European Directive imposing limitvalues that in some cases were even more restrictive. Further-more, the Presidential Decree no. 470/82 imposes the closingof a site if for two consecutive seasons it should not be suitablefor bathing. Most other member States, instead, only adviseagainst bathing. A site can only be reopened after an improve-ment programme has been implemented. Results of monitoring activities carried out in 2008 show that atnational level 62 sites do not fall within the given parameters andneed to be submitted to improvement programmes. These siteswill be included among the closed ones and suspended from moni-toring activities until an improvement programme establishes thatthey are suitable for bathing again. Since the implementation ofbeach recovery programmes requires availability of financialresources and long realization periods, over the years the numberof prohibited sites has by far exceeded that of recovered ones.Indeed, while 301 marine water sites were closed in 2008 (281in 2007), only 6 sites were recovered in the 2009 season. As attoday, only 23 improvement projects have been presented. Forthis reason, according to the EEA’s “Annual Report on the qualityof bathing waters”, Italy has the highest number of closed sites.However, with the application of Directive 2006/7/EC this valuewill probably improve since all permanently prohibited sites (suchas river mouths and inaccessible areas for monitoring activities)will not be counted as bathing areas. Table 9.6 and Figure 9.10show bathing suitability percentages of the Italian coast calcu-lated with respect to the total coast length.

361

362

Out of the 7,375.3 km ofcoastline, 5,175 km ischecked and 67.4% issuitable for bathing.

4,969.1 km of coast issuitable for bathing, whichrepresents 67.4% of thetotal length.

20 Source: Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Policies data processed by ISPRA 21 Source: Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Policies data processed by ISPRA 22 Length of Italian coast considered by the Ministry of Labour, Health and SocialPolicies to asses the quality of bathing waters

Coast insufficiently

checked 0.1%

Coast temporarily

unsuitable for bathing due to pollution Art. 7

1.8%Coast permanently

prohibited due to pollution

3.3%Coast permanently

prohibited due to reasons not related to pollution

12.1%

Coast suitable for

bathing 67.4%

Uncheckable coast 14.5%

Coast temporarily

unsuitable for bathing due to pollution Art. 6

2.7%

Figure 9.10: Bathing suitability percentages with respect tothe coast length (2009)20

Table 9.6: Bathing suitability of the coast (2009)21

km %Coast length22 7,375.3 100

Uncheckable coast 1,067.6 14.5Coast permanently prohibited due to reasons not related to pollution 892.3 12.1Coast permanently prohibited due to pollution 240.2 3.3

Coast insufficiently checked 8.1 0.1Coast temporarily prohibited Art. 7 135.9 1.8due to pollution Art. 6 62.1 0.8

TOTAL 198 2.7Coast suitable for bathing 4,969.1 67.4

Unc

heck

edco

ast

Table 9.6 shows that about 2,200 km of coast has not beenchecked for different reasons. This can be due to the inaccessi-bility of sites to monitoring activities (1,067 km) or reasons relatedto permanent prohibition from bathing either for pollution (240km) or for other causes such as port areas, marine reserves ormilitary areas (892 km). The remaining 5,175 km of coast hasbeen checked and 4,969 km of the total length (67.4%) is consid-ered suitable for bathing, while 198 km is polluted. Where there is major algal proliferation, especially of potentiallytoxic species such as Ostreopsis ovata, the local authorities issuetemporary closure provisions for the sections of coast involvedby the phenomenon. However, being exceptional cases that arenot easily predictable, these provisions are not considered whenjudging the suitability of beaches for the next season.

Microalgae belonging to the Ostreopsis genus and the ovataspecies have received growing scientific attention over the lastten years both due to their implication in toxic events and theapparent extension of their geographical distribution from the trop-ical and sub-tropical areas where they originate to temperateareas. They are benthonic epyphitic oval-shaped dinoflagellateorganisms that can produce toxins, with a width of 27-35 μm anda length of 47-55 μm (Figures 9.11 and 9.12). They are found atlow depths and are associated to substrata such as rocks andmacroalgae. In particular, in the Mediterranean area, moleculesresponsible for toxicity, such as palytoxins, have been identifiedboth in their cells and in their water matrix. This is a risk for bothhuman beings and the marine environment.

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4,969.1 km of coast issuitable for bathing, whichrepresents 67.4% of thetotal length.

The bentonic microalgaOstreopsis ovata, which hasbeen existing in theMediterranean for severalyears, can cause toxicityevents that can harmhuman beings and themarine environment.

As regards damages to human health, the first recorded cases ofintoxication started in 1998 in Tuscany on the Apuan littoral section. In July 2005, many cases of intoxication occurred to people whobathed in some beaches of Genoa. These cases were referredto the verified presence of the above dinoflagellate in watersamples and microalgae. The case raised the attention towardsthe issue of both citizens and institutions.In the following years, other coastal areas were affected by thesame phenomenon. It has been observed that episodes of blooming or finding ofmicroalgae of the Ostreopsis genus do not always appear in thesame areas and in the same period. Surveys realized during theblooming period show that the latter is characterized by: a uniformlayer of reddish gelly covering the seabed; the presence of beige,brown or reddish mucillaginous and foamy aggregates on the watersurface; a diffuse opalescence with a reduction of clearness andflakes of suspended material in the water column; traces of anaer-obiosis and sufferance of the existing bentonic communities. On the basis of results obtained from monitoring activities carriedout to check the quality of bathing waters and within the frame-work of a three-year programme implemented by the Ministry forthe Environment, Land and Sea (Law 979/82), the presence of

364

Ostreopsis ovata.

The blooming of algae ofthe Ostreopsis genusoccurs annually in differentareas and periods and cancause serious damages tothe existing bentoniccommunities.

Figure 9.11: Ostreopsisovata under electron micro-scope23

Figure 9.12: Ostreopsisovata under optical micro-scope24

23 Source: Florida Marine Reaserch Institute24 Source: ARPA Liguria

the toxic microalga (with or without signs of blooming) was foundin most coastal regions except for Basilicata, Emilia Romagna andVeneto (Figure 9.13). Despite the scientific consistency of monitored parameters, thecontrols carried out to check the suitability of waters and the prolif-eration of algae are still focused only on the protection of citi-zens’ health, for a better utilization of coastal areas especiallyduring the summer season. Facing problems related to the pollution of the marine ecosystemrequires the continuous monitoring of marine waters and riverrunoff in order to identify the causes and therefore implementconcrete initiatives to mitigate the negative effects both onpeople’s health and on the survival of marine habitats and theiranimal and plant species.

365

The presence of the toxicmicroalga was found inmost coastal regions exceptfor Basilicata, EmiliaRomagna and Veneto.

The presence of the toxicmicroalga was found inmost coastal regions exceptfor Basilicata, EmiliaRomagna and Veneto.

25 Source: ARPA Tuscany data processed by ISPRA

Figure 9.13: Blooming and/or presence of O. ovata along theItalian coast25

• Toxic blooming of O. ovata

• Presence of O. ovata

CausesIn ancient times, the amplitude of the Italian coast was due todeforestation caused by the intensification of trading and agricul-tural activities, first by the Italic and then by the Roman people.This activity increased the speed of land erosion processes in thecountryside and in the hilly area, favouring the flow of large quan-tities of sediment through rivers to the sea. Many river mouthstherefore benefited, receiving a great availability of sediment. Thisenabled the development of wide and branched deltas andfavoured the structuring of coastal plains as well as the accre-tion of beaches. In recent times, this availability of sediment haslacked due to: control of water flows, urbanization of coasts (withthe dismantling and hardening of dunal structures), cautious useof soil (to reduce loss of fertile soil) and stabilization of slopes.This has favoured beach regression and triggered off erosionphenomena in the whole peninsula. The blockage of sediment andthe drainage of water for irrigation and reclamation works (whichhave created healthy soils in many coastal areas) havecontributed to creating vast depressed areas subject to floods,which today are below sea level.

In brief, the phenomenon of erosion on Italian coasts is constantlyincreasing due to: • The reduction in the contribution of solid river sediments flowing

towards beaches, either collected from riverbeds or caught upby slope stabilization, river control and dam works (mainly humanand not natural);

• Sea storms occurring in concomitance with floods causing parox-ysmal erosion phenomena at river mouths;

• The relative increase in sea level and concomitant lowering of landlevel due to natural and human-induced subsidence processes.

Coastal erosion phenomena can have a serious impact on theloss of biodiversity, of landscape and environmental heritage(coastal pine woods, dunes, beaches, etc.) and of areas wherevery valuable economic activities can be developed. In the Mediterranean and in Italy, coastal areas are among themost vulnerable and seriously threatened natural ecosystems of

366

The evolution of Italiancoastlines is mainlyinfluenced by sedimentscoming from river flows.

Sea storms, relativeincrease in sea level andsubsidence phenomenacontribute to the erosion ofItalian coasts.

today, even though they are largely protected by specific toolsboth at national and community level. To confirm this, the Euro-pean Environmental Agency26 even newly acknowledged that theEuropean coastal area is affected by a diffuse and progressivedegradation in terms of habitat loss, eutrophication, contamina-tion, erosion and invasion of alien species.

As regards dune habitats, their destruction can be due to bothnatural and human causes. They can act independently or moreoften jointly, triggering off feedback mechanisms that are difficultto control. For example, the formation of blowouts (areas subjectto intense wind deflation) occurs where there is a reduced plantcoverage. This can be related to natural factors (e.g. grazing byherbivorous communities) and human ones (e.g. excessivetreading due to tourism pressure). According to studies carried out by the European Union for CoastalConservation27, in the last decades there have been daily lossesof about 30 hectares of dune surface mainly due to uncontrolledtourism exploitation and human activities. These are the mainthreat for these coastal areas which translates into a compro-mised integrity and stability of dune systems28. In this regard, itshould be underlined that when dunes are demolished (especiallythose covered by vegetation) they need extremely long periodsto regenerate and the phenomenon can be considered practicallyirreversible.

If on one side it can be useful to keep accumulated banquettesof Posidonia oceanica on the beaches (to prevent their erosionand favour the productivity of coastal waters), on the other theirpresence in touristic and bathing areas can discourage swimmersboth because of floating residues and for the smell produced bybacterial degradation processes. These aspects reduce thetouristic value of beaches. Local administrations are thereforeasked to remove these deposits in order to make the beachesmore appealing.

367

The destruction of dunehabitats can be due to bothnatural and human causes,which often act jointly.

26 EEA, 200627 EUCC, 200228 http://www.apat.gov.it/site/_contentfiles/00140500/140589_R54_2005.pdf

The good quality of the coastal environment is in any case closelyrelated to the quality of marine waters. The potential causes ofmarine pollution can be many, but the main ones are related tothe release of chemical and especially microbiological pollutantsin the environment. In 2009, these caused a bathing prohibitionin 84% of beaches. The sources of sea pollution are mainly from insufficiently puri-fied liquids, industrial discharges and agricultural soil runoff.Therefore urban effluent water purifiers, industrial activities,farming activities (fertilizers, pesticides, etc.), animal breeding andsolid waste treatment are all potential sources of bathing waterpollution. The risk for bathers caused by a contamination sourcecan vary according to the hydrological features of the drainagebasin. Generally, the presence of a large river mouth near a bathingarea can represent a potential risk according to the substancesthat are carried by that specific water flow. In this regard, mete-orological phenomena are also particularly important. Indeed, itis generally known that the quality of bathing waters can worsenafter strong rains because both chemical and microbiological pollu-tants are washed out of soils and directed towards bathing areasthrough rivers.

The fundamental mechanisms that determine toxic bloomingphenomena are still not well known today but a few probablecauses can be assumed, although their interactions have still notbeen defined. Blooming of Ostreopsis ovata and Ostreopsis spp. along theItalian coasts have occurred almost only in the summer seasonand recently even in autumn during conditions that favour theirdevelopment. These are: presence of rocky substrata; low waterdepth; poor hydrodynamism (due to the natural morphology ofthe coast or the presence of ar tificial brushes and barriers tocontrol beach erosion); reduced swell; very stable meteoma-rine conditions and prolonged high atmospheric pressure; highsun ray exposure; water overheating >25°C; absence of ther-mocline; presence of macroalgae. During the blooming period,environmental stress situations were highlighted with fish-killor pathologies affecting marine organisms and effects on

368

The main cause of marinewater pollution is therelease of chemical andmicrobiological pollutantsoriginating from humanactivities.

human health. These were reported by bathers, fishermen andresidents.

Response

Regulations and planningIn the last decades, there is a growing awareness on the needto improve the management of coastal areas, both at nationaland international level. Over the years, this has generated specificregulations at European level as well as national strategies,regional plans, studies, inventories and researches. Indeed, todaymany regulations and tools are applied, which contribute toprotecting the coastal environment. In Italy the main regulationson coastal areas are indicated below: • The Marine Navigation Code regulates action on state maritime

property.• Law 431/85 (Galasso law) establishes landscape obligations

in the coastal area within 300 m from the water’s edge.However, these obligations are very general, passive and insuf-ficient in contrasting the growing coast transformation initia-tives.

• Law 183/89 on land protection gives the State the function ofdefining geneal approaches, criteria and administrative functionson the protection of coast in basins and areas of national rele-vance for the security of the State and maritime navigation. Inother areas, administrative functions are carried out by theregional authorities.

• Legislative Decree 112/98 gives the state the function ofdefining general approaches and criteria for protecting coasts.Administrative functions related to planning and integratedmanagement of coastal areas are given to regional authorities.The subsequent Legislative Decree 96/99 also involvesprovincial authorities in the administrative part. Land protectionand specifically coast erosion problems have contributed toincreasing the awareness on the need to allocate resources andplan interventions aimed at preventing risks rather than takingemergency action.

369

There is a greaterawareness of improvingcoastal management.

The main regulations.

• Reform of Chapter V of the Constitution (Constitutional Law3/2001).

• Law no. 179 dated 31 July, 2002 on «Environmental provisions»and in particular Art. 21 on authorizations for action aimed atthe protection of the coastal area.

• Legislative Decree 152/2006 that rearranges and integratesthe regulations of all environmental sectors.

• Legislative Decree 116/2008 for the implementation of Direc-tive 2006/7/EC on the management of bathing water quality.

• Decree of the Ministry for the Environment, Land and Seano. 56 dated 14 April, 2009, containing the «Technical criteriafor monitoring water bodies and identifying conditions toamend technical regulations of Legislative Decree no. 152dated 3 April 2006, indicating environmental provisions inaccordance with Article 75, paragraph 3 of the same Legisla-tive Decree».

At European Community level, between 1996 and 1999 theCommission realized a demonstrative programme on IntegratedCoastal Zone Management (ICZM). Then, in 2002, on the basisof the Programme’s experience and results the European Counciland Parliament adopted the ICZM Recommendation(2002/413/EC). “The integrated management of coastal zones is a dynamic,interdisciplinary and interactive process aimed at promoting thesustainable structure of coastal zones” (Communication no.547 of the European Council of September 27th 2000). TheICZM principles are very dynamic and all-embracing: they includethe possibility of any activity being carried out on the coastalarea as long as it is done in a sustainable way. The manage-ment of a system consists in overlapping a physical contextwith the many human activities that are carried out. These caninclude economic activities and development of the housing andinfrastructural system with their relative impacts on the envi-ronment and the territory.

At international level, Italy is one of the signatory countries ofthe Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Envi-

370

Adoption of the ICZMRecommendation(2002/413/EC) by theEuropean Council andParliament.

ronment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean and itsrelative protocols. 21 States of the Mediterranean basin andthe European Community have adhered to the Convention.According to Article 4 of the Convention, Protocol VII on Inte-grated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) of the Mediterraneanwas adopted during the conference of plenipotentiaries that washeld in Madrid on January 20-21th 2008. It was signed by theEuropean Union and by 14 States, including Italy, and was thenpublished on the European Union’s Official Gazette of4/2/2009.Protocol VII is the first binding legal tool in the definition of anational strategy for the integrated management of coastal zonesand governance of marine and coastal zones. Both the Protocoland the European Recommendation request the partiesinvolved to first of all prepare a national strategy indicating thefundamental decisions for the future of coastal areas, privilegingtheir conservation and protection or trying to give real sustain-ability to existing or future economic activities. The ICZM Protocolprovides measures aimed at the protection and sustainabledevelopment of coastal areas in the Mediterranean introducinga series of principles, objectives and forecasts for the regularanalysis of the environmental impact, the protection of marineecosystems, the safeguarding of coastal and island landscapes,the conservation of the cultural heritage and development ofeconomic activities. It implies the integration of all the different sector policies involved,the administration at all levels and the integration of the land andsea components in the territory involved.

Currently, the coastal territory in Italy is managed in very differentways. Planning tools are often in contrast and at times indica-tions are not binding. Table 9.7 shows the situation in Italy andsummarizes the regional planning tools on the management ofcoasts in the 15 coastal regions.

371

Adoption of Protocol VII onIntegrated Coastal ZoneManagement (ICZM) of theMediterranean signed bythe EU and by 14 States,including Italy.

Regional coastalmanagement planning.

Out of 15 coastal regions, 11 of them are endowed with plan-ning tools extended to the entire regional territory. Among these,6 regions have a specific coastal protection plan and only EmiliaRomagna and Marche have an approved integrated managementplan of the coastal area.In Calabria, after having dealt with the coastal erosion problemwithin the scope of the Hydrogeological Settlement TransitionalPlan (adopting an initial risk analysis methodology), the region isnow preparing to draw up an integrated management plan. Theplan considers previous action as one of the elements functionalto the construction of a broader conceptual plan. The remaining

372

11 regions have tools thatare extended to the wholeregional territory.

Table 9.7: Regional coastal plans29

Region Regional plan Coastal protection ICZM Plan Coastplan protection

Type period status period status plans RAP

Liguria Yes Coastal Coordination yes 2000 approvedTerritorial Plan

Tuscany Yes ICZM Plan for Hydrogeological yes 2004 published YesReadjustment

Lazio yes experimental YesCampania Yes Erosion Transitional PlansBasilicata Calabria Yes Hydrogeological Settlement yes 2005 approved yes 2006 in process Yes

Transitional Plan – Integrated Management Plan (=Protection Plan)

Apulia yes 2006 editing YesMolise Yes Abruzzo Yes Organic Plan for vulnerable yes 2003 approved Yes

areas at riskMarche Yes ICZM Plan yes 2005 approved yes 2004 approved YesEmilia Romagna Yes ICZM Plan yes 1983 approved yes 2005 approved YesVeneto Yes Friuli Venezia YesGiuliaSardinia Yes Lanscape Regional Plan yes experimental YesSicily Yes Hydrogeological Settlement yes 2004 editing Yes

Transitional PlanPlans Total 9 8 3 12

29 Source: Prepared by ISPRA on the basis of data from coastal regions.

regions mainly have coast protection and Regional Action Plans(RAPs) that merely define a list of protection works to be realizedin short sections of the coast. Indeed, the current coastal planning framework in Italy does notyet reflect the wider scope introduced by the Integrated CoastalZone Management.

However, it should be underlined that since the ratification ofProtocol VII on ICZM, the Ministry of the Environment, Land andSea started a series of studies and projects to prepare Italy’sNational Strategy. The attention is focused on two indicativeelements of the natural, social and economic life of coastal areas,namely: • The parties that need to be involved at various levels (institu-

tions, productive sector, independent bodies, etc.);• The area of application (which requires the delimitation of the

coastal area).

The ICZM imposes an agreement on the environment and itsresources between all the parties involved in the coastal area.This means that the need to find a harmonized managementof the environment (integrating environmental planning policieswith economic, cultural and territorial ones) is the primary need.The ICZM promotes and requires the preparation and develop-ment of a coordination mechanism between the economic,administrative and cultural sectors. This mechanism must beable to define the strategic elements of a National Policy ofintegrated management taking into account the interests on theenvironment and on the territory in order to protect and use itlimiting the redundancy and the overlapping of planning toolsthat are put in place by the administrations and all the partiesinvolved.

Since the environment is the primary value promoted by ProtocolVII to achieve a coherent application of integrated managementprinciples, a characterization of the socio-economic scenario(urban centres, infrastructures, economic activities, etc.) needsto be carried out. This should describe the natural environment’s

373

Action is being taken for thepreparation of a NationalStrategy.

Institutional, economic andcultural parties operating inthe coastal area need to beinvolved.

Characterization of theenvironmental and socio-economic scenarios on thecoastal area.

quality as well as the territory in order to confirm eventual deci-sions aimed at the protection and conservation of the existingecosystems.

Another primary element is monitoring action, which ensures thecontinuous assessment of the National Strategy and the efficacyof implemented plans and programs. It also enables to makeamendments and integrations to the same programs, if neces-sary, and to draw up reports on the implementation progress asprovided by the European Community.

Action aimed at protecting, studying and monitoringthe marine and coastal environment Erosion, loss of coastal resilience, pollution, biologicalphenomena and human pressure. All these indicators lead to theinevitable need to protect coastal areas and take action keepingin mind the great complexity and vulnerability of this environment. In order to control the phenomenon of beach erosion and theexpansion of flood-risk areas, protection measures have beentaken mainly by realizing barriers. However, these have notresolved the erosion problem, especially in the medium and longterm. In many cases, the barriers even contributed to the processof artificialization and degradation of the marine and coastal habi-tats. Interventions aimed at the nourishment of beaches usingsand from marine quarries started only in the least few decades.

The dredging of relict sands for beach nourishment (even with goodquality sediments) can, however, induce significant effects on themarine environment. The main ones can be the variation andnature of seabottom features with possible localized effects onfishing activities (e.g. damaging of fishing nets) and the immis-sion of fine-grained sediment in the water column. The latter mainlyoccurs during dredge-loading operations when the excess waterthat was sucked in with the sediment is released (overflow). Thisoverflow can damage sensitive habitats (such as Posidoniaoceanica meadows, Coralligenous biocoenosis, etc.) that can bepresent in proximity of the dredged areas.

374

Continuous assessment ofthe National Strategyimplementation progress.

There is an inevitable needto find ways of protectingthe coastal areas.

Effects on the marineenvironment caused by therelict sand dredging forbeach nourishment.

In view of the above, it is therefore important to have a detailedand updated knowledge of the environment where marine sanddeposits are located in order to forecast and assess the even-tual effects of dredging operations and the choice of eventualimpact mitigation measures that need be adopted. Since 1999, ISPRA started working with the Regione Lazio localauthority and the Environmental Agency (ARPA) of Emilia Romagnato carry out a series of environmental studies. These studies haveled to the definition of a specific environmental monitoring Protocolfor these activities that can be applied also to other geograph-ical areas.

ISPRA then extended the experimentation of this Protocol to otherItalian regions (Marche region) and presented the Protocol to theEuropean community30.The proposed Protocol31 involves the realization of a specific envi-ronmental monitoring study in 3 areas: the dredging area, thetransport area and the nourishment area. The study is dividedinto three phases: before (ante operam), during and after (postoperam) operations. During each of the three phases surveys arecarried out on: benthic assemblages; fish assemblages; chem-ical and granulometric characteristics of the seabottom sediment;physical-chemical characteristics and dynamics of the watercolumn and suspended particulate matter. The environmentalmonitoring study does not only define the area’s environmentalcompatibility to dredging (in other words the environmental feasi-bility of such operations). It also enables to assess the recovery times and modalities ofthe marine environment. In particular, surveys carried out anteoperam in the dredging site (characterization of dredging site) notonly provide general environmental data for the monitoring but alsosupply important information to obtain the dredging authorization.

375

The Protocol proposed byISPRA involves therealization of a specificenvironmental monitoringstudy, divided into threephases: before, during andafter the operations.

30 www.beachmed.eu31 Quaderno ICRAM no. 5 “Aspetti ambientali del dragaggio di sabbie relitte a finidi ripascimento: proposta di un protocollo di monitoraggio” (“Environmental aspectsin the dredging of relict sands for beach nourishment: proposal for a MonitoringProtocol”)

Some European projects 32 considered the different aspects(such as the planning, environmental and economic point ofview) of relict sand and/or offshore sand dredging for beachnourishment.

As regards coastal dunes, data recently published in the EEAReport (2006) (Figure 9.14), show that dune environmentsprotected by Directive 92/43/EEC represent 6% of coastal sitesincluded in the Natura 2000 network, covering a total area of about250 km2.

Many studies and interventions for the protection and recoveryof coastal dunes scattered over the national territory have beenconducted, funded by both local and national administrations andthe European Community. Many are also the European projectsthat have the primary or secondary aim of managing and studyingcoastal dunes. A recent example is the POSIDuNE project, fundedwithin the framework of the INTERREG IIIC Beachmed-e34, thatpromoted activities in the Tuscany region.

376

Protection and recovery ofdune ridges.

Dune environmentsprotected by Directive92/43/EEC represent 6% ofcoastal sites included in theNatura 2000 network.

32 www.beachmed.it33 Source: EEA, The changing faces of Europe's coastal areas, 200634 http://www.beachmed.it/Beachmede/SousProjets/POSIDUNE/tabid/99/Default.aspx

71%6%

14%9%

Coastal and halophyte habitatsDunes

Natural meadows

High trunk vegetation

Figure 9.14: Types of coastal sites in Europe33

In the management of beaches, local administrations dealing withthe problem of stranded Posidonia deposits adopted temporaryemergency solutions. This involved expensive operations withclearing and disposal of the deposits in the dumps. In general,the removal of biomass takes place before the summer seasonand is carried out with mechanical vehicles which also carry awaygreat quantities of sand. The nature of the coastal area wherebeach clearing operations take place is not taken into account.This triggers off and speeds up the process of beach erosion andcompromises the integrity of the coastal habitat obliging the localadministrations to intervene with expensive protection measuresand beach nourishment operations. In the absence of shared rules and models, the management ofstranded matter is not an easy process. Indeed, the current lawsin force are not always easy to interpret. There is no specific refer-ence on this matter being considered waste and only recently aremarine phanerogams (such as stranded Posidonia) used for theproduction of compost (Decree dated January 22th 2009 issuedby the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forests). In view of theabove, the Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea (also inresponse to clarification requests advanced by coastal municipal-ities) issued Circular no. 8123/2006 that provides for threepossible types of management related to the specific features ofthe coastal area and the social and economic situation: 1) localmaintenance of the banquettes; 2) relocation of the deposits; 3)permanent removal and disposal in dumps. The theme of banquette management was also tackled by theEuropean project POSIDuNE, which produced specific technicaldocumentation on the issue.

At national level, ISPRA is collaborating with technical staff of theregional environmental agencies (ARPA) on the coasts and withthe Province of Livorno. A programme of activities was started in2006 as a first step towards the study and management ofbanquettes. The programme also provides background knowledgefor the definition of rules or guidelines in order to respond to theseproblems that local administrations have to deal with on a yearlybasis.

377

Management of strandedbiomass (marinephanerogams and algae).

New measures for themanagement of bathingwater quality.

378

The suitability of beaches to bathing is established every year onthe basis of data obtained from monitoring operations carried outby the regional environmental agencies (ARPA) during theprevious year’s bathing season. The management of bathingwaters currently follows provisions established by PresidentialDecree 470/82. This establishes the monitoring of water qualityevery 15 days from 1 April to 30 September, checking the micro-biological parameters (fecal contamination indicators) and chem-ical-physical ones (transparency, colour, pH, dissolved oxygen,etc.). This control system will soon be substantially changed due to theentrance into force of Legislative Decree 116/2008 in June 2008to implement European Directive 2006/7/EC (which annuls Direc-tive 76/160/EEC). The main objective of the new law is to protecthuman health from risks related to the poor quality of watersthrough a prevention and environmental improvement strategy. The quality of bathing waters will be classified according to fourquality levels (excellent, good, sufficient and poor) based on 90thand 95th percentile values of the two microbiological indicators(intestinal Enterococci and Escherichia coli) calculated from moni-toring data of the last four years. Although the trend has been to assess the marine environment’sconditions only with reference to human health risks, the new lawacknowledges the important role played by environmental factorsin influencing the quality of bathing waters. Indeed, apart fromchecking fecal contamination indicators, a series of assessmentswill also be made on potential pollution sources taking intoaccount the different factors, such as the morphology and hydro-geological features of the territory and the specific meteo-marineconditions in the area. For this reason, each area must have aprofile with data on the water itself, a description of the territoryand information on the impacts that can influence its quality.These profiles will be prepared for the first time by March 24th

2011.Directive 76/160/EEC will be definitely annulled with effect from31 December 2014. In this transitory period, technical regulationsare being defined to implement the contents of the new Direc-tive. In the meantime, monitoring activities continue to be carried

out according to indications contained in the Presidential Decree470/82.For example, for the surveillance of O. ovata the Ministry of Healthprepared guidelines to identify operational procedures for themanagement of risks related to the blooming of Ostreopsis ovataon the Italian coast (“Gestione del rischio associato alle fiorituredi Ostreopsis ovata nelle coste italiane” – May 2007). Theseguidelines are currently being revised. Following repeated communication received from the authorities,in 2006 the Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea appointedISPRA to activate a working programme on “toxic algae” in agree-ment with the regional environmental agencies (ARPA). Theprogramme was aimed at sharing knowledge and information onthe ecology, monitoring methods and any other aspects that couldhelp understand the phenomenon. The result of this activity was the identification of elements for acommon national strategy aimed at the sampling, analysis, moni-toring, surveillance, information, communication and managementof the “toxic algae” phenomenon. Operational protocols for the national management of the phenom-enon were produced by ISPRA/ARPA and these were recentlyadopted by the Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea duringmarine and coastal monitoring activities. A brochure was alsoprepared and distributed to inform the local population on thephenomenon. In addition to the above activities, ISPRA works closely with theARPA agencies in coastal regions to prepare an annual report onthe “toxic algae” situation, especially in the summer season.Regular seminars are also organized to keep constantly updated.

Scientific studies were also conducted and some of them are stillin course (Research programme on Ostreopsis ovata and Ostre-opsis spp.: new microalgal toxicity risks in the Italian seas). Thestudies are aimed at acquiring more information on toxic algaeto understand the environmental conditions that favour their prolif-eration and the mechanism with which the toxins are transferredin the marine aerosol.

379

Scientific studies on thetoxicity of microalgae.