SQL Plsql Beginners

8/12/2019 SQL Plsql Beginners

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INTRODUCTION

SQL is divided into the following Data Definition Language (DDL)

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Data Retieval Language (DRL)

Tansa!tion Contol Language (TCL)

Data Contol Language (DCL)

DDL "" !eate# alte# dop# tun!ate# ena$e

DML "" inset# update# delete

DRL "" sele!t

TCL "" !o$$it# oll%a!&# savepoint

DCL "" gant# evo&e

CR'T' TL' S*NT+

Ceate ta%le ,table_name- (col1 datatype1, col2 datatype2 …coln datatypen).

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le student (no nu$%e (1)# na$e va!ha (23)# $a&s nu$%e (4)).

INS'RT

This will %e used to inset the e!ods into ta%le5

6e have two $ethods to inset5

7 value $ethod

7 addess $ethod

a) USIN8 9LU' M'T:OD S7nta/0

inset into ,table_name) values (value1, value2, value3 …. Valuen).

'/0

SQL- inset into student values (2# ;sudha;# 233).

SQL- inset into student values (1# ;sað# 133).

To inset a new e!od again 7ou have to t7pe entie inset !o$$and# if thee ae lot of

e!ods this will %e diffi!ult5

This will %e avoided %7 using addess $ethod5

%) USIN8 DDR'SS M'T:OD

S7nta/0

inset into ,table_name) values (&col1, &col2, &col3 …. &coln).

This will po$pt 7ou fo the values %ut fo eve7 inset 7ou have to use fowad slash5

'/0

SQL- inset into student values (<no# =<na$e=# <$a&s).

'nte value fo no0 2

'nte value fo na$e0 >agan

1



NO NM' MRFS

""" """""" """"""""

2 Sudha 233

1 Sa&eth 133

2 >agan 433

1 Naen @33

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu

9isu

Rattu

SQL- sele!t no# na$e# $a&s fo$ student.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """""" """"""""

2 Sudha 233

1 Sa&eth 133

2 >agan 433

1 Naen @33

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu

9isu

Rattu

SQL- sele!t no# na$e fo$ student.

NO NM'

""" """""""

2 Sudha

1 Sa&eth

2 >agan

1 Naen

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu

9isu Rattu

CONDITIONL S'L'CTIONS ND OA'RTORS

6e have two !lauses used in this

6hee

Ode %7

USIN8 6:'R'

S7nta/0

3



sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,condition-.

the following ae the diffeent t7pes of opeatos used in whee !lause5

ith$eti! opeatos

Co$paison opeatos

Logi!al opeatos

ith$eti! opeatos "" highest pe!eden!e

G# "# E# ?

Co$paison opeatos

H# H# -# ,# -H# ,H# ,-

%etween# not %etween

in# not in

null# not null

li&e

Logi!al opeatos

nd

O "" lowest pe!eden!e

not

a) USIN8 H# -# ,# -H# ,H# H# ,-

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1.

NO NM' MRFS """ """"""" """""""""

1 Sa&eth 133

1 Naen @33

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no , 1.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""""

2 Sudha 233

2 >agan 433

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no - 1.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""""

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu

9isu

Rattu

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no ,H 1.

4



NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""""

2 Sudha 233

1 Sa&eth 133

2 >agan 433

1 Naen @33

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no -H 1.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

1 Sa&eth 133

1 Naen @33

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu

9isu

Rattu

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""""

2 Sudha 233

2 >agan 433

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu

9isu

Rattu

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no ,- 1.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""""

2 Sudha 233

2 >agan 433

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu 9isu

Rattu

%) USIN8 ND

This will gives the output when all the !onditions %e!o$e tue5

S7nta/0

sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,condition1- and ,condition2- and 55

,conditionn-.

5



'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1 and $a&s -H 133.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""

1 Sa&eth 133

1 Naen @33

!) USIN8 OR

This will gives the output when eithe of the !onditions %e!o$e tue5

S7nta/0

sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,condition1- and ,condition2- o 55

,conditionn-.

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1 o $a&s -H 133.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

1 Sa&eth 133

2 >agan 433

1 Naen @33

d) USIN8 'T6''N

This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n and its lowe %ound# uppe%ound5

S7nta/0

sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col - %etween ,lower bound - and ,upper

bound -.

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s %etween 133 and @33.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

1 Sa&eth 133

2 >agan 433

1 Naen @33

e) USIN8 NOT 'T6''N

This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n whi!h values ae not in its lowe %ound#

uppe%ound5

S7nta/0

sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col - not %etween ,lower bound - and ,upper

bound -.

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s not %etween 133 and @33.

6



NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

2 Sudha 233

f) USIN8 IN

This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n and its list of values spe!ified5

S7nta/0

sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col - in ( value1, value2, value3 … valuen).

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no in (2# 1# 4).

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

2 Sudha 233

1 Sa&eth 133

2 >agan 433

1 Naen @33

4 Ra$esh

g) USIN8 NOT IN

This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n whi!h values ae not in the list of

values spe!ified5

S7nta/0

sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col - not in ( value1, value2, value3 … valuen).

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no not in (2# 1# 4).

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

@ Madhu

9isu

Rattu

h) USIN8 NULL

This will gives the output %ased on the null values in the spe!ified !olu$n5

S7nta/0 sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col - is null.

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s is null.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu

7



9isu

Rattu

i) USIN8 NOT NULL

This will gives the output %ased on the not null values in the spe!ified !olu$n5

S7nta/0

sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col - is not null.

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s is not null.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

2 Sudha 233

1 Sa&eth 133

2 >agan 433

1 Naen @33

J) USIN8 LIF'

This will %e used to sea!h though the ows of data%ase !olu$n %ased on the patten

7ou spe!if75

S7nta/0

sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col - li&e , pattern-.

'/0

i) This will give the ows whose $a&s ae 2335

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s li&e 233.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

2 Sudha 233

ii) This will give the ows whose na$e stat with KS;5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =S=.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

2 Sudha 233

1 Sa&eth 133 iii) This will give the ows whose na$e ends with Kh;5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =h=.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

1 Sa&eth 133

4 Ra$esh

i9) This will give the ows whose na$e;s se!ond lette stat with Ka;5

8



SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =a=.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""

1 Sa&eth 133

2 >agan 433

1 Naen @33

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu

Rattu

9) This will give the ows whose na$e;s thid lette stat with Kd;5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =d=.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

2 Sudha 233

@ Madhu

9i) This will give the ows whose na$e;s se!ond lette stat with Kt; fo$ ending5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =t=.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

1 Sa&eth 133

Rattu

9ii) This will give the ows whose na$e;s thid lette stat with Ke; fo$ ending5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =e=.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

1 Sa&eth 133

4 Ra$esh

9iii) This will give the ows whose na$e !otains 1 a;s5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =a a =.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""""2 >agan 433

E *ou have to spe!if7 the pattens in lie using undes!oe ( )5

USIN8 ORD'R *

This will %e used to odeing the !olu$ns data (as!ending o des!ending)5

S7nta/0

Sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- ode %7 ,col - des!.

7 default oa!le will use as!ending ode5

9



If 7ou want output in des!ending ode 7ou have to use de!c &e7wod afte the !olu$n5

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student ode %7 no.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

2 Sudha 233

2 >agan 433

1 Sa&eth 133

1 Naen @33

4 Ra$esh

@ Madhu

9isu

Rattu

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student ode %7 no des!.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """""""""

Rattu

9isu

@ Madhu

4 Ra$esh

1 Sa&eth 133

1 Naen @33

2 Sudha 233

2 >agan 433

USIN8 DML

USIN8 UADT'

This !an %e used to $odif7 the ta%le data5

S7nta/0

Update ,table_name- set ,col1- H value2# ,col2- H value1 whee ,condition-.

'/0

SQL- update student set $a&s H 33.

If 7ou ae not spe!if7ing an7 !ondition this will update entie ta%le5

SQL- update student set $a&s H 33 whee no H 1.

SQL- update student set $a&s H 33# na$e H =9enu= whee no H 2.

USIN8 D'L'T'

This !an %e used to delete the ta%le data te$poail75

S7nta/0

Delete ,table_name- whee ,condition-.

10



'/0

SQL- delete student.

If 7ou ae not spe!if7ing an7 !ondition this will delete entie ta%le5

SQL- delete student whee no H 1.

USIN8 DDL

USIN8 LT'R

This !an %e used to add o e$ove !olu$ns and to $odif7 the pe!ision of the datat7pe5

a) DDIN8 COLUMN

S7nta/0

alte ta%le ,table_name- add ,col datatype-.

'/0

SQL- alte ta%le student add sdo% date.

%) R'MO9IN8 COLUMN

S7nta/0

alte ta%le ,table_name- dop ,col datatype-.

'/0

SQL- alte ta%le student dop !olu$n sdo%.

!) INCR'SIN8 OR D'CR'SIN8 AR'CISION OB COLUMN

S7nta/0

alte ta%le ,table_name- $odif7 ,col datatype-.

'/0

SQL- alte ta%le student $odif7 $a&s nu$%e().

E To de!ease pe!ision the !olu$n should %e e$pt75

d) MFIN8 COLUMN UNUS'D

S7nta/0

alte ta%le ,table_name- set unused !olu$n ,col -.

'/0

SQL- alte ta%le student set unused !olu$n $a&s.

'ven though the !olu$n is unused still it will o!!up7 $e$o75

d) DROAAIN8 UNUS'D COLUMNS

S7nta/0

alte ta%le ,table_name- dop unused !olu$ns.

'/0

SQL- alte ta%le student dop unused !olu$ns.

E *ou !an not dop individual unused !olu$ns of a ta%le5

e) R'NMIN8 COLUMN

S7nta/0

11



alte ta%le ,table_name- ena$e !olu$n ,old_col_name- to ,new_col_name-.

'/0

SQL- alte ta%le student ena$e !olu$n $a&s to s$a&s.

USIN8 TRUNCT'

This !an %e used to delete the entie ta%le data pe$anentl75

S7nta/0

tun!ate ta%le ,table_name-.

'/0

SQL- tun!ate ta%le student.

USIN8 DROA

This will %e used to dop the data%ase o%Je!t.

S7nta/0

Dop ta%le ,table_name-.

'/0

SQL- dop ta%le student.

USIN8 R'NM'

This will %e used to ena$e the data%ase o%Je!t.

S7nta/0

ena$e ,old table_name- to ,new_table_name-.

'/0

SQL- ena$e student to stud.

USIN8 TCL

USIN8 COMMIT

This will %e used to save the wo&5

Co$$it is of two t7pes5

I$pli!it

'/pli!it

a) IMALICIT

This will %e issued %7 oa!le intenall7 in two situations5

6hen an7 DDL opeation is pefo$ed5

6hen 7ou ae e/iting fo$ SQL E ALUS5

%) '+ALICIT

This will %e issued %7 the use5

S7nta/0

Co$$it o !o$$it wo&.

E 6hen eve 7ou !o$$itted then the tansa!tion was !o$pleted5

USIN8 ROLLCF

This will undo the opeation5

12



This will %e applied in two $ethods5

Upto pevious !o$$it

Upto pevious oll%a!&

S7nta/0

Roll o oll wo&.

O

Roll%a!& o oll%a!& wo&.

E 6hile po!ess is going on# if suddenl7 powe goes then oa!le will oll%a!& the tansa!tion5

USIN8 S9'AOINT

*ou !an use savepoints to oll%a!& potions of 7ou !uent set of tansa!tions5

S7nta/0

Savepoint , !avepoint_name-.

'/0

SQL- savepoint s2. SQL- inset into student values(2# Ka;# 233).

SQL- savepoint s1.

SQL- inset into student values(1# K%;# 133).

SQL- savepoint s4.

SQL- inset into student values(4# K!;# 433).

SQL- savepoint s@.

SQL- inset into student values(@# Kd;# @33).

efoe oll%a!&

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student.

NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133

4 ! 433

@ d @33

SQL- oll%a!& to savepoint s4.

O

SQL- oll%a!& to s4.

This will oll%a!& last two e!ods5


NO NM' MRFS

""" """"""" """"""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133

13



USIN8 DCL

DCL !o$$ands ae used to ganting and evo&ing the pe$issions5USIN8 8RNTThis is used to gant the pivileges to othe uses5

S7nta/0

8ant , privile"e!- on ,ob#ect_name- to ,u!er_name- with gant option.'/0

SQL- gant sele!t on student to sudha. "" 7ou !an give individual pivilege

SQL- gant sele!t# inset on student to sudha. "" 7ou !an give set of pivileges

SQL- gant all on student to sudha. "" 7ou !an give all pivileges

The sudha use has to use dot $ethod to a!!ess the o%Je!t5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ sa&eth5student.

The sudha use !an not gant pe$ission on student ta%le to othe uses5 To get this

t7pe of option use the following5

SQL- gant all on student to sudha with gant option.

Now sudha use also gant pe$issions on student ta%le5

USIN8 R'9OF'

This is used to evo&e the pivileges fo$ the uses to whi!h 7ou ganted the pivileges5

S7nta/0

Revo&e , privile"e!- on ,ob#ect_name- fo$ ,u!er_name-.

'/0

SQL- evo&e sele!t on student fo$ sudha. "" 7ou !an evo&e individual pivilege

SQL- evo&e sele!t# inset on student fo$ sudha. "" 7ou !an evo&e set of pivileges

SQL- evo&e all on student fo$ sudha. "" 7ou !an evo&e all pivileges

USIN8 LIS'S

CR'T' 6IT: S'L'CT6e !an !eate a ta%le using e/isting ta%le along with data5

S7nta/0

Ceate ta%le ,new_table_name- col1, col2, col3 ... coln as sele!t E fo$

,old_table_name-.

'/0 SQL- !eate ta%le student2 as sele!t E fo$ student.

Ceating ta%le with 7ou own !olu$n na$es5

SQL- !eate ta%le student1(sno# sna$e# s$a&s) as sele!t E fo$ student.

Ceating ta%le with spe!ified !olu$ns5

SQL- !eate ta%le student4 as sele!t no#na$e fo$ student.

Ceating ta%le with out ta%le data5

SQL- !eate ta%le student1(sno# sna$e# s$a&s) as sele!t E fo$ student whee 2 H 1.

14



In the a%ove whee !lause give an7 !ondition whi!h does not satisf75

INS'RT 6IT: S'L'CT

Using this we !an inset e/isting ta%le data to a anothe ta%le in a single tip5 ut the ta%le

stu!tue should %e sa$e5

S7nta/0

Inset into ,table1- sele!t E fo$ ,table2-.

'/0

SQL- inset into student2 sele!t E fo$ student.

Inseting data into spe!ified !olu$ns

SQL- inset into student2(no# na$e) sele!t no# na$e fo$ student.

COLUMN LIS'S

S7nta/0

$elect %or"inal_col %alia!_name 'rom %table na$e-.

'/0

SQL- sele!t no sno fo$ student.

o

SQL- sele!t no Psno fo$ student.

TL' LIS'S

If 7ou ae using ta%le aliases 7ou !an use dot $ethod to the !olu$ns5

S7nta/0

Sele!t ,alia!_name-5,col1-# ,alia!_name-5,col2- ,alia!_name-5,coln- fo$

,table_name- ,alia!_name-.

'/0

SQL- sele!t s5no# s5na$e fo$ student s.

USIN8 M'R8'

M'R8'*ou !an use $ege !o$$and to pefo$ inset and update in a single !o$$and5'/0SQL- Mege into student2 s2

Using (sele!t EBo$ student1) s1

On(s25noHs15no)

6hen $at!hed then

Update set $a&s H s15$a&s

6hen not $at!hed then

Inset (s25no#s25na$e#s25$a&s)

9alues(s15no#s15na$e#s15$a&s).

In the a%ove the two ta%les ae with the sa$e stu!tue %ut we !an $ege diffeent stu!tued

ta%les also %ut the datat7pe of the !olu$ns should $at!h5

15



ssu$e that student2 has !olu$ns li&e no#na$e#$a&s and student1 has !olu$ns li&e no#

na$e# hno# !it75

SQL- Mege into student2 s2

Using (sele!t EBo$ student1) s1

On(s25noHs15no)

6hen $at!hed then

Update set $a&s H s15hno

6hen not $at!hed then

Inset (s25no#s25na$e#s25$a&s)

9alues(s15no#s15na$e#s15hno).

ULTIL' INS'RTS

6e have ta%le !alled D'AT with the following !olu$ns and data

D'ATNO DNM' LOC

"""""""" """""""" """"

23 a!!ounting new 7o&

13 esea!h dallas

43 sales Chi!ago

@3 opeations %oston

a) CR'T' STUD'NT TL'

SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&s nu$%e(4)).

%) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: LL BI'LDS

SQL- Inset all

Into student values(2#;a;#233)

Into student values(1#;%;#133)

Into student values(4#;!;#433)

Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptnoH23.

"" This insets 4 ows

!) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: SA'CIBI'D BI'LDS

SQL- inset all

Into student (no#na$e) values(@#;d;)

Into student(na$e#$a&s) values(;e;#@33)




d) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: DUALICT' RO6S

SQL- inset all

16



Into student values(2#;a;#233)

Into student values(1#;%;#133)


Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptno - 23.

"" This insets ows %e!ause in the sele!t state$ent etieves 4 e!ods (4 insets fo

ea!h ow etieved)

e) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS S'D

SQL- Inset all

6hen deptno - 23 then

Into student2 values(2#;a;#233)

6hen dna$e H KSL'S; then

Into student1 values(1#;%;#133)

6hen lo! H KN'6 *ORF; then

Into student4 values(4#;!;#433)

Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptno-23.

"" This insets @ ows %e!ause the fist !ondition satisfied 4 ti$es# se!ond !ondition

satisfied on!e and the last none5

f) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS S'D ND 'LS'

SQL- Inset all

6hen deptno - 233 then


6hen dna$e H KS; then




'lse

Into student values(@#;d;#@33)

Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptno-23.

"" This insets 4 e!ods %e!ause the else satisfied 4 ti$es

g) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS S'D ND BIRST

SQL- Inset fist 6hen deptno H 13 then


6hen dna$e H KR'S'RC:; then





17



"" This insets 2 e!od %e!ause the fist !lause avoid to !he!& the e$aining

!onditions on!e the !ondition is satisfied5

h) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS S'D# BIRST ND 'LS'

SQL- Inset fist

6hen deptno H 43 then


6hen dna$e H KR; then




'lse

Into student values(@#;d;#@33)


"" This insets 2 e!od %e!ause the else !lause satisfied on!e

i) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: MULTIL' TL'S

SQL- Inset all






EE *ou !an use $ulti ta%les with spe!ified fields# with dupli!ate ows# with !onditions#

with fist and else !lauses5

BUNCTIONS

Bun!tions !an %e !ategoied as follows5 Single ow fun!tions

8oup fun!tions

SIN8L' RO6 BUNCTIONS

Single ow fun!tions !an %e !ategoied into five5 These will %e applied fo ea!h ow and

podu!es individual output fo ea!h ow5

Nu$ei! fun!tions

Sting fun!tions

Date fun!tions

Mis!ellaneous fun!tions

Convesion fun!tions

NUM'RIC BUNCTIONS

%s

18



Sign

St

Mod

Nvl

Aowe

'/p

Ln

Log

Ceil

Bloo

Round

Tun&

itand

8eatest

Least

Coales!e

a) S

%solute value is the $easue of the $agnitude of value5

%solute value is alwa7s a positive nu$%e5

S7nta/0 a%s (value)

'/0

SQL- sele!t a%s()# a%s(")# a%s(3)# a%s(null) fo$ dual.

S() S(") S(3) S(NULL)

"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""""""

" 3

%) SI8N

Sign gives the sign of a value5

S7nta/0 sign (value)

'/0

SQL- sele!t sign()# sign(")# sign(3)# sign(null) fo$ dual.

SI8N() SI8N(") SI8N(3) SI8N(NULL)

"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""

2 "2 3

!) SQRT

This will give the suae oot of the given value5

S7nta/0 st (value) "" hee value $ust %e positive5

'/0

19



Aowe is the a%ilit7 to aise a value to a given e/ponent5

S7nta/0 powe (value, eponent )

'/0

SQL- sele!t powe(1#)# powe(3#3)# powe(2#2)# powe(null#null)# powe(1#")

fo$ dual.

AO6'R(1#) AO6'R(3#3) AO6'R(2#2) AO6'R(NULL#NULL) AO6'R(1#")

"""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"" """"""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""

41 2 2 53421

g) '+A

This will aise e value to the give powe5

S7nta/0 e/p (value)

'/0

SQL- sele!t e/p(2)# e/p(1)# e/p(3)# e/p(null)# e/p("1) fo$ dual.

'+A(2) '+A(1) '+A(3) '+A(NULL) '+A("1)

"""""""" """"""""" """""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""

15V2W1W2W4 V54W32 2 524441W4

h) LN

This is %ased on natual o %ase e logaith$5

S7nta/0 ln (value) "" hee value $ust %e geate than eo whi!h is positive onl75

'/0

SQL- sele!t ln(2)# ln(1)# ln(null) fo$ dual.

LN(2) LN(1) LN(NULL)

""""""" """"""" """"""""""""

3 542@V2W2

Ln and '/p ae e!ipo!al to ea!h othe5

'+A (4) H 1353W4

LN (1353W4) H 4

i) LO8

This is %ased on 23 %ased logaith$5

S7nta/0 log (23# value)"" hee value $ust %e geate than eo whi!h is positive onl75 '/0

SQL- sele!t log(23#233)# log(23#1)# log(23#2)# log(23#null) fo$ dual.

LO8(23#233) LO8(23#1) LO8(23#2) LO8(23#NULL)

""""""""""""""" """"""""""" """""""""""" """""""""""""""""

1 543231 3

LN (value) H LO8 ('+A(2)# value)

SQL- sele!t ln(4)# log(e/p(2)#4) fo$ dual.

21



LN(4) LO8('+A(2)#4)

""""""" """""""""""""""""

253W211 253W211

J) C'IL

This will podu!e a whole nu$%e that is geate than o eual to the spe!ified value5

S7nta/0 !eil (value)

'/0

SQL- sele!t !eil()# !eil(52)# !eil(")# !eil( "52)# !eil(3)# !eil(null) fo$ dual.

C'IL() C'IL(52) C'IL(") C'IL("52) C'IL(3) C'IL(NULL)

""""""""" """"""""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """""""" """"""""""""""

" " 3

&) BLOOR

This will podu!e a whole nu$%e that is less than o eual to the spe!ified value5

S7nta/0 floo (value)

'/0

SQL- sele!t floo()# floo(52)# floo(")# floo( "52)# floo(3)# floo(null) fo$

dual.

BLOOR() BLOOR(52) BLOOR(") BLOOR("52) BLOOR(3) BLOOR(NULL)

""""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""" """"""""""""""""

" " 3

l) ROUND

This will ounds nu$%es to a given nu$%e of digits of pe!ision5

S7nta/0 ound (value, preci!ion)

'/0

SQL- sele!t ound(214514@)# ound(214514@#1)# ound(214514@#1) fo$ dual.

ROUND(214514@) ROUND(214514@#3) ROUND(214514@#1) ROUND(214514@#1)

""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""

214 214 214514 21451@

SQL- sele!t ound(214514@#"2)# ound(214514@#"1)# ound(214514@#"4)#

ound(214514@#"@) fo$ dual.

ROUND(214514@#"2) ROUND(214514@#"1) ROUND(214514@#"4) ROUND(214514@#"@)"""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""

213 233 3 3

SQL- sele!t ound(214#3)# ound(214#2)# ound(214#1) fo$ dual.

ROUND(214#3) ROUND(214#2) ROUND(214#1)

""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""

214 214 214

SQL- sele!t ound("214#3)# ound("214#2)# ound("214#1) fo$ dual.

22



ROUND("214#3) ROUND("214#2) ROUND("214#1)

"""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""

"214 "214 "214

SQL- sele!t ound(214#"2)# ound(214#"1)# ound(214#"4)# ound("214#"2)# ound(

"214#"1)# ound("214#"4) fo$ dual.

ROUND(214#"2) ROUND(214#"1) ROUND(214#"4) ROUND("214#"2) ROUND("214#"1)

ROUND("214#"4)

""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""

213 233 3 "213 "233 3

SQL- sele!t ound(null#null)# ound(3#3)# ound(2#2)# ound("2#"2)# ound("1#"1)

fo$ dual.

ROUND(NULL#NULL) ROUND(3#3) ROUND(2#2) ROUND("2#"2) ROUND("1#"1)

""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""

3 2 3 3

$) TRUNC

This will tun!ates o !hops off digits of pe!ision fo$ a nu$%e5

S7nta/0 tun! (value, preci!ion)

'/0

SQL- sele!t tun!(214514@)# tun!(214514@#1)# tun!(214514@#1) fo$ dual.

TRUNC(214514@) TRUNC(214514@#1) TRUNC(214514@#1)

""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""

214 214514 214514

SQL- sele!t tun!(214514@#"2)# tun!(214514@#"1)# tun!(214514@#"4)#

tun!(214514@#"@) fo$ dual.

TRUNC(214514@#"2) TRUNC(214514@#"1) TRUNC(214514@#"4) TRUNC(214514@#"@)

"""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""

213 233 3 3

SQL- sele!t tun!(214#3)# tun!(214#2)# tun!(214#1) fo$ dual.

TRUNC(214#3) TRUNC(214#2) TRUNC(214#1)

"""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""

214 214 214SQL- sele!t tun!("214#3)# tun!("214#2)# tun!("214#1) fo$ dual.

TRUNC("214#3) TRUNC("214#2) TRUNC("214#1)

""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""

"214 "214 "214

SQL- sele!t tun!(214#"2)# tun!(214#"1)# tun!(214#"4)# tun!("214#"2)# tun!(

"214#1)# tun!("214#"4) fo$ dual.

TRUNC(214#"2) TRUNC(214#"1) TRUNC(214#"4) TRUNC("214#"2) TRUNC("214#1) TRUNC("

23



214#"4)

""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

213 233 3 "213 "214 3

SQL- sele!t tun!(null#null)# tun!(3#3)# tun!(2#2)# tun!("2#"2)# tun!("1#"1) fo$

dual.

TRUNC(NULL#NULL) TRUNC(3#3) TRUNC(2#2) TRUNC("2#"2) TRUNC("1#"1)

""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""""" """"""""""""""""

3 2 3 3

n) ITND

This will pefo$ %itwise and opeation5

S7nta/0 %itand (value1, value2)

'/0

SQL- sele!t %itand(1#4)# %itand(3#3)# %itand(2#2)# %itand(null#null)# %itand("1#"4)

fo$ dual.

ITND(1#4) ITND(3#3) ITND(2#2) ITND(NULL#NULL) ITND("1#"4)

"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""

1 3 2 "@

o) 8R'T'ST

This will give the geatest nu$%e5

S7nta/0 geatest (value1, value2, value3 … valuen)

'/0

SQL- sele!t geatest(2# 1# 4)# geatest("2# "1# "4) fo$ dual.

8R'T'ST(2#1#4) 8R'T'ST("2#"1#"4)

"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""

4 "2

If all the values ae eos then it will displa7 eo5

If all the paa$etes ae nulls then it will displa7 nothing5

If an7 of the paa$etes is null it will displa7 nothing5

p) L'ST

This will give the least nu$%e5

S7nta/0 least (value1, value2, value3 … valuen)

'/0

SQL- sele!t least(2# 1# 4)# least("2# "1# "4) fo$ dual.

L'ST(2#1#4) L'ST("2#"1#"4)

"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""

2 "4

If all the values ae eos then it will displa7 eo5


24




) COL'SC'

This will etun fist non"null value5

S7nta/0 !oales!e (value1, value2, value3 … valuen)

'/0

SQL- sele!t !oales!e(2#1#4)# !oales!e(null#1#null#) fo$ dual.

COL'SC'(2#1#4) COL'SC'(NULL#1#NULL#)

""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

2 1

STRIN8 BUNCTIONS

Init!ap

Uppe

Lowe

Length

Rpad

Lpad

Lti$

Rti$

Ti$

Tanslate

Repla!e

Sounde/

Con!at ( K XX K Con!atenation opeato)

s!ii

Ch

Su%st

Inst

De!ode

8eatest

Least

Coales!e

a) INITCA

This will !apitalie the initial lette of the sting5

S7nta/0 init!ap ( !trin")

'/0

SQL- sele!t init!ap(=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.

25



INITCA

"""""""""""

Co$pute

%) UAA'R

This will !onvet the sting into uppe!ase5

S7nta/0 uppe ( !trin")

'/0

SQL- sele!t uppe(=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.

UAA'R

"""""""""""

COMAUT'R

!) LO6'R

This will !onvet the sting into lowe!ase5

S7nta/0 lowe ( !trin")

'/0

SQL- sele!t lowe(=COMAUT'R =) fo$ dual.

LO6'R

"""""""""""

!o$pute

d) L'N8T:

This will give length of the sting5

S7nta/0 length ( !trin")

'/0

SQL- sele!t length(=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.

L'N8T:

"""""""""""

W

e) RAD

This will allows 7ou to pad the ight side of a !olu$n with an7 set of !haa!tes5

S7nta/0 pad ( !trin", len"t *, paddin"_car+)

'/0

SQL- sele!t pad(=!o$pute=#2#=E=)# pad(=!o$pute=#2#=EY=) fo$ dual.

RAD(=COMAUT'R= RAD(=COMAUT'R=

"""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""

!o$puteEEEEEEE !o$puteEYEYEYE

"" Default padding !haa!te was %lan& spa!e5

f) LAD

This will allows 7ou to pad the left side of a !olu$n with an7 set of !haa!tes5

26



S7nta/0 lpad ( !trin", len"t *, paddin"_car+)

'/0

SQL- sele!t lpad(=!o$pute=#2#=E=)# lpad(=!o$pute=#2#=EY=) fo$ dual.

LAD(=COMAUT'R= LAD(=COMAUT'R=

""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""

EEEEEEE!o$pute EYEYEYE!o$pute

"" Default padding !haa!te was %lan& spa!e5

g) LTRIM

This will ti$ off unwanted !haa!tes fo$ the left end of sting5

S7nta/0 lti$ ( !trin" *,unwanted_car!+)

'/0

SQL- sele!t lti$(=!o$pute=#=!o=)# lti$(=!o$pute=#=!o$=) fo$ dual.

LTRIM( LTRIM

"""""""" """""""""

$pute pute

SQL- sele!t lti$(=!o$pute=#=pute=)# lti$(=!o$pute=#=o$pute=) fo$ dual.

LTRIM(=C LTRIM(=C

"""""""""" """"""""""

!o$pute !o$pute

"" If 7ou haven;t spe!if7 an7 unwanted !haa!tes it will displa7 entie sting5

h) RTRIM

This will ti$ off unwanted !haa!tes fo$ the ight end of sting5

S7nta/0 ti$ ( !trin" *, unwanted_car!+)

'/0

SQL- sele!t ti$(=!o$pute=#=e=)# ti$(=!o$pute=#=te=) fo$ dual.

RTRIM( RTRIM

"""""""" """""""""

!o$put !o$pu

SQL- sele!t ti$(=!o$pute=#=!o$put;)# ti$(=!o$pute=#=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.

RTRIM(=C RTRIM(=C

"""""""""" """"""""""!o$pute !o$pute

"" If 7ou haven;t spe!if7 an7 unwanted !haa!tes it will displa7 entie sting5

i) TRIM

This will ti$ off unwanted !haa!tes fo$ the %oth sides of sting5

S7nta/0 ti$ (unwanted_car! fo$ !trin")

'/0

SQL- sele!t ti$( =i= fo$ =indiani=) fo$ dual.

27



TRIM(

"""""

ndian

SQL- sele!t ti$( leading=i= fo$ =indiani=) fo$ dual. "" this will wo& as LTRIM

TRIM(L

""""""

ndiani

SQL- sele!t ti$( tailing=i= fo$ =indiani=) fo$ dual. "" this will wo& as RTRIM

TRIM(T

""""""

Indian

J) TRNSLT'

This will epla!e the set of !haa!tes# !haa!te %7 !haa!te5

S7nta/0 tanslate ( !trin", old_car!, new_car!)

'/0

SQL- sele!t tanslate(=india=#=in=#=/7=) fo$ dual.

TRNS

""""""""

/7d/a

&) R'ALC'

This will epla!e the set of !haa!tes# sting %7 sting5

S7nta/0 epla!e ( !trin", old_car! *, new_car!+)

'/0

SQL- sele!t epla!e(=india=#=in=#=/7=)# epla!e(Kindia;#;in;) fo$ dual.

R'ALC' R'ALC'

""""""""""" """""""""""

+7dia dia

l) SOUND'+

This will %e used to find wods that sound li&e othe wods# e/!lusivel7 used in whee

!lause5

S7nta/0 sounde/ ( !trin") '/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p whee sounde/(ena$e) H sounde/(=SMIT=).

'MANO 'NM' >O M8R :IR'DT' SL D'ATNO

"""""""" """""""" """"" """"" """""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""

V4 SMIT: CL'RF V31 2V"D'C"W3 33 13

$) CONCT

This will %e used to !o$%ine two stings onl75

28



S7nta/0 !on!at ( !trin"1, !trin"2)

'/0

SQL- sele!t !on!at(=!o$pute=#= opeato=) fo$ dual.

CONCT(=COMAUT'R=

"""""""""""""""""""""""""

!o$pute opeato

If 7ou want to !o$%ine $oe than two stings 7ou have to use !on!atenation

opeato(XX)5

SQL- sele!t =how= XX = ae= XX = 7ou= fo$ dual.

=:O6=XX=R'

"""""""""""""""

how ae 7ou

n) SCII

This will etun the de!i$al epesentation in the data%ase !haa!te set of the fist

!haa!te of the sting5

S7nta/0 as!ii ( !trin")

'/0

SQL- sele!t as!ii(=a=)# as!ii(=apple=) fo$ dual.

SCII(==) SCII(=AAL'=)

"""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""

V V

o) C:R

This will etun the !haa!te having the %ina7 euivalent to the sting in eithe the

data%ase !haa!te set o the national !haa!te set5

S7nta/0 !h (number )

'/0

SQL- sele!t !h(V) fo$ dual.

C:R

"""""

a

p) SUSTR

This will %e used to e/ta!t su%stings5

S7nta/0 su%st ( !trin", !tart_cr_count *, no_o'_car!+)

'/0

SQL- sele!t su%st(=!o$pute=#1)# su%st(=!o$pute=#1#)# su%st(=!o$pute=#4#V)

fo$ dual.

SUSTR( SUST SUSTR """""""""" """"""" """"""""o$pute o$put $pute

29



If no_o'_car! paa$ete is negative then it will displa7 nothing5

If %oth paa$etes e/!ept !trin" ae null o eos then it will displa7 nothing5

If no_o'_car! paa$ete is geate than the length of the sting then it ignoes

and !al!ulates %ased on the oginal sting length5

If !tart_cr_count is negative then it will e/ta!t the su%sting fo$ ight end5

2 1 4 @ V W

C O M A U T ' R

"W "V " " "@ "4 "1 "2) INSTR

This will allows 7ou fo sea!hing though a sting fo set of !haa!tes5

S7nta/0 inst ( !trin", !earc_!tr *, !tart_cr_count *, occurrence+ +)

'/0

SQL- sele!t inst(=info$ation=#=o=#@#2)# inst(=info$ation=#=o=#@#1) fo$ dual.

INSTR(=INBORMTION=#=O=#@#2) INSTR(=INBORMTION=#=O=#@#1)

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

@ 23

If 7ou ae not spe!if7ing !tart_cr_count and occurrence then it will stat

sea!h fo$ the %eginning and finds fist o!!uen!e onl75

If %oth paa$etes !tart_cr_count and occurrence ae null# it will displa7

nothing5

) D'COD'

De!ode will a!t as value %7 value su%stitution5

Bo eve7 value of field# it will !he!&s fo a $at!h in a seies of if?then tests5

S7nta/0 de!ode (value, i'1, ten1, i'2, ten2, ……. el!e).

'/0

SQL- sele!t sal# de!ode(sal#33#=Low=#333#=:igh=#=Mediu$=) fo$ e$p.

SL D'COD'

""""" """""""""

33 Low

133 Mediu$

1333 Mediu$

433 Mediu$

4333 Mediu$

333 :igh

@333 Mediu$

333 :igh

2W33 Mediu$

30



2133 Mediu$

1333 Mediu$

1V33 Mediu$

1133 Mediu$

4133 Mediu$

SQL- sele!t de!ode(2#2#4)# de!ode(2#1#4#@#@#) fo$ dual.D'COD'(2#2#4) D'COD'(2#1#4#@#@#)""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" 4

If the nu$%e of paa$etes ae odd and diffeent then de!ode will displa7

nothing5

If the nu$%e of paa$etes ae even and diffeent then de!ode will displa7 last

value5

If all the paa$etes ae null then de!ode will displa7 nothing5

If all the paa$etes ae eos then de!ode will displa7 eo5

s) 8R'T'ST

This will give the geatest sting5

S7nta/0 geatest ( !trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 … !trin"n)

'/0

SQL- sele!t geatest(=a=# =%=# =!=)# geatest(=satish=#=sinu=#=sa&eth=) fo$ dual.

8R'T 8R'T

""""""" """""""

! sinu



t) L'ST

This will give the least sting5

S7nta/0 geatest ( !trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 … !trin"n)

'/0

SQL- sele!t least(=a=# =%=# =!=)# least(=satish=#=sinu=#=sa&eth=) fo$ dual.

L'ST L'ST

""""""" """""""

a sa&eth



u) COL'SC'

This will gives the fist non"null sting5

S7nta/0 !oales!e ( !trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 … !trin"n)

'/0

31



SQL- sele!t !oales!e(=a=#=%=#=!=)# !oales!e(null#=a=#null#=%=) fo$ dual.

COL'SC' COL'SC'

""""""""""" """""""""""

a a

DT' BUNCTIONS

S7sdate Cuentdate

Cuentti$esta$p

S7sti$esta$p

Lo!alti$esta$p

D%ti$eone

Sessionti$eone

To!ha

Todate

dd$onths

Months%etween

Ne/tda7

Lastda7

'/ta!t

8eatest

Least

Round

Tun!

Newti$e

Coales!e

Oa!le default date fo$at is DD"MON"**5

6e !an !hange the default fo$at to ou desied fo$at %7 using the following !o$$and5

SQL- alte session set nlsdatefo$at H KDD"MONT:"****;.

ut this will e/pie on!e the session was !losed5

a) S*SDT'

This will give the !uent date and ti$e5

'/0

SQL- sele!t s7sdate fo$ dual.

S*SDT'

"""""""""""

1@"D'C"3

%) CURR'NTDT'

32



This will etuns the !uent date in the session;s ti$eone5

'/0

SQL- sele!t !uentdate fo$ dual.

CURR'NTDT'

""""""""""""""""""

1@"D'C"3

!) CURR'NTTIM'STMA

This will etuns the !uent ti$esta$p with the a!tive ti$e one info$ation5

'/0

SQL- sele!t !uentti$esta$p fo$ dual.

CURR'NTTIM'STMA

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1@"D'C"3 345@15@254W44 M G3043

d) S*STIM'STMA

This will etuns the s7ste$ date# in!luding fa!tional se!onds and ti$e one of the

data%ase5

'/0

SQL- sele!t s7sti$esta$p fo$ dual.

S*STIM'STMA

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1@"D'C"3 345@5425W433 M G3043

e) LOCLTIM'STMA

This will etuns lo!al ti$esta$p in the a!tive ti$e one info$ation# with no ti$e

one info$ation shown5

'/0

SQL- sele!t lo!alti$esta$p fo$ dual.

LOCLTIM'STMA"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1@"D'C"3 345@@52W531WV@ M

f) DTIM'ZON'

This will etuns the !uent data%ase ti$e one in UTC fo$at5 (Coodinated Univesal

Ti$e)

'/0

SQL- sele!t d%ti$eone fo$ dual.DTIM'ZON'""""""""""""""" "3V033

g) S'SSIONTIM'ZON'

This will etuns the value of the !uent session;s ti$e one5

'/0

33



SQL- sele!t sessionti$eone fo$ dual.

S'SSIONTIM'ZON'

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

G3043

h) TOC:R

This will %e used to e/ta!t vaious date fo$ats5

The availa%le date fo$ats as follows5

S7nta/0 to!ha (date# 'ormat )

DT' BORMTS

D "" No of da7s in wee&

DD "" No of da7s in $onth

DDD "" No of da7s in 7ea

MM "" No of $onth

MON "" Thee lette a%%eviation of $onth

MONT: "" Bull7 spelled out $onth

RM "" Ro$an nu$eal $onth

D* "" Thee lette a%%eviated da7

D* "" Bull7 spelled out da7

* "" Last one digit of the 7ea

** "" Last two digits of the 7ea

*** "" Last thee digits of the 7ea

**** "" Bull fou digit 7ea

S**** "" Signed 7ea

I "" One digit 7ea fo$ ISO standad

I* "" Two digit 7ea fo$ ISO standad

I** "" Thee digit 7ea fo$ ISO standad

I*** "" Bou digit 7ea fo$ ISO standad

*# *** "" *ea with !o$$a

*'R "" Bull7 spelled out 7ea

CC "" Centu7

Q "" No of uates6 "" No of wee&s in $onth

66 "" No of wee&s in 7ea

I6 "" No of wee&s in 7ea fo$ ISO standad

:: "" :ous

MI "" Minutes

SS "" Se!onds

BB "" Ba!tional se!onds

34



M o AM "" Displa7s M o AM depending upon ti$e of da7

5M o A5M "" Displa7s 5M o A5M depending upon ti$e of da7

D o C "" Displa7s D o C depending upon the date

5D o 5C "" Displa7s D o C depending upon the date

BM "" Aefi/ to $onth o da7# suppesses padding of $onth o da7

T: "" Suffi/ to a nu$%e

SA "" suffi/ to a nu$%e to %e spelled out

SAT: "" Suffi/ !o$%ination of T: and SA to %e %oth spelled out

T:SA "" sa$e as SAT:

'/0

SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=dd $onth 7777 hh0$i0ss a$ d7=) fo$ dual.

TOC:R(S*SDT'#=DD MONT: ****::0MI

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1@ de!e$%e 133 31034014 p$ sun

SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=dd $onth 7ea=) fo$ dual.

TOC:R(S*SDT'#=DDMONT:*'R=)

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1@ de!e$%e two thousand si/

SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=dd f$$onth 7ea=) fo$ dual.

TOC:R(S*SDT'#=DD BMMONT: *'R=)

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1@ de!e$%e two thousand si/

SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=ddth DDT:=) fo$ dual.

TOC:R(S

""""""""""""

1@th 1@T:

SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=ddspth DDSAT:=) fo$ dual.

TOC:R(S*SDT'#=DDSAT:DDSAT:

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

twent7"fouth T6'NT*"BOURT: SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=ddsp Ddsp DDSA =) fo$ dual.

TOC:R(S*SDT'#=DDSADDSADDSA=)

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

twent7"fou Twent7"Bou T6'NT*"BOUR

i) TODT'

This will %e used to !onvet the sting into data fo$at5

S7nta/0 todate (date)

35



'/0

SQL- sele!t to!ha(todate(=1@?de!?133=#=dd?$on?7777=)# =dd E $onth E da7=)

fo$ dual.

TOC:R(TODT'(=1@?D'C?13

""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1@ E de!e$%e E Sunda7

"" If 7ou ae not using to!ha oa!le will displa7 output in default date fo$at5

J) DDMONT:S

This will add the spe!ified $onths to the given date5

S7nta/0 add$onths (date, no_o'_mont!)

'/0

SQL- sele!t add$onths(todate(=22"Jan"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)# ) fo$ dual.

DDMONT:S

""""""""""""""""

22">UN"3

SQL- sele!t add$onths(todate(=22"Jan"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)# ") fo$ dual.

DDMONT:

"""""""""""""""

22"U8"W

If no_o'_mont! is eo then it will displa7 the sa$e date5

If no_o'_mont! is null then it will displa7 nothing5

&) MONT:S'T6''N

This will give diffeen!e of $onths %etween two dates5

S7nta/0 $onths%etween (date1, date2)

'/0

SQL- sele!t $onths%etween(todate(=22"aug"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)# todate(=22"

Jan"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)) fo$ dual.

MONT:S'T6''N(TODT'(=22"U8"23=#=DD"MON"****=)#TODT'(=22">N"

23=#=DD"MON"****=))

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

V

SQL- sele!t $onths%etween(todate(=22"Jan"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)# todate(=22"

aug"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)) fo$ dual.

MONT:S'T6''N(TODT'(=22">N"23=#=DD"MON"****=)#TODT'(=22"U8"23=#=DD"

MON"****=))

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

"V

l) N'+TD*

36



This will podu!e ne/t da7 of the given da7 fo$ the spe!ified date5

S7nta/0 ne/tda7 (date, day )

'/0

SQL- sele!t ne/tda7(todate(=1@"de!"133=#=dd"$on"7777=)#=sun=) fo$ dual.

N'+TD*(

"""""""""""""

42"D'C"3

"" If the da7 paa$ete is null then it will displa7 nothing5

$) LSTD*

This will podu!e last da7 of the given date5

S7nta/0 lastda7 (date)

'/0

SQL- sele!t lastda7(todate(=1@"de!"133=#=dd"$on"7777=)#=sun=) fo$ dual.

LSTD*(

"""""""""""""

42"D'C"3

n) '+TRCT

This is used to e/ta!t a potion of the date value5

S7nta/0 e/ta!t ((7ea X $onth X da7 X hou X $inute X se!ond)# date)

'/0

SQL- sele!t e/ta!t(7ea fo$ s7sdate) fo$ dual.

'+TRCT(*'RBROMS*SDT')

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

133

"" *ou !an e/ta!t onl7 one value at a ti$e5

o) 8R'T'ST

This will give the geatest date5

S7nta/0 geatest (date1, date2, date3 … daten)

'/0

SQL- sele!t geatest(todate(=22"Jan"3=#=dd"$on"77=)#todate(=22"$a"3=#=dd"

$on"77=)#todate(=22"ap"3=#=dd"$on"77=)) fo$ dual. 8R'T'ST(

"""""""""""""

22"AR"3

p) L'ST

This will give the least date5

S7nta/0 least (date1, date2, date3 … daten)

'/0

37



SQL- sele!t least(todate(=22"Jan"3=#=dd"$on"77=)#todate(=22"$a"3=#=dd"$on"

77=)#todate(=22"ap"3=#=dd"$on"77=)) fo$ dual.

L'ST(

"""""""""""""

22">N"3

) ROUND

Round will ounds the date to whi!h it was eual to o geate than the given date5

S7nta/0 ound (date, ( da7 X $onth X 7ea ))

If the se!ond paa$ete was year then ound will !he!&s the $onth of the given date in

the following anges5

>N "" >UN

>UL "" D'C

If the $onth falls %etween >N and >UN then it etuns the fist da7 of the !uent 7ea5

If the $onth falls %etween >UL and D'C then it etuns the fist da7 of the ne/t 7ea5

If the se!ond paa$ete was mont then ound will !he!&s the da7 of the given date in

the following anges5

2 "" 2

2 "" 42

If the da7 falls %etween 2 and 2 then it etuns the fist da7 of the !uent $onth5

If the da7 falls %etween 2 and 42 then it etuns the fist da7 of the ne/t $onth5

If the se!ond paa$ete was day then ound will !he!&s the wee& da7 of the given date

in the following anges5

SUN "" 6'DT:U "" SUN

If the wee& da7 falls %etween SUN and 6'D then it etuns the pevious sunda75

If the wee&da7 falls %etween T:U and SUN then it etuns the ne/t sunda75

If the se!ond paa$ete was null then it etuns nothing5

If the 7ou ae not spe!if7ing the se!ond paa$ete then ound will esets the ti$e to the

%egining of the !uent da7 in !ase of use spe!ified date5

If the 7ou ae not spe!if7ing the se!ond paa$ete then ound will esets the ti$e to the

%egining of the ne/t da7 in !ase of s7sdate5

'/0

SQL- sele!t ound(todate(=1@"de!"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=)# ound(todate(=22"$a"

3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=) fo$ dual.

ROUND(TO ROUND(TO

"""""""""""" """""""""""""""

32">N"3 32">N"3

SQL- sele!t ound(todate(=22"Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=)# ound(todate(=2W"

Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=) fo$ dual.

38



ROUND(TO ROUND(TO

""""""""""""" """""""""""""""

32">N"3@ 32"B'"3@

SQL- sele!t ound(todate(=1"de!"3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=)# ound(todate(=1"de!"

3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=) fo$ dual.

ROUND(TO ROUND(TO

"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""

1@"D'C"3 42"D'C"3

SQL- sele!t to!ha(ound(todate(=1@"de!"3=#=dd"$on"77=))# =dd $on 7777

hh0$i0ss a$=) fo$ dual.

TOC:R(ROUND(TODT'(=

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1@ de! 133 21033033 a$

) TRUNC

Tun! will !hops off the date to whi!h it was eual to o less than the given date5

S7nta/0 tun! (date, ( da7 X $onth X 7ea ))

If the se!ond paa$ete was year then it alwa7s etuns the fist da7 of the !uent 7ea5

If the se!ond paa$ete was mont then it alwa7s etuns the fist da7 of the !uent

$onth5

If the se!ond paa$ete was day then it alwa7s etuns the pevious sunda75

If the se!ond paa$ete was null then it etuns nothing5

If the 7ou ae not spe!if7ing the se!ond paa$ete then tun& will esets the ti$e to the

%egining of the !uent da75

'/0

SQL- sele!t tun!(todate(=1@"de!"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=)# tun!(todate(=22"$a"

3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=) fo$ dual.

TRUNC(TO TRUNC(TO

""""""""""""" """"""""""""""

32">N"3@ 32">N"3

SQL- sele!t tun!(todate(=22"Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=)# tun!(todate(=2W"Jan"

3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=) fo$ dual.

TRUNC(TO TRUNC(TO

""""""""""""" """""""""""""

32">N"3@ 32">N"3@

SQL- sele!t tun!(todate(=1"de!"3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=)# tun!(todate(=1"

de!"3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=) fo$ dual.

TRUNC(TO TRUNC(TO

""""""""""""" """"""""""""""

39



1@"D'C"3 1@"D'C"3

SQL- sele!t to!ha(tun!(todate(=1@"de!"3=#=dd"$on"77=))# =dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss

a$=) fo$ dual.

TOC:R(TRUNC(TODT'(=

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1@ de! 133 21033033 a$

s) N'6TIM'

This will give the desied ti$eone;s date and ti$e5

S7nta/0 newti$e (date, current_timeone, de!ired_timeone)

vaila%le ti$eones ae as follows5

TIM'ZON'S

ST?DT "" tlanti! standad?da7 light ti$e

ST?DT "" eing standad?da7 light ti$e

CST?CDT "" Cental standad?da7 light ti$e

'ST?'DT "" 'asten standad?da7 light ti$e

8MT "" 8eenwi!h $ean ti$e

:ST?:DT "" las&a":awaii standad?da7 light ti$e

MST?MDT "" Mountain standad?da7 light ti$e

NST "" Newfoundland standad ti$e

AST?ADT "" Aa!ifi! standad?da7 light ti$e

*ST?*DT "" *u&on standad?da7 light ti$e

'/0

SQL- sele!t to!ha(newti$e(s7sdate#=g$t=#=7st=)#=dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss a$=) fo$

dual.

TOC:R(N'6TIM'(S*SDT

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1@ de! 133 3102013 p$

SQL- sele!t to!ha(newti$e(s7sdate#=g$t=#=est=)#=dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss a$=) fo$

dual.

TOC:R(N'6TIM'(S*SDT

"""""""""""""""""""""""1@ de! 133 30201 p$

t) COL'SC'

This will give the fist non"null date5

S7nta/0 !oales!e (date1, date2, date3 … daten)

'/0

SQL- sele!t !oales!e(=21"Jan"3=#=24"Jan"=)# !oales!e(null#=21"Jan"3=#=14"$a"

W=#null) fo$ dual.

40



4 4333

@ 1V

1W3

1@3

V 233

W 233

2433

23 213

22 213

21 2233

24 2333

2@ 3

2 W33

SQL- sele!t an&(1V) within goup(ode %7 sal des!) fo$ e$p.

RNF(1V)6IT:IN8ROUA(ORD'R*SLD'SC)

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

@

d) D'NS'RNF

This will give the seuential an&ing5

'/0

SQL- sele!t densean&(1V) within goup(ode %7 sal des!) fo$ e$p.

D'NS'RNF(1V)6IT:IN8ROUA(ORD'R*SLD'SC)

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

4

CON9'RSION BUNCTIONS

intonu$

Chatoowid

Rowidto!ha

Tonu$%e

To!ha

Todate

a) INTONUM

This will !onvet the %ina7 value to its nu$ei!al euivalent5

S7nta/0 %intonu$( binary_bit!)

'/0

SQL- sele!t %intonu$(2#2#3) fo$ dual.

INTONUM(2#2#3)

""""""""""""""""""""""""

42



If all the %its ae eo then it podu!es eo5

If all the %its ae null then it podu!es an eo5

%) C:RTORO6ID

This will !onvet a !haa!te sting to a!t li&e an intenal oa!le ow identifie o owid5

!) RO6IDTOC:R

This will !onvet an intenal oa!le ow identifie o owid to !haa!te sting5

d) TONUM'R

This will !onvet a !ha o va!ha to nu$%e5

e) TOC:R

This will !onvet a nu$%e o date to !haa!te sting5

f) TODT'

This will !onvet a nu$%e# !ha o va!ha to a date5

8ROUA BUNCTIONS Su$

vg

Ma/

Min

Count

8oup fun!tions will %e applied on all the ows %ut podu!es single output5

a) SUM

This will give the su$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5 S7nta/0 su$ (column)

'/0

SQL- sele!t su$(sal) fo$ e$p.

SUM(SL)

""""""""""

4W33

%) 98

This will give the aveage of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5

S7nta/0 avg (column)

'/0

SQL- sele!t avg(sal) fo$ e$p.

98(SL)

"""""""""""""""

1VV52@1W

!) M+

This will give the $a/i$u$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5

43



S7nta/0 $a/ (column)

'/0

SQL- sele!t $a/(sal) fo$ e$p.

M+(SL)

""""""""""

333

d) MIN

This will give the $ini$u$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5

S7nta/0 $in (column)

'/0

SQL- sele!t $in(sal) fo$ e$p.

MIN(SL)

""""""""""

33

e) COUNT

This will give the !ount of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5

S7nta/0 !ount (column)

'/0

SQL- sele!t !ount(sal)#!ount(E) fo$ e$p.

COUNT(SL) COUNT(E)

"""""""""""""" """"""""""""

2@ 2@

CONSTRINTSConstaints ae !ategoied as follows5

Do$ain integit7 !onstaints

Not null

Che!&

'ntit7 integit7 !onstaints

Uniue

Ai$a7 &e7

Refeential integit7 !onstaints

Boeign &e7

Constaints ae alwa7s atta!hed to a !olu$n not a ta%le5

6e !an add !onstaints in thee wa7s5

Colu$n level "" along with the !olu$n definition

Ta%le level "" afte the ta%le definition

lte level "" using alte !o$$and

44



uniue(no)).

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#

!onstaint un uniue(no)).

LT'R L'9'L

SQL- alte ta%le student add uniue(no).

SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint un uniue(no).ARIMR* F'*

This is used to avoid dupli!ates and nulls5 This will wo& as !o$%ination of uniue and

not null5

Ai$a7 &e7 alwa7s atta!hed to the paent ta%le5

6e !an add this !onstaint in all thee levels5

'/0

COLUMN L'9'L

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) pi$a7 &e7# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s

nu$%e(4)).

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7# na$e va!ha(23)#

$a&s nu$%e(4)).

TL' L'9'L


pi$a7 &e7(no)).


!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no)).

LT'R L'9'L

SQL- alte ta%le student add pi$a7 &e7(no).

SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no).

BOR'I8N F'*

This is used to efeen!e the paent ta%le pi$a7 &e7 !olu$n whi!h allows dupli!ates5

Boeign &e7 alwa7s atta!hed to the !hild ta%le5

6e !an add this !onstaint in ta%le and alte levels onl75

'/0

TL' L'9'L

SQL- !eate ta%le e$p(e$pno nu$%e(1)# ena$e va!ha(23)# deptno nu$%e(1)#

pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno)).


!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es

dept(deptno)).

LT'R L'9'L

SQL- alte ta%le e$p add foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno).

SQL- alte ta%le e$p add !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno).

46



On!e the pi$a7 &e7 and foeign &e7 elationship has %een !eated then 7ou !an not e$ove

an7 paent e!od if the dependent !hilds e/ists5

USIN8 ON D'LT' CSCD'7 using this !lause 7ou !an e$ove the paent e!od even it !hilds e/ists5

e!ause when eve 7ou e$ove paent e!od oa!le auto$ati!all7 e$oves all its dependent

e!ods fo$ !hild ta%le# if this !lause is pesent while !eating foeign &e7 !onstaint5'/0

TL' L'9'L


pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno) on delete

!as!ade).


!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es

dept(deptno) on delete !as!ade).

LT'R L'9'L

SQL- alte ta%le e$p add foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno) on delete

!as!ade.

SQL- alte ta%le e$p add !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno) on

delete !as!ade.

COMAOSIT' F'*S

!o$posite &e7 !an %e defined on a !o$%ination of !olu$ns5

6e !an define !o$posite &e7s on entit7 integit7 and efeential integit7 !onstaints5

Co$posite &e7 !an %e defined in ta%le and alte levels onl75

'/0

UNIQU' (TL' L'9'L)


uniue(no#na$e)).


!onstaint un uniue(no#na$e)).

UNIQU' (LT'R L'9'L)

SQL- alte ta%le student add uniue(no#na$e).

SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint un uniue(no#na$e). ARIMR* F'* (TL' L'9'L)


pi$a7 &e7(no#na$e)).


!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no#na$e)).

ARIMR* F'* (LT'R L'9'L)

SQL- alte ta%le student add pi$a7 &e7(no#an$e).

SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no#na$e).

47



BOR'I8N F'* (TL' L'9'L)


dna$e va!ha(23)# pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# foeign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es

dept(deptno#dna$e)).


dna$e va!ha(23)# !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# !onstaint f& foeign&e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es dept(deptno#dna$e)).

BOR'I8N F'* (LT'R L'9'L)

SQL- alte ta%le e$p add foeign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es dept(deptno#dna$e).

SQL- alte ta%le e$p add !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es

dept(deptno#dna$e).

D'B'RRL' CONSTRINTS

'a!h !onstaint has two additional atti%utes to suppot defeed !he!&ing of !onstaints5

Defeed initiall7 i$$ediate

Defeed initiall7 defeed

Defeed initiall7 i$$ediate !he!&s fo !onstaint violation at the ti$e of inset5

Defeed initiall7 defeed !he!&s fo !onstaint violation at the ti$e of !o$$it5

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#

!onstaint un uniue(no) defeed initiall7 i$$ediate).

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#

!onstaint un uniue(no) defeed initiall7 defeed).

SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint un uniue(no) defea%le initiall7 defeed. SQL- set !onstaints all i$$ediate.

This will ena%le all the !onstaints violations at the ti$e of inseting5

SQL- set !onstaints all defeed.

This will ena%le all the !onstaints violations at the ti$e of !o$$it5

OA'RTIONS 6IT: CONSTRINTS

Aossi%le opeations with !onstaints as follows5

'na%le

Disa%le

'nfo!e

Dop

'NL'

This will ena%le the !onstaint5 efoe ena%le# the !onstaint will !he!& the e/isting data5

'/0

SQL- alte ta%le student ena%le !onstaint un.

DISL'

This will disa%le the !onstaint5

48



'/0

SQL- alte ta%le student ena%le !onstaint un.

'NBORC'

This will enfo!e the !onstaint athe than ena%le fo futue insets o updates5

This will not !he!& fo e/isting data while enfo!ing data5

'/0 SQL- alte ta%le student enfo!e !onstaint un.

DROA

This will e$ove the !onstaint5

'/0

SQL- alte ta%le student dop !onstaint un.

On!e the ta%le is dopped# !onstaints auto$ati!all7 will dop5

CS' ND D'BULT

CS'

Case is si$ila to de!ode %ut easie to undestand while going though !oding

'/0

SQL- Sele!t sal#

Case sal

6hen 33 then Klow;

6hen 333 then Khigh;

'lse K$ediu$;

'nd !ase

Bo$ e$p.

SL CS'

""""" """"""""

33 low

133 $ediu$

1333 $ediu$

433 $ediu$

4333 $ediu$

333 high @333 $ediu$

333 high

2W33 $ediu$

2133 $ediu$

1333 $ediu$

1V33 $ediu$

1133 $ediu$

49



4133 $ediu$

D'BULT

-e'ault !an %e !onsideed as a su%stitute %ehavio of not null !onstaint when applied to new

ows %eing enteed into the ta%le5

6hen 7ou define a !olu$n with the de'ault &e7wod followed %7 a value# 7ou ae a!tuall7

telling the data%ase that# on inset if a ow was not assigned a value fo this !olu$n# use the

default value that 7ou have spe!ified5

Default is applied onl7 duing insetion of new ows5

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) default 22#na$e va!ha(1)).

SQL- inset into student values(2#=a=).

SQL- inset into student(na$e) values(=%=).


NO NM'

"""""" """""""""

2 a

22 %

SQL- inset into student values(null# K!;).


NO NM'

"""""" """""""""

2 a

22 %

C

"" Default !an not oveide nulls5

STRCT DT T*A'S

So$e ti$es 7ou $a7 want t7pe whi!h holds all t7pes of data in!luding nu$%es# !has and

spe!ial !haa!tes so$ething li&e this5 *ou !an not a!hieve this using pe"defined t7pes5

*ou !an define !usto$ t7pes whi!h holds 7ou desied data5

'/0

Suppose in a ta%le we have addess !olu$n whi!h holds hno and !it7 info$ation5

6e will define a !usto$ t7pe whi!h holds %oth nu$ei! as well as !ha data5

CR'TIN8 DT

SQL- !eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(4)#!it7 va!ha(23)). ?

CR'TIN8 TL' S'D ON DT

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#addess add).

INS'RTIN8 DT INTO DT TL'S

SQL- inset into student values(2#=a=#add(222#=h7d=)).

50



SQL- inset into student values(1#=%=#add(111#=%ang=)).

SQL- inset into student values(4#=!=#add(444#=delhi=)).

S'L'CTIN8 DT BROM DT TL'S


NO NM' DDR'SS(:NO# CIT*)

""" """"""" """"""""""""""""""""""""" 2 a DDR(222# =h7d=)

1 % DDR(111# =%ang=)

4 ! DDR(444# =delhi=)

SQL- sele!t no#na$e#s5addess5hno#s5addess5!it7 fo$ student s.

NO NM' DDR'SS5:NO DDR'SS5CIT*

"""" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""

2 a 222 h7d

1 % 111 %ang

4 ! 444 delhi

UADT' 6IT: DT TL'S

SQL- update student s set s5addess5!it7 H =%o$%a7= whee s5addess5hno H 444.



"""" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""

2 a 222 h7d

1 % 111 %ang

4 ! 444 %o$%a7D'L'T' 6IT: DT TL'S

SQL- delete student s whee s5addess5hno H 222.



"""" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""

1 % 111 %ang

4 ! 444 %o$%a7

DROAAIN8 DT

SQL- dop t7pe add.

O>'CT 9I'6S ND M'T:ODS

O>'CT 9I'6S

If 7ou want to i$ple$ent o%Je!ts with the e/isting ta%le# o%Je!t views !o$e into pi!tue5

*ou define the o%Je!t and !eate a view whi!h elates this o%Je!t to the e/isting ta%le nothing

%ut ob#ect view 5

O%Je!t views ae used to elate the use defined o%Je!ts to the e/isting ta%le5

'/0

51



2) ssu$e that the ta%le student has alead7 %een !eated with the following !olu$ns

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)#hno nu$%e(4)#!it7

va!ha(23)).

1) Ceate the following t7pes

SQL- !eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(1)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?

SQL- !eate t7pe stud as o%Je!t(na$e va!ha(23)#addess add).?

4) Relate the o%Je!ts to the student ta%le %7 !eating the o%Je!t view

SQL- !eate view studentov(no#studinfo) as sele!t no#stud(na$e#add(hno#!it7))

fo$ student.

@) Now 7ou !an inset data into student ta%le in two wa7s

a) 7 egula inset

SQL- Inset into student values(2#;sudha;#222#;h7d;).

%) 7 using o%Je!t view

SQL- Inset into studentov values(2#stud(Ksudha;#add(222#;h7d;))).

M'T:ODS

*ou !an define $ethods whi!h ae nothing %ut fun!tions in t7pes and appl7 in the ta%les whi!h

holds the t7pes.

'/0

2) Defining $ethods in t7pes

SQL- Ceate t7pe stud as o%Je!t(na$e va!ha(23)#$a&s nu$%e(4)#

Me$%e fun!tion $a&sf($a&s in nu$%e) etun nu$%e#

Aag$a esti!tefeen!es($a&sf#wnds#nds#wnps#fnps)).?

1) Defining t7pe %od7

SQL- Ceate t7pe %od7 stud as

Me$%e fun!tion $a&sf($a&s in nu$%e) etun nu$%e is

egin

Retun ($a&sG233).

'nd $a&sf.

'nd.?

4) Ceate a ta%le using stud t7pe

SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#info stud). @) Inset so$e data into student ta%le

SQL- Inset into student values(2#stud(Ksudha;#233)).

) Using $ethod in sele!t

SQL- Sele!t s5info5$a&sf(s5info5$a&s) fo$ student s.

"" :ee we ae using the pag$a esti!tefeen!es to avoid the wites to the

Data%ase5

9RR*S ND N'ST'D TL'S

52



9RR*S va7ing aa7 allows 7ou to stoe epeating atti%utes of a e!od in a single ow %ut with

li$it5

'/0

2) 6e !an !eate vaa7s using oa!le t7pes as well as use defined t7pes5

a) 9aa7 using pe"defined t7pes

SQL- Ceate t7pe va as vaa7() of va!ha(23).?

%) 9aa7s using use defined t7pes

SQL- Ceate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(4)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?

SQL- Ceate t7pe va as vaa7() of add.?

1) Using vaa7 in ta%le

SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)#addess va).

4) Inseting values into vaa7 ta%le

SQL- Inset into student values(2#;sudha;#va(add(222#;h7d;))).

SQL- Inset into student values(1#;Jagan;#va(add(222#;h7d;)#add(111#;%ang;))).

@) Sele!ting data fo$ vaa7 ta%le

SQL- Sele!t E fo$ student.

"" This will displa7 vaa7 !olu$n data along with vaa7 and adt.

SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5E fo$ student s2# ta%le(s25addess) s.

"" This will displa7 in geneal fo$at

) Instead of s5E 7ou !an spe!if7 the !olu$ns in vaa7

SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5hno#s5!it7 fo$ student s2#ta%le(s25addess) s.

"" Update and delete not possi%le in vaa7s5

"" :ee we used ta%le fun!tion whi!h will ta&e the vaa7 !olu$n as input fo podu!ing

output e/!luding vaa7 and t7pes5

N'ST'D TL'S nested ta%le is# as its na$e i$plies# a ta%le within a ta%le5 In this !ase it is a ta%le that is

epesented as a !olu$n within anothe ta%le5

Nested ta%le has the sa$e effe!t of vaa7s %ut has no li$it5

'/0

2) 6e !an !eate nested ta%les using oa!le t7pes and use defined t7pes whi!h has no

li$it5 a) Nested ta%les using pe"defined t7pes

SQL- Ceate t7pe nt as ta%le of va!ha(23).?

%) Nested ta%les using use defined t7pes

SQL- Ceate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(4)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?

SQL- Ceate t7pe nt as ta%le of add.?

1) Using nested ta%le in ta%le

SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)#addess nt) nested ta%le

53



addess stoe as studentte$p.

4) Inseting values into ta%le whi!h has nested ta%le

SQL- Inset into student values (2#;sudha;#nt(add(222#;h7d;))).

SQL- Inset into student values (1#;Jagan;#nt(add(222#;h7d;)#add(111#;%ang;))).

@) Sele!ting data fo$ ta%le whi!h has nested ta%le

SQL- Sele!t E fo$ student.

"" This will displa7 nested ta%le !olu$n data along with nested ta%le and adt.

SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5E fo$ student s2# ta%le(s25addess) s.

"" This will displa7 in geneal fo$at

) Instead of s5E 7ou !an spe!if7 the !olu$ns in nested ta%le

SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5hno#s5!it7 fo$ student s2#ta%le(s25addess) s.

) Inseting nested ta%le data to the e/isting ow

SQL- Inset into ta%le(sele!t addess fo$ student whee noH2)

values(add(#;!hennai;)).

V) Update in nested ta%les

SQL- Update ta%le(sele!t addess fo$ student whee noH1) s set s5!it7H;%o$%a7;

whee s5hno H 111.

W) Delete in nested ta%le

SQL- Delete ta%le(sele!t addess fo$ student whee noH4) s whee s5hnoH444.

DT MOD'L LLCOLLT*A'S

LLT*A'S

DCOLLT*A'S

DT*A'S

US'RCOLLT*A'S

US'RT*A'S

BLS:CF QU'R*

Used to etieve the data whi!h has %een alead7 !o$$itted with out going fo e!ove75

Blash%a!&s ae of two t7pes

Ti$e %ase flash%a!&

SCN %ased flash%a!& (SCN stands fo S7ste$ Change Nu$%e)

'/0

2) Using ti$e %ased flash%a!&

a) SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.

"" This will displa7 all the ows

%) SQL- Delete student.

!) SQL- Co$$it. "" this will !o$$it the wo&5

d) SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.

54



"" :ee it will displa7 nothing

e) Then e/e!ute the following po!edues

SQL- '/e! d%$sflash%a!&5ena%leatti$e(s7sdate"1?2@@3)

f) SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.

"" :ee it will displa7 the lost data

"" The lost data will !o$e %ut the !uent s7ste$ ti$e was used

g) SQL- '/e! d%$sflash%a!&5disa%le

"" :ee we have to disa%le the flash%a!& to ena%le it again

1) Using SCN %ased flash%a!&

a) De!lae a vaia%le to stoe SCN

SQL- 9aia%le s nu$%e

%) 8et the SCN

SQL- '/e! 0s 0H e/e! d%$sflash%a!&5gets7ste$!hangenu$%e

!) To see the SCN

SQL- Aint s

d) Then e/e!ute the following po!edues

SQL- '/e! d%$sflash%a!&5ena%leats7ste$!hangenu$%e(0s)

SQL- '/e! d%$sflash%a!&5disa%le

'+T'RNL TL'S

*ou !an use e/tenal ta%le featue to a!!ess e/tenal files as if the7 ae ta%les inside the

data%ase5

6hen 7ou !eate an e/tenal ta%le# 7ou define its stu!tue and lo!ation with in oa!le5

6hen 7ou ue7 the ta%le# oa!le eads the e/tenal ta%le and etuns the esults Just as if the

data had %een stoed with in the data%ase5

CC'SSIN8 '+T'RNL TL' DT

To a!!ess e/tenal files fo$ within oa!le# 7ou $ust fist use the !eate die!to7 !o$$and to

define a die!to7 o%Je!t pointing to the e/tenal file lo!ation

Uses who will a!!ess the e/tenal files $ust have the ead and wite pivilege on the

die!to75

'/0

CR'TIN8 DIR'CTOR* ND OS L'9'L BIL'

SQL- Slplus s7ste$?$anage

SQL- Ceate die!to7 sa&ethdi as K?9isd%?visd%?5153?e/tenal;.

SQL- 8ant all on die!to7 sa&ethdi to sa&eth.

SQL- Conn sa&eth?sa&eth

SQL- Spool dept5lst

SQL- Sele!t deptno XX K#; XX dna$e XX K#; XX lo! fo$ dept.

SQL- Spool off

55



CR'TIN8 '+T'RNL TL'

SQL- Ceate ta%le depte/t

(deptno nu$%e(1)#

Dna$e va!ha(2@)#

Lo! va!ha(24))

Oganiation e/tenal ( t7pe oa!leloade Default die!to7 sa&ethdi

!!ess paa$etes

( e!ods deli$ited %7 newline

Bields te$inated %7 P#

( deptno nu$%e(1)#

Dna$e va!ha(2@)#

Lo! va!ha(24)))

Lo!ation (K?9isd%?visd%?5153?dept5lst;)).

S'L'CTIN8 DT BROM '+T'RNL TL'

SQL- sele!t E fo$ depte/t.

This will ead fo$ dept5lst whi!h is a opeating s7ste$ level file5

LIMITTIONS ON '+T'RNL TL'S

a) *ou !an not pefo$ inset# update# and delete opeations

a) Inde/ing not possi%le

%) Constaints not possi%le

'N'BITS OB '+T'RNL TL'S

a) Queies of e/tenal ta%les !o$plete ve7 ui!&l7 even though a full ta%le s!an id euied

with ea!h a!!ess

%) *ou !an Join e/tenal ta%les to ea!h othe o to standad ta%les

R'B D'R'B 9LU'

R'B

The ef fun!tion allows efeen!ing of e/isting ow o%Je!ts5

'a!h of the ow o%Je!ts has an o%Je!t id value assigned to it5

The o%Je!t id assigned !an %e seen %7 using ef fun!tion5

D'R'B

The deef fun!tion pefo$s opposite a!tion5

It ta&es a efeen!e value of o%Je!t id and etuns the value of the ow o%Je!ts5

9LU'

'ven though the pi$a7 ta%le is o%Je!t ta%le# still it displa7s the ows in geneal fo$at5

To displa7 the entie stu!tue of the o%Je!t# this will %e used5

'/0

2) !eate vendotadt t7pe

56



SQL- Ceate t7pe vendoadt as o%Je!t (vendo!ode nu$%e(1)# vendona$e

va!ha(1)# vendoaddess va!ha(23)).?

1) !eate o%Je!t ta%les vendos and vendos2

SQL- Ceate ta%le vendos of vendoadt.

SQL- Ceate ta%le vendos2 of vendoadt.

4) inset the data into o%Je!t ta%les

SQL- inset into vendos values(2# Ka;# Kh7d;).

SQL- inset into vendos values(1# K%;# K%ang;).

SQL- inset into vendos2 values(4# K!;# Kdelhi;).

SQL- inset into vendos2 values(@# Kd;# K!hennai;).

@) !eate anothe ta%le odes whi!h holds the vendoadt t7pe also5

SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeno nu$%e(1)# vendoinfo ef vendoadt).

O

SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeno nu$%e(1)# vendoinfo ef vendoadt with

owid).

) inset the data into odes ta%le

The vendoinfo !olu$n in the following s7nta/es will stoe o%Je!t id of an7 ta%le

whi!h is efeen!ed %7 vendoadt o%Je!t ( %oth vendos and vendos2)5

SQL- inset into odes values(22#(sele!t ef(v) fo$ vendos v whee vendo!ode

H 2)).

SQL- inset into odes values(21#(sele!t ef(v) fo$ vendos v whee vendo!ode

H 1)).

SQL- inset into odes values(24#(sele!t ef(v2) fo$ vendos2 v2 whee

vendo!ode H 2)).

SQL- inset into odes values(2@#(sele!t ef(v2) fo$ vendos2 v2 whee

vendo!ode H 2)).

) To see the o%Je!t ids of vendo ta%le

SQL- Sele!t ef(9) fo$ vendos v.

V) If 7ou see the vendoinfo of odes it will show onl7 the o%Je!t ids not the values#

to see the values

SQL- Sele!t deef(o5vendoinfo) fo$ odes o. W) 'ven though the vendos ta%le is o%Je!t ta%le it will not show the adt along with

data# to see the data along with the adt

SQL-Sele!t E fo$ vendos.

This will give the data without adt5

SQL-Sele!t value(v) fo$ vendos v.

This will give the !olu$ns data along wih the t7pe5

R'B CONSTRINTS

57



Ref !an also a!ts as !onstaint5

'ven though vendos2 also holding vendoadt# the odes ta%le will stoe the o%Je!t

ids of vendos onl7 %e!ause it is !onstained to that ta%le onl75

The vendoinfo !olu$n in the following s7nta/es will stoe o%Je!t ids of vendos

onl75

SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeno nu$%e(1)# vendoinfo ef vendoadt s!ope is

vendos).

O

SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeno nu$%e(1)# vendoinfo ef vendoadt !onstaint f&

efeen!es vendos).

O>'CT 9I'6S 6IT: R'B'R'NC'S

To i$ple$ent the o%Je!ts and the ef !onstaints to the e/isting ta%les# what we !an do[

Si$pl7 dop the %oth ta%les and e!eate with o%Je!ts and ef !onstains5

ut 7ou !an a!hieve this with out dopping the ta%les and without losing the data %7 !eating

o%Je!t views with efeen!es5

'/0

a) Ceate the following ta%les

SQL- Ceate ta%le student2(no nu$%e(1) pi$a7 &e7#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&s

nu$%e(4)).

SQL- Ceate ta%le student1(no nu$%e(1) pi$a7 &e7#hno nu$%e(4)#!it7

va!ha(23)#id nu$%e(1)#foeign Fe7(id) efeen!es student2(no)).

%) Inset the e!ods into %oth ta%les SQL- inset into student2(2#;a;#233).

SQL- inset into student2(1#;%;#133).

SQL- inset into student1(22#222#;h7d;#2).

SQL- inset into student1(21#111#;%ang;#1).

SQL- inset into student1(24#444#;%o$%a7;#2).

!) Ceate the t7pe

SQL- !eate o epla!e t7pe stud as o%Je!t(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&s

nu$%e(4)).?

d) 8eneating OIDs

SQL- Ceate o epla!e view student2ov of stud with o%Je!t identifie(o id) (no) as

Sele!t E fo$ Student2.

e) 8eneating efeen!es

SQL- Ceate o epla!e view student1ov as sele!t no#hno#!it7#

$a&eef(student2ov#id) id fo$ Student1.

d) Que7 the following

SQL- sele!t Efo$ student2ov.

58



SQL- sele!t ef(s) fo$ student2ov s.

SQL- sele!t values(s) fo$ student2ov.

SQ- sele!t Efo$ student1ov.

SQL- sele!t deef(s5id) fo$ student1ov s.

ARTITIONS

single logi!al ta%le !an %e split into a nu$%e of ph7si!all7 sepaate pie!es %ased on anges

of &e7 values5 'a!h of the pats of the ta%le is !alled a patition5

non"patitioned ta%le !an not %e patitioned late5

T*A'S

Range patitions

List patitions

:ash patitions

Su% patitions

D9NT8'S

Redu!ing downti$e fo s!heduled $aintenan!e# whi!h allows $aintenan!e opeations to

%e !aied out on sele!ted patitions while othe patitions ae availa%le to uses5

Redu!ing downti$e due to data failue# failue of a pati!ula patition will no wa7 affe!t

othe patitions5

Aatition independen!e allows fo !on!uent use of the vaious patitions fo vaious

puposes5

D9NT8'S OB ARTITIONS * STORIN8 T:'M IN DIBB'R'NT TL'SAC'S

Redu!es the possi%ilit7 of data !ouption in $ultiple patitions5

a!& up and e!ove7 of ea!h patition !an %e done independentl75

DISD9NT8'S

Aatitioned ta%les !annot !ontain an7 !olu$ns with long o long aw datat7pes# LO

t7pes o o%Je!t t7pes5

RN8' ARTITIONS

a) Ceating ange patitioned ta%le

SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)) patition %7 ange(no)

(patition p2 values less than(23)# patition p1 values less than(13)# patition p4

values less than(43)#patition p@ values less than($a/value)).

EE if 7ou ae using $a/value fo the last patition# 7ou !an not add a patition5

%) Inseting e!ods into ange patitioned ta%le

SQL- Inset into student values(2#;a;). "" this will go to p2

SQL- Inset into student values(22#;%;). "" this will go to p1

SQL- Inset into student values(12#;!;). "" this will go to p4

SQL- Inset into student values(42#;d;). "" this will go to p@

59



!) Retieving e!ods fo$ ange patitioned ta%le

SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.

SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student patition(p2).

d) Aossi%le opeations with ange patitions

dd

Dop

Tun!ate

Rena$e

Split

Move

'/!hange

e) dding a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student add patition p values less than(@3).

f) Dopping a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student dop patition p@.

g) Rena$ing a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student ena$e patition p4 to p.

h) Tun!ate a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student tun!ate patition p.

i) Splitting a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student split patition p1 at(2) into (patition p12#patition p11).

J) '/!hanging a patitionSQL- lte ta%le student e/!hange patition p2 with ta%le student1.

&) Moving a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student $ove patition p12 ta%lespa!e sa&ethts.

LIST ARTITIONS

a) Ceating list patitioned ta%le

SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)) patition %7 list(no)

(patition p2 values(2#1#4#@#)# patition p1 values(#V#W##23)#patition p4

values(22#21#24#2@#2)# patition p@ values(2#2V#2W#2#13)).

%) Inseting e!ods into list patitioned ta%le


SQL- Inset into student values(#;%;). "" this will go to p1

SQL- Inset into student values(22#;!;). "" this will go to p4

SQL- Inset into student values(2#;d;). "" this will go to p@

!) Retieving e!ods fo$ list patitioned ta%le



60



d) Aossi%le opeations with list patitions

dd

Dop

Tun!ate

Rena$e

Move

'/!hange

e) dding a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student add patition p values(12#11#14#1@#1).


SQL- lte ta%le student dop patition p@.


SQL- lte ta%le student ena$e patition p4 to p.


SQL- lte ta%le student tun!ate patition p.

i) '/!hanging a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student e/!hange patition p2 with ta%le student1.

J) Moving a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student $ove patition p1 ta%lespa!e sa&ethts.

:S: ARTITIONS

a) Ceating hash patitioned ta%le

SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)) patition %7 hash(no)patitions .

:ee oa!le auto$ati!all7 gives patition na$es li&e

S*SA2

S*SA1

S*SA4

S*SA@

S*SA

%) Inseting e!ods into hash patitioned ta%le

it will inset the e!ods %ased on hash fun!tion !al!ulated %7 ta&ing the patition &e7

SQL- Inset into student values(2#;a;).

SQL- Inset into student values(#;%;).

SQL- Inset into student values(22#;!;).

SQL- Inset into student values(2#;d;).

!) Retieving e!ods fo$ hash patitioned ta%le


SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student patition(s7sp2).

61



d) Aossi%le opeations with hash patitions

dd

Tun!ate

Rena$e

Move

'/!hange

e) dding a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student add patition p .

f) Rena$ing a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student ena$e patition p to pV.

g) Tun!ate a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student tun!ate patition pV.

h) '/!hanging a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student e/!hange patition s7sp2 with ta%le student1.

i) Moving a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student $ove patition s7sp1 ta%lespa!e sa&ethts.

SU"ARTITIONS 6IT: RN8' ND :S:

Su%patitions !lause is used %7 hash onl75 6e !an not !eate su%patitions with list and hash

patitions5

a) Ceating su%patitioned ta%le

SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&s nu$%e(4))

Aatition %7 ange(no) su%patition %7 hash(na$e) su%patitions 4

(Aatition p2 values less than(23)#patition p1 values less than(13)).

This will !eate two patitions p2 and p1 with thee su%patitions fo ea!h patition

A2 \ S*SSUA2

S*SSUA1

S*SSUA4

A1 \ S*SSUA@

S*SSUA

S*SSUA

EE if 7ou ae using $a/value fo the last patition# 7ou !an not add a patition5

%) Inseting e!ods into su%patitioned ta%le


SQL- Inset into student values(22#;%;). "" this will go to p1

!) Retieving e!ods fo$ su%patitioned ta%le



SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student su%patition(s7ssu%p2).

62



d) Aossi%le opeations with su%patitions

dd

Dop

Tun!ate

Rena$e

Split

e) dding a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student add patition p4 values less than(43).


SQL- lte ta%le student dop patition p4.


SQL- lte ta%le student ena$e patition p1 to p4.


SQL- lte ta%le student tun!ate patition p2.

i) Splitting a patition

SQL- lte ta%le student split patition p4 at(2) into (patition p42#patition p41).

DT MOD'L

LLINDARTITIONS

LLINDSUARTITIONS

LLTARTITIONS

LLTSUARTITIONS

DINDARTITIONS

DINDSUARTITIONS

DTARTITIONS

DTSUARTITIONS

US'RINDARTITIONS

US'RINDSUARTITIONS

US'RTARTITIONS

US'RTSUARTITIONS

8ROUA * ND :9IN8

8ROUA *

Using goup %7# we !an !eate goups of elated info$ation5

Colu$ns used in sele!t $ust %e used with goup %7# othewise it was not a goup %7

e/pession5

'/0

SQL- sele!t deptno# su$(sal) fo$ e$p goup %7 deptno.

63



D'ATNO SUM(SL)

"""""""""" """"""""""

23 WV3

13 23WV

43 @33

SQL- sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) fo$ e$p goup %7 deptno#Jo%.

D'ATNO >O SUM(SL)

"""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""

23 CL'RF 2433

23 MN8'R 1@3

23 AR'SID'NT 333

13 NL*ST 333

13 CL'RF 233

13 MN8'R 1V

43 CL'RF 3

43 MN8'R 1W3

43 SL'SMN 33

:9IN8

This will wo& as whee !lause whi!h !an %e used onl7 with goup %7 %e!ause of a%sen!e of

whee !lause in goup %75

'/0

SQL- sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) tsal fo$ e$p goup %7 deptno#Jo% having su$(sal) -

4333.

D'ATNO >O TSL

"""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""

23 AR'SID'NT 333

13 NL*ST 333

43 SL'SMN 33

SQL- sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) tsal fo$ e$p goup %7 deptno#Jo% having su$(sal) -

4333 ode %7 Jo%.

D'ATNO >O TSL """""""""" """"""""" """"""""""

13 NL*ST 333

23 AR'SID'NT 333

43 SL'SMN 33

ORD'R OB '+'CUTION

8oup the ows togethe %ased on goup %7 !lause5

Cal!ulate the goup fun!tions fo ea!h goup5

64



Choose and eli$inate the goups %ased on the having !lause5

Ode the goups %ased on the spe!ified !olu$n5

ROLLUA 8ROUAIN8 CU'

These ae the enhan!e$ents to the goup %7 featue5

USIN8 ROLLUA

This will give the salaies in ea!h depat$ent in ea!h Jo% !atego7 along wih the total sala7 fo

individual depat$ents and the total sala7 of all the depat$ents5

SQL- Sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) fo$ e$p goup %7 ollup(deptno#Jo%).

D'ATNO >O SUM(SL)

"""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""

23 CL'RF 2433

23 MN8'R 1@3

23 AR'SID'NT 333

23 WV3

13 NL*ST 333

13 CL'RF 233

13 MN8'R 1V

13 23WV

43 CL'RF 3

43 MN8'R 1W3

43 SL'SMN 33

43 @33 131

USIN8 8ROUAIN8

In the a%ove ue7 it will give the total sala7 of the individual depat$ents %ut with a

%lan& in the Jo% !olu$n and gives the total sala7 of all the depat$ents with %lan&s in

deptno and Jo% !olu$ns5

To epla!e these %lan&s with 7ou desied sting gouping will %e used

SQL- sele!t de!ode(gouping(deptno)#2#=ll Depts=#deptno)#de!ode(gouping(Jo%)#2#=ll

Jo%s=#Jo%)#su$(sal) fo$ e$p goup %7 ollup(deptno#Jo%).

D'COD'(8ROUAIN8(D'ATNO)#2#=LLD'ATS=#D'A D'COD'(8R SUM(SL)

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""

23 CL'RF 2433

23 MN8'R 1@3

23 AR'SID'NT 333

23 ll Jo%s WV3

13 NL*ST 333

13 CL'RF 233

65



13 MN8'R 1V

13 ll Jo%s 23WV

43 CL'RF 3

43 MN8'R 1W3

43 SL'SMN 33

43 ll Jo%s @33

ll Depts ll Jo%s 131

8ouping will etun 2 if the !olu$n whi!h is spe!ified in the gouping fun!tion has %een

used in ollup5

8ouping will %e used in asso!iation with de!ode5

USIN8 CU'

This will give the salaies in ea!h depat$ent in ea!h Jo% !atego7# the total sala7 fo

individual depat$ents# the total sala7 of all the depat$ents and the salaies in ea!h Jo%

!atego75

SQL- sele!t de!ode(gouping(deptno)#2#;ll Depts;#deptno)#de!ode(gouping(Jo%)#2#;ll

>o%s;#Jo%)#su$(sal) fo$ e$p goup %7 !u%e(deptno#Jo%).

D'COD'(8ROUAIN8(D'ATNO)#2#=LLD'ATS=#D'A D'COD'(8R SUM(SL)

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""

23 CL'RF 2433

23 MN8'R 1@3

23 AR'SID'NT 333

23 ll >o%s WV3

13 NL*ST 333

13 CL'RF 233

13 MN8'R 1V

13 ll >o%s 23WV

43 CL'RF 3

43 MN8'R 1W3

43 SL'SMN 33

43 ll >o%s @33

ll Depts NL*ST 333ll Depts CL'RF @23

ll Depts MN8'R W1V

ll Depts AR'SID'NT 333

ll Depts SL'SMN 33

ll Depts ll >o%s 131

S'T OA'RTORS

T*A'S

66



Union

Union all

Intese!t

Minus

UNION

This will !o$%ine the e!ods of $ultiple ta%les having the sa$e stu!tue5

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student2 union sele!t E fo$ student1.

UNION LL

This will !o$%ine the e!ods of $ultiple ta%les having the sa$e stu!tue %ut in!luding

dupli!ates5

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student2 union all sele!t E fo$ student1.

INT'RS'CT

This will give the !o$$on e!ods of $ultiple ta%les having the sa$ stu!tue5

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student2 intese!t sele!t E fo$ student1.

MINUS

This will give the e!ods of a ta%le whose e!ods ae not in othe ta%les having the sa$e

stu!tue5

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student2 $inus sele!t E fo$ student1.

9I'6S view is a data%ase o%Je!t that is a logi!al epesentation of a ta%le5 It is deliveed fo$ a

ta%le %ut has no stoage of its own and often $a7 %e used in the sa$e $anne as a ta%le5

view ta&es the output of the ue7 and teats it as a ta%le# theefoe a view !an %e thought of

as a stoed ue7 o a vitual ta%le5

T*A'S

Si$ple view

Co$ple/ view

Si$ple view !an %e !eated fo$ one ta%le whee as !o$ple/ view !an %e !eated fo$

$ultiple ta%les5

6:* 9I'6S[

Aovides additional level of se!uit7 %7 esti!ting a!!ess to a pedete$ined set of ows

and?o !olu$ns of a ta%le5

:ide the data !o$ple/it75

Si$plif7 !o$$ands fo the use5

9I'6S 6IT:OUT DML

67



Read onl7 view

9iew with goup %7

9iew with aggegate fun!tions

9iew with ownu$

Aatition view

9iew with distin!t

'/0

SQL- Ceate view deptv as sele!t Efo$ dept with ead onl7.

SQL- Ceate view deptv as sele!t deptno# su$(sal) tsal fo$ e$p goup %7 deptno.

SQL- Ceate view stud as sele!t ownu$ no# na$e# $a&s fo$ student.

SQL- Ceate view student as sele!t Efo$ student2 union sele!t Efo$ student1.

SQL- Ceate view stud as sele!t distin!t no#na$e fo$ student.

9I'6S 6IT: DML

9iew with not null !olu$n "" inset with out not null !olu$n not possi%le

"" update not null !olu$n to null is not possi%le

"" delete possi%le

9iew with out not null !olu$n whi!h was in %ase ta%le "" inset not possi%le

"" update# delete possi%le

9iew with e/pession "" inset # update not possi%le

"" delete possi%le

9iew with fun!tions (e/!ept aggegate) "" inset# update not possi%le

"" delete possi%le

9iew was !eated %ut the undel7ing ta%le was dopped then we will get the $essage

li&e P view has eos 5

9iew was !eated %ut the %ase ta%le has %een alteed %ut still the view was with the

initial definition# we have to epla!e the view to affe!t the !hanges5

Co$ple/ view (view with $oe than one ta%le) "" inset not possi%le

"" update# delete possi%le (not alwa7s)

CR'TIN8 9I'6 6IT:OUT :9IN8 T:' S' TL'

SQL- Ceate fo!e view stud as sele!t EBo$ student. "" On!e the %ase ta%le was !eated then the view is validated5

9I'6 6IT: C:'CF OATION CONSTRINT

SQL- Ceate view stud as sele!t Efo$ student whee $a&s H 33 with !he!& option

!onstaint C&.

" Inset possi%le with $a&s value as 33

" Update possi%le e/!luding $a&s !olu$n

" Delete possi%le

68



DROAAIN8 9I'6S

SQL- dop view deptv.

DT MOD'L

LL9I'6

D9I'6

US'R9I'6S

S*NON*M ND S'QU'NC'

S*NON*M

s7non7$ is a data%ase o%Je!t# whi!h is used as an alias fo a ta%le# view o seuen!e5

T*A'S

Aivate

Au%li!

Aivate s7non7$ is availa%le to the pati!ula use who !eates5

Au%li! s7non7$ is !eated %7 D whi!h is availa%le to all the uses5D9NT8'S

:ide the na$e and owne of the o%Je!t5

Aovides lo!ation tanspaen!7 fo e$ote o%Je!ts of a disti%uted data%ase5

CR'T' ND DROA

SQL- !eate s7non7$ s2 fo e$p.

SQL- !eate pu%li! s7non7$ s1 fo e$p.

SQL- dop s7non7$ s2.

S'QU'NC'

seuen!e is a data%ase o%Je!t# whi!h !an geneate uniue# seuential intege values5

It !an %e used to auto$ati!all7 geneate pi$a7 &e7 o uniue &e7 values5

seuen!e !an %e eithe in an as!ending o des!ending ode5

S7nta/0

Ceate seuen!e , !e_name- in!e$ent %t7 n stat with n $a/value n

$invalue n !7!le?no!7!le !a!he?no!a!he.

7 defalult the seuen!e stats with 2# in!e$ents %7 2 with $invalue of 2 and with no!7!le#

no!a!he5

Ca!he option pe"alloo!ates a set of seuen!e nu$%es and etains the$ in $e$o7 fo faste

a!!ess5

'/0

SQL- !eate seuen!e s.

SQL- !eate seuen!e s in!e$ent %7 23 stat with 233 $invalue $a/value 133 !7!le

!a!he 13.

USIN8 S'QU'NC'

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)).

69



SQL- inset into student values(s5ne/tval# Ksað).

Initiall7 !uval is not defined and ne/tval is stating value5

fte that ne/tval and !uval ae alwa7s eual5

CR'TIN8 LA:"NUM'RIC S'QU'NC'

SQL- !eate seuen!e s stat with 22214@.

SQL- Inset into student values (s5ne/tval XX tanslate

(s5ne/tval#;214@VW3;#;a%!defghiJ;)).

LT'RIN8 S'QU'NC'

6e !an alte the seuen!e to pefo$ the following5

Set o eli$inate $invalue o $a/value5

Change the in!e$ent value5

Change the nu$%e of !a!hed seuen!e nu$%es5

'/0

SQL- alte seuen!e s $invalue .

SQL- alte seuen!e s in!e$ent %7 1.

SQL- alte seuen!e s !a!he 23.

DROAAIN8 S'QU'NC'

SQL- dop seuen!e s.

>OINS

The pupose of a Join is to !o$%ine the data a!oss ta%les5

Join is a!tuall7 pefo$ed %7 the whee !lause whi!h !o$%ines the spe!ified ows of

ta%les5

If a Join involves in $oe than two ta%les then oa!le Joins fist two ta%les %ased on the

Joins !ondition and then !o$paes the esult with the ne/t ta%le and so on5

T*A'S

'ui Join

Non"eui Join

Self Join

Natual Join

Coss Join

Oute Join

Left oute

Right oute

Bull oute

Inne Join

Using !lause

On !lause

ssu$e that we have the following ta%les5

70



SQL- sele!t E fo$ dept.

D'ATNO DNM' LOC

"""""" """""""""" """"""""""

23 $&t h7d

13 fin %ang

43 h %o$%a7

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p.

'MANO 'NM' >O M8R D'ATNO

"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""

222 sa&eth anal7st @@@ 23

111 sudha !le& 444 13

444 Jagan $anage 222 23

@@@ $adhu enginee 111 @3

'QUI >OIN

Join whi!h !ontains an KH; opeato in the Joins !ondition5

'/0

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p e#dept d whee e5deptnoHd5deptno.

'MANO 'NM' >O DNM' LOC

"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""

222 sa&eth anal7st $&t h7d

444 Jagan $anage $&t h7d

111 sudha !le& fin %ang

USIN8 CLUS'

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo% #dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p e Join dept d using(deptno).


"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""




ON CLUS'

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p e Join dept d on(e5deptnoHd5deptno). 'MANO 'NM' >O DNM' LOC

"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""




NON"'QUI >OIN

Join whi!h !ontains an opeato othe than KH; in the Joins !ondition5

71



'/0

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p e#dept d whee e5deptno -

d5deptno.


"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""

111 sudha !le& $&t h7d

@@@ $adhu enginee $&t h7d

@@@ $adhu enginee fin %ang

@@@ $adhu enginee h %o$%a7

S'LB >OIN

>oining the ta%le itself is !alled self Join5

'/0

SQL- sele!t e25e$pno#e15ena$e#e25Jo%#e15deptno fo$ e$p e2#e$p e1 whee

e25e$pnoHe15$g.

'MANO 'NM' >O D'ATNO

"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""

222 Jagan anal7st 23

111 $adhu !le& @3

444 sudha $anage 13

@@@ sa&eth enginee 23

NTURL >OIN

Natual Join !o$paes all the !o$$on !olu$ns5

'/0

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p natual Join dept.


"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""




CROSS >OIN

This will gives the !oss podu!t5'/0

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p !oss Join dept.


"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""


111 sudha !le& $&t h7d


72



@@@ $adhu enginee $&t h7d

222 sa&eth anal7st fin %ang


444 Jagan $anage fin %ang

@@@ $adhu enginee fin %ang

222 sa&eth anal7st h %o$%a7

111 sudha !le& h %o$%a7

444 Jagan $anage h %o$%a7

@@@ $adhu enginee h %o$%a7

OUT'R >OIN

Oute Join gives the non"$at!hing e!ods along with $at!hing e!ods5

L'BT OUT'R >OIN

This will displa7 the all $at!hing e!ods and the e!ods whi!h ae in left hand side ta%le

those that ae not in ight hand side ta%le5

'/0

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p e left oute Join dept d

on(e5deptnoHd5deptno).

O

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p e#dept d whee

e5deptnoHd5deptno(G).


"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""




@@@ $adhu enginee

RI8:T OUT'R >OIN

This will displa7 the all $at!hing e!ods and the e!ods whi!h ae in ight hand side ta%le

those that ae not in left hand side ta%le5

'/0

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p e ight oute Join dept d

on(e5deptnoHd5deptno).

O

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p e#dept d whee e5deptno(G) H

d5deptno.


"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""



73




h %o$%a7

BULL OUT'R >OIN

This will displa7 the all $at!hing e!ods and the non"$at!hing e!ods fo$ %oth ta%les5

'/0 SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p e full oute Join dept d

on(e5deptnoHd5deptno). 'MANO 'NM' >O DNM' LOC

"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""




@@@ $adhu enginee

h %o$%a7

INN'R >OIN

This will displa7 all the e!ods that have $at!hed5

'/0

SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p inne Join dept using(deptno).


"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""




SUQU'RI'S ND '+ISTS

SUQU'RI'S

Nesting of ueies# one within the othe is te$ed as a su%ue75

state$ent !ontaining a su%ue7 is !alled a paent ue75

Su%ueies ae used to etieve data fo$ ta%les that depend on the values in the ta%le

itself5

T*A'S

Single ow su%ueies

Multi ow su%ueies

Multiple su%ueies

Coelated su%ueies

SIN8L' RO6 SUQU'RI'S

In single ow su%ue7# it will etun one value5

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p whee sal - (sele!t sal fo$ e$p whee e$pno H V).

'MANO 'NM' >O M8R :IR'DT' SL COMM D'ATNO

74



"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """"""" """""""""" """"""""""

VVWW SCOTT NL*ST V 2"AR"WV 4333 13

VW4 FIN8 AR'SID'NT 2V"NO9"W2 333 23

V31 BORD NL*ST V 34"D'C"W2 4333 13

MULTI RO6 SUQU'RI'S

In $ulti ow su%ue7# it will etun $oe than one value5 In su!h !ases we should in!ludeopeatos li&e an7# all# in o not in %etween the !o$paision opeato and the su%ue75

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p whee sal - an7 (sele!t sal fo$ e$p whee sal %etween 133

and @333).


"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """"""""""" """""""" """""""""" """"""""""

V >ON'S MN8'R VW4 31"AR"W2 1V 13



V31 BORD NL*ST V 34"D'C"W2 4333 13

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p whee sal - all (sele!t sal fo$ e$p whee sal %etween 133

and @333).


"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """"""""""""" """""" """""""""" """"""""""


MULTIAL' SUQU'RI'S

Thee is no li$it on the nu$%e of su%ueies in!luded in a whee !lause5 It allows nesting of aue7 within a su%ue75

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p whee sal H (sele!t $a/(sal) fo$ e$p whee sal , (sele!t

$a/(sal) fo$ e$p)).


"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """"""" """""""""" """"""""""


V31 BORD NL*ST V 34"D'C"W2 4333 13

CORR'LT'D SUQU'RI'S

su%ue7 is evaluated on!e fo the entie paent state$ent whee as a !oelated su%ue7 is

evaluated on!e fo eve7 ow po!essed %7 the paent state$ent5

'/0

SQL- sele!t distin!t deptno fo$ e$p e whee ,H (sele!t !ount(ena$e) fo$ e$p

whee e5deptno H deptno).

D'ATNO

""""""""""

75



13

43

'+ISTS

'/ists fun!tion is a test fo e/isten!e5 This is a logi!al test fo the etun of ows fo$ a ue75

'/0

Suppose we want to displa7 the depat$ent nu$%es whi!h has $oe than @

e$plo7ees5

SQL- sele!t deptno#!ount(E) fo$ e$p goup %7 deptno having !ount(E) - @.

D'ATNO COUNT(E)

""""""""" """"""""""

13

43

Bo$ the a%ove ue7 !an 7ou want to displa7 the na$es of e$plo7ees[

SQL- sele!t deptno#ena$e# !ount(E) fo$ e$p goup %7 deptno#ena$e having !ount(E)

- @.

no ows sele!ted

The a%ove ue7 etuns nothing %e!ause !o$%ination of deptno and ena$e neve

etun $oe than one !ount5

The solution is to use e/ists whi!h follows5

SQL- sele!t deptno#ena$e fo$ e$p e2 whee e/ists (sele!t E fo$ e$p e1

whee e25deptnoHe15deptno goup %7 e15deptno having !ount(e15ena$e) - @)

ode %7 deptno#ena$e.

D'ATNO 'NM'

"""""""""" """"""""""

13 DMS

13 BORD

13 >ON'S

13 SCOTT

13 SMIT:

43 LL'N

43 LF' 43 >M'S

43 MRTIN

43 TURN'R

43 6RD

NOT '+ISTS

SQL- sele!t deptno#ena$e fo$ e$p e2 whee not e/ists (sele!t E fo$ e$p e1

whee e25deptnoHe15deptno goup %7 e15deptno having !ount(e15ena$e) - @) ode

76



%7 deptno#ena$e.

D'ATNO 'NM'

""""""""" """"""""""

23 CLRF

23 FIN8

23 MILL'R

6LFUA TR''S ND INLIN' 9I'6

6LFUA TR''S

Using hiea!hi!al ueies# 7ou !an etieve data %ased on a natual hiea!hi!al elationship

%etween ows in a ta%le5 :oweve# whee a hiea!hi!al elationship e/ists %etween the ows

of a ta%le# a po!ess !alled tee wal&ing ena%les the hiea!h7 to %e !onstu!ted5

'/0

SQL- sele!t ena$e XX =HH-= XX pio ena$e# level fo$ e$p stat with ena$e H =FIN8=

!onne!t %7 pio e$pnoH$g.

'NM'XX=HH-=XXARIOR'NM L'9'L

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""

FIN8HH- 2

>ON'SHH-FIN8 1

SCOTTHH->ON'S 4

DMSHH-SCOTT @

BORDHH->ON'S 4

SMIT:HH-BORD @

LF'HH-FIN8 1

LL'NHH-LF' 4

6RDHH-LF' 4

MRTINHH-LF' 4

TURN'RHH-LF' 4

>M'SHH-LF' 4

CLRFHH-FIN8 1

MILL'RHH-CLRF 4

In the a%ove

Stat with !lause spe!ifies the oot ow of the ta%le5

Level pseudo !olu$n gives the 2 fo oot # 1 fo !hild and so on5

Conne!t %7 pio !lause spe!ifies the !olu$ns whi!h has paent"!hild elationship5

INLIN' 9I'6 OR TOA"N NL*SIS

In the sele!t state$ent instead of ta%le na$e# epla!ing the sele!t state$ent is &nown as inline

view5

'/0

77



SQL- Sele!t ena$e# sal# ownu$ an& fo$ (sele!t Efo$ e$p ode %7 sal).

'NM' SL RNF

"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""

SMIT: W33 2

>M'S 3 1

DMS 2233 4

6RD 213 @

MRTIN 213

MILL'R 2433

TURN'R 233 V

LL'N 233 W

CLRF 1@3

LF' 1W3 23

>ON'S 1V 22

SCOTT 4333 21

BORD 4333 24

FIN8 333 2@

LOCFS

Lo!&s ae the $e!hanis$s used to pevent destu!tive intea!tion %etween uses a!!essing

sa$e esou!e si$ultaneousl75 Lo!&s povides high degee of data !on!uen!75

T*A'S

Row level lo!&s

Ta%le level lo!&s

RO6 L'9'L LOCFS

In the ow level lo!& a ow is lo!&ed e/!lusivel7 so that othe !annot $odif7 the ow until the

tansa!tion holding the lo!& is !o$$itted o olled %a!&5 This !an %e done %7 using sele!t55fo

update !lause5

'/0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p whee sal - 4333 fo update of !o$$5.

TL' L'9'L LOCFS

ta%le level lo!& will pote!t ta%le data thee%7 guaanteeing data integit7 when data is %eing

a!!essed !on!uentl7 %7 $ultiple uses5 ta%le lo!& !an %e held in seveal $odes5

Shae lo!&

Shae update lo!&

'/!lusive lo!&

S:R' LOCF

shae lo!& lo!&s the ta%le allowing othe uses to onl7 ue7 %ut not inset# update o delete

ows in a ta%le5 Multiple uses !an pla!e shae lo!&s on the sa$e esou!e at the sa$e ti$e5

78



'/0

SQL- lo!& ta%le e$p in shae $ode.

S:R' UADT' LOCF

It lo!&s ows that ae to %e updated in a ta%le5 It pe$its othe uses to !on!uentl7 ue7#

inset # update o even lo!& othe ows in the sa$e ta%le5 It pevents the othe uses fo$

updating the ow that has %een lo!&ed5'/0

SQL- lo!& ta%le e$p in shae update $ode.

'+CLUSI9' LOCF

'/!lusive lo!& is the $ost esti!tive of ta%les lo!&s5 6hen issued %7 an7 use# it allows the

othe use to onl7 ue75 It is si$ila to shae lo!& %ut onl7 one use !an pla!e e/!lusive lo!&

on a ta%le at a ti$e5

'/0

SQL- lo!& ta%le e$p in shae e/!lusive $ode.

NO6IT

If one use lo!&ed the ta%le without nowait then anothe use t7ing to lo!& the sa$e ta%le

then he has to wait until the use who has initiall7 lo!&ed the ta%le issues a !o$$it o oll%a!&

state$ent5 This dela7 !ould %e avoided %7 appending a nowait !lause in the lo!& ta%le

!o$$and5

'/0

SQL- lo!& ta%le e$p in e/!lusive $ode nowait5

D'DLOCF

deadlo!& o!!us when tow uses have a lo!& ea!h on sepaate o%Je!t# and the7 want toa!uie a lo!& on the ea!h othe;s o%Je!t5 6hen this happens# the fist use has to wait fo the

se!ond use to elease the lo!&# %ut the se!ond use will not elease it until the lo!& on the fist

use;s o%Je!t is feed5 In su!h a !ase# oa!le dete!ts the deadlo!& auto$ati!all7 and solves the

po%le$ %7 a%oting one of the two tansa!tions5

IND'+'S

Inde/ is t7pi!all7 a listing of &e7wods a!!o$panied %7 the lo!ation of info$ation on a

su%Je!t5 6e !an !eate inde/es e/pli!itl7 to speed up SQL state$ent e/e!ution on a ta%le5 The

inde/ points die!tl7 to the lo!ation of the ows !ontaining the value56:* IND'+'S[

Inde/es ae $ost useful on lage ta%les# on !olu$ns that ae li&el7 to appea in whee !lauses

as si$ple eualit75

T*A'S

Uniue inde/

Non"uniue inde/

tee inde/

79



it$ap inde/

Co$posite inde/

Revese &e7 inde/

Bun!tion"%ased inde/

Des!ending inde/

Do$ain inde/

O%Je!t inde/

Cluste inde/

Te/t inde/

Inde/ oganied ta%le

Aatition inde/

Lo!al inde/

Lo!al pefi/ed

Lo!al non"pefi/ed

8lo%al inde/

8lo%al pefi/ed

8lo%al non"pefi/ed

UNIQU' IND'+

Uniue inde/es guaantee that no two ows of a ta%le have dupli!ate values in the !olu$ns

that define the inde/5 Uniue inde/ is auto$ati!all7 !eated when pi$a7 &e7 o uniue

!onstaint is !eated5

'/0

SQL- !eate uniue inde/ studind on student(sno).

NON"UNIQU' IND'+

Non"Uniue inde/es do not i$pose the a%ove esti!tion on the !olu$n values5

'/0

SQL- !eate inde/ studind on student(sno).

TR'' IND'+ o SC'NDIN8 IND'+

The default t7pe of inde/ used in an oa!le data%ase is the %tee inde/5 %tee inde/ is

designed to povide %oth apid a!!ess to individual ows and ui!& a!!ess to goups of ows

within a ange5 The %tee inde/ does this %7 pefo$ing a su!!ession of value !o$paisons5

'a!h !o$paison eli$inates $an7 of the ows5

'/0

SQL- !eate inde/ studind on student(sno).

ITMA IND'+

This !an %e used fo low !adinalit7 !olu$ns0 that is !olu$ns in whi!h the nu$%e of distin!t

values is snall when !o$paed to the nu$%e of the ows in the ta%le5

80



'/0

SQL- !eate %it$ap inde/ studind on student(se/).

COMAOSIT' IND'+

!o$posite inde/ also !alled a !on!atenated inde/ is an inde/ !eated on $ultiple !olu$ns of

a ta%le5 Colu$ns in a !o$posite inde/ !an appea in an7 ode and need not %e adJa!ent

!olu$ns of the ta%le5

'/0

SQL- !eate %it$ap inde/ studind on student(sno# sna$e).

R'9'RS' F'* IND'+

evese &e7 inde/ when !o$paed to standad inde/# eveses ea!h %7te of the !olu$n %eing

inde/ed while &eeping the !olu$n ode5 6hen the !olu$n is inde/ed in evese $ode then the

!olu$n values will %e stoed in an inde/ in diffeent %lo!&s as the stating value diffes5 Su!h

an aange$ent !an help avoid pefo$an!e degadations in inde/es whee $odifi!ations to

the inde/ ae !on!entated on a s$all set of %lo!&s5

'/0

SQL- !eate inde/ studind on student(sno# evese).

6e !an e%uild a evese &e7 inde/ into no$al inde/ using the noevese &e7wod5

'/0

SQL- alte inde/ studind e%uild noevese.

BUNCTION S'D IND'+

This will use esult of the fun!tion as &e7 instead of using !olu$n as the value fo the &e75

'/0

SQL- !eate inde/ studind on student(uppe(sna$e)).

D'SC'NDIN8 IND'+

The ode used %7 "tee inde/es has %een as!ending ode5 *ou !an !ategoie data in "tee

inde/ in des!ending ode as well5 This featue !an %e useful in appli!ations whee soting

opeations ae euied5

'/0

SQL- !eate inde/ studind on student(sno des!).

T'+T IND'+

Que7ing te/t is diffeent fo$ ue7ing data %e!ause wods have shades of $eaning#elationships to othe wods# and opposites5 *ou $a7 want to sea!h fo wods that ae nea

ea!h othe# o wods that ae elated to thes5 These ueies would %e e/te$el7 diffi!ult if all

7ou had availa%le was the standad elational opeatos5 7 e/tending SQL to in!lude te/t

inde/es# oa!le te/t pe$its 7ou to as& ve7 !o$ple/ uestions a%out the te/t5

To use oa!le te/t# 7ou need to !eate a tet inde on the !olu$n in whi!h the te/t is stoed5

Te/t inde/ is a !olle!tion of ta%les and inde/es that stoe info$ation a%out the te/t stoed in

the !olu$n5

81



T*A'S

Thee ae seveal diffeent t7pes of inde/es availa%le in oa!le i5 The fist# CONT'+T is

suppoted in oa!le Wi as well as oa!le i5 s of oa!le i# 7ou !an use the CT+CT te/t inde/ fo

futhe enhan!e 7ou te/t inde/ $anage$ent and ue7 !apa%ilities5

CONT'+T

CT+CT

CT+RUL'

The CT+CT inde/ t7pe suppots the tansa!tional s7n!honiation of data %etween the %ase

ta%le and its te/t inde/5 6ith CONT'+T inde/es# 7ou need to $anuall7 tell oa!le to update the

values in the te/t inde/ afte data !hanges in %ase ta%le5 CT+CT inde/ t7pes do not geneate

s!oe values duing the te/t ueies5

:O6 TO CR'T' T'+T IND'+[

*ou !an !eate a te/t inde/ via a spe!ial vesion of the !eate inde/ !o$$an5 Bo !onte/t

inde/# spe!if7 the !t/s7s5!onte/t inde/ t7pe and fo !t/!at inde/# spe!if7 the !t/s7s5!t/!at

inde/ t7pe5'/0

Suppose 7ou have a ta%le !alled OOFS with the following !olu$ns

Title# utho# Info5

SQL- !eate inde/ %oo&inde/ on %oo&s(info) inde/t7pe is !t/s7s5!onte/t.

SQL- !eate inde/ %oo&inde/ on %oo&s(info) inde/t7pe is !t/s7s5!t/!at.

T'+T QU'RI'S

On!e a te/t inde/ is !eated on the info !olu$n of OOFS ta%le# te/t"sea!hing !apa%ilities

in!ease d7na$i!all75

CONTINS < CTS'RC:

CONTINS fun!tion ta&es two paa$etes \ the !olu$n na$e and the sea!h sting5

S7nta/0

Contains(indeed_column, !earc_!tr ).

If 7ou !eate a CT+CT inde/# use the CTS'RC: fun!tion in pla!e of CONTINS5 CTS'RC: ta&es

thee paa$etes \ the !olu$n na$e# the sea!h sting and the inde/ set5

S7nta/0

Contains(indeed_column, !earc_!tr, inde_!et ).

:O6 T'+T Q'UR* 6ORFS[

6hen a fun!tion su!h as CONTINS o CTS'RC: is used in ue7# the te/t potion of the ue7 is

po!essed %7 oa!le te/t5 The e$ainde of the ue7 is po!essed Just li&e a egula ue7

within the data%ase5 The esult of the te/t ue7 po!essing and the egula ue7 po!essing

ae $eged to etun a single set of e!ods to the use5

S'RC:IN8 BOR N '+CT MTC: OB 6ORD

The following ueies will sea!h fo a wod !alled Kppet7; whose s!oe is geate than eo5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7;# null) - 3.

82



Suppose if 7ou want to &now the s!oe of the Kpopet7; in ea!h %oo&# if s!oe values fo

individual sea!hes ange fo$ 3 to 23 fo ea!h o!!uen!e of the sting within the te/t then

use the s!oe fun!tion5

SQL- sele!t title# s!oe(23) fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7;# 23) - 3.

S'RC:IN8 BOR N '+CT MTC: OB MULTIAL' 6ORDS

The following ueies will sea!h fo two wods5SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 ND havests;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 ND havests;# null) - 3.

Instead of using ND 7ou !ould hae used an a$pesand(<)5 efoe using this $ethod# set

define off so the < !haa!te will not %e seen as pat of a vaia%le na$e5

SQL- set define off

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 < havests;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 havests;# null) - 3.

The following ueies will sea!h fo $oe than two wods5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 ND havests ND wo&es;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 havests wo&es;# null) - 3.

The following ueies will sea!h fo eithe of the two wods5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 OR havests;) - 3.

Instead of OR 7ou !an use a veti!al line (X)5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 X havests;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 X havests;# null) - 3.

In the following ueies the CCUM(a!!u$ulate) opeato adds togethe the s!oes of the

individual sea!hes and !o$paes the a!!u$ulated s!oe to the theshold value5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 CCUM havests;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 CCUM havests;# null) - 3.

Instead of OR 7ou !an use a !o$$a(#)5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 # havests;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 # havests;# null) - 3.

In the following ueies the MINUS opeato su%ta!ts the s!oe of the se!ond te$;s sea!h

fo$ the s!oe of the fist te$;s sea!h5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 MINUS havests;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 NOT havests;# null) - 3.

Instead of MINUS 7ou !an use \ and instead of NOT 7ou !an use ]5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 " havests;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 ] havests;# null) - 3.

S'RC:IN8 BOR N '+CT MTC: OB A:RS'

The following ueies will sea!h fo the phase5 If the sea!h phase in!ludes a eseved wod

within oa!le te/t# the 7ou $ust use !ul7 %a!es (^_) to en!lose te/t5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Ktansa!tions ^and_ finan!es;) - 3.

83



SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Ktansa!tions ^and_ finan!es;# null) - 3.

*ou !an en!lose the entie phase within !ul7 %a!es# in whi!h !ase an7 eseved wods within

the phase will %e teated as pat of the sea!h !iteia5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# K^tansa!tions and finan!es_;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# K^tansa!tions and finan!es_;# null) - 3.

S'RC:IN8 BOR 6ORDS T:T R' N'R 'C: OT:'R

The following ueies will sea!h fo the wods that ae in %etween the sea!h te$s5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kwo&es N'R havests;) - 3.

Instead of N'R 7ou !an use .5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kwo&es . havests;) - 3.

In CONT'+T inde/ ueies# 7ou !an spe!if7 the $a/i$u$ nu$%e of wods %etween the sea!h

te$s5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# KN'R ((wo&es# havests)#23); - 3.

USIN8 6ILDCRDS DURIN8 S'RC:'S

*ou !an use wild!ads to e/pand the list of valid sea!h te$s used duing 7ou ue75 >ust as

in egula te/t"sting wild!ad po!essing# two wild!ads ae availa%le5

" pe!ent sign. $ultiple"!haa!te wild!ad

" undes!oe. single"!haa!te wild!ad

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kwo&e;) - 3.

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kwo&;) - 3.

S'RC:IN8 BOR 6ORDS T:T S:R' T:' SM' ST'M

Rathe than using wild!ads# 7ou !an use ste$"e/pansion !apa%ilities to e/pand the list of te/t

stings5 8iven the Kste$; of a wod# oa!le will e/pand the list of wods to sea!h fo to in!lude

all wods having the sa$e ste$5 Sa$ple e/pansions ae show hee5

Ala7 " pla7s pla7ing pla7ed pla7ful

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# K`$anage;) - 3.

S'RC:IN8 BOR BUZZ* MTC:'S

fu7 $at!h e/pands the spe!ified sea!h te$ to in!lude wods that ae spelled si$ilal7 %ut

that do not ne!essail7 have the sa$e wod ste$5 Bu7 $at!hes ae $ost helpful when the

te/t !ontains $isspellings5 The $isspellings !an %e eithe in the sea!hed te/t o in the sea!h

sting spe!ified %7 the use duing the ue75

The following ueies will not etun an7thing %e!ause its sea!h does not !ontain the wod

Khadest;5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Khadest;) - 3.

It does# howeve# !ontains the wod Khavest;5 fu7 $at!h will etun the %oo&s !ontaining

the wod Khavest; even though Khavest; has a diffeent wod ste$ thant the wod used as the

sea!h te$5

To use a fu7 $at!h# pe!ede the sea!h te$ with a uestion $a&# with no spa!e %etween

the uestion $a& and the %eginning of the sea!h te$5

84



SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# K[hadest;) - 3.

S'RC:IN8 BOR 6ORDS T:T SOUND LIF' OT:'R 6ORDS

SOUND'+# e/pands sea!h te$s %ased on how the wod sounds5 The SOUND'+ e/pansion

$ethod uses the sa$e te/t"$at!hing logi! availa%le via the SOUND'+ fun!tion in SQL5

To use the SOUND'+ option# 7ou $ust pe!ede the sea!h te$ with an e/!la$ation $a&()5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kgate;) - 3.IND'+ S*NC:RONIZTION

6hen using CONT'+T inde/es# 7ou need to $anage the te/t inde/ !ontents. the te/t inde/es ae

not updated when the %ase ta%le is updated5 6hen the ta%le was updated# its te/t inde/ is out

of s7n! with the %ase ta%le5 To s7n! of the inde/# e/e!ute the S*NCIND'+ po!edue of the

CT+DDL pa!&age5

SQL- e/e! CT+DDL5S*NCIND'+(K%oo&inde/;).

IND'+ S'TS

:istoi!all7# po%le$s with ueies of te/t inde/es have o!!ued when othe !iteia ae used

alongside te/t sea!hes as pat of the whee !lause5 To i$pove the $i/ed ue7 !apa%ilit7#

oa!le featues inde/ sets5 The inde/es within the inde/ set $a7 %e stu!tued elationa

!olu$ns o on te/t !olu$ns5

To !eate an inde/ set# use the CT+DDL pa!&age to !eate the inde/ set and add inde/es to it5

6hen 7ou !eate a te/t inde/# 7ou !an then spe!if7 the inde/ set it %elongs to5

SQL- e/e! CT+DDL5CR'T'IND'+S'T(K%oo&sinde/set;).

The add non"te/t inde/es5

SQL- e/e! CT+DDL5DDIND'+(K%oo&sinde/set;# Ktitleinde/;).

Now !eate a CT+CT te/t inde/5 Spe!if7 !t/s7s5!t/!at as the inde/ t7pe# and list the inde/ set in

the paa$etes !lause5

SQL- !eate inde/ %oo&inde/ on %oo&s(info) inde/t7pe is !t/s7s5!t/!at

paa$etes(Kinde/ set %oo&sinde/set;).

IND'+"OR8NIZ'D TL'

n inde/"oganied ta%le &eeps its data soted a!!oding to the pi$a7 &e7 !olu$n values fo

the ta%le5 Inde/"oganied ta%les stoe thei data as if the entie ta%le was stoed in an inde/5

n inde/"oganied ta%le allows 7ou to stoe the entie ta%le;s data in an inde/5

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le student (sno nu$%e(1)#sna$e va!ha(23)#s$a&s nu$%e(4)

!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(sno) oganiation inde/.

ARTITION IND'+

Si$ila to patitioning ta%les# oa!le allows 7ou to patition inde/es too5 Li&e ta%le patitions#

inde/ patitions !ould %e in diffeent ta%lespa!es5

LOCL IND'+'S

Lo!al &e7wod tells oa!le to !eate a sepate inde/ fo ea!h patition5

85



In the lo!al pefi/ed inde/ the patition &e7 is spe!ified on the left pefi/5 6hen the

undel7ing ta%le is patitioned %aes on# sa7 two !olu$ns then the inde/ !an %e pefi/ed

on the fist !olu$n spe!ified5

Lo!al pefi/ed inde/es !an %e uniue o non uniue5

Lo!al inde/es $a7 %e easie to $anage than glo%al inde/es5

'/0

SQL- !eate inde/ studinde/ on student(sno) lo!al.

8LOL IND'+'S

glo%al inde/ $a7 !ontain values fo$ $ultiple patitions5

n inde/ is glo%al pefi/ed if it is patitioned on the left pefi/ of the inde/ !olu$ns5

The glo%al !lause allows 7ou to !eate a non"patitioned inde/5

8lo%al inde/es $a7 pefo$ uniueness !he!&s faste than lo!al (patitioned) inde/es5

*ou !annot !eate glo%al inde/es fo hash patitions o su%patitions5

'/0

SQL- !eate inde/ studinde/ on student(sno) glo%al.

Si$ila to ta%le patitions# it is possi%le to $ove the$ fo$ one devi!e to anothe5 ut unli&e

ta%le patitions# $ove$ent of inde/ patitions euies individual e!onstu!tion of the inde/ o

ea!h patition (onl7 in the !ase of glo%al inde/)5

'/0

SQL- alte inde/ studind e%uild patition p1

Inde/ patitions !annot %e dopped $anuall75

The7 ae dopped i$pli!itl7 when the data the7 efe to is dopped fo$ the patitionedta%le5

MONITORIN8 US' OB IND'+'S

On!e 7ou tuned on the $onitoing the use of inde/es# then we !an !he!& whethe the ta%le is

hitting the inde/ o not5

To $onito the use of inde/ use the follwing s7nta/5

S7nta/0

alte inde/ inde_name $onitoing usage.

then !he!& fo the details in 9`O>'CTUS8' view5

If 7ou want to stop $onitoing use the following5

S7nta/0

alte inde/ inde_name no$onitoing usage.

DT MOD'L

LLIND'+'S

DIND'+'S

US'RIND'+'S

86



LLIND"COLUMNS

D"INDCOLUMNS

US'RINDCOLUMNS

LLARTIND'+'S

DARTIND'+'S

US'RARTIND'+'S

9`O>'CTUS8'

SQLEALUS COMMNNDS

These !o$$ands does not euie state$ent te$inato and appli!a%le to the sessions # those

will %e auto$ati!all7 !leaed when session was !losed5

R'F

This will %e used to %ea&up the data depending on the gouping5

S7nta/0

ea& o %e on ,!olu$n _name- on epot

COMAUT'

This will %e used to pefo$ goup fun!tions on the data5

S7nta/0

Co$pute o !o$p goupfun!tion of column_name on breain"_column_name o

epot

TTITL'

This will give the top title fo 7ou epot5 *ou !an on o off the ttitle5

S7nta/0

Ttitle o ttit left X !ente X ight title_name s&ip n oter_caracter!

Ttitle o ttit on o off

TITL'

This will give the %otto$ title fo 7ou epot5 *ou !an on o off the %title5

S7nta/0

title o %tit left X !ente X ight title_name s&ip n oter_caracter!

title o %tit on o off

'/0SQL- %e on deptno s&ip 2 on epot

SQL- !o$p su$ of sal on deptno

SQL- !o$p su$ of sal on epot

SQL- ttitle !ente ='MALO*'' D'TILS= s&ip2 !ente =""""""""""""""""=

SQL- %title !ente =EE T:NFQ EE=

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p ode %7 deptno.

Output0

87



'MALO*'' D'TILS

"""""""""""""""""""""""


"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """"""" """""""""""""" """""""" """""""""" """"""""""

VVW1 CLRF MN8'R VW4 3">UN"W2 1@3 23

VW4 FIN8 AR'SID'NT 2V"NO9"W2 333

V4@ MILL'R CL'RF VVW1 14">N"W1 2433

"""""""""" EEEEEEEEEE

WV3 su$

V4 SMIT: CL'RF V31 2V"D'C"W3 W33 13

VWV DMS CL'RF VVWW 14"M*"WV 2233

V31 BORD NL*ST V 34"D'C"W2 4333

VVWW SCOTT NL*ST V 2"AR"WV 4333

V >ON'S MN8'R VW4 31"AR"W2 1V


23WV su$

V@ LL'N SL'SMN VW 13"B'"W2 233 433 43

VW LF' MN8'R VW4 32"M*"W2 1W3

V@ MRTIN SL'SMN VW 1W"S'A"W2 213 2@33

V33 >M'S CL'RF VW 34"D'C"W2 3

VW@@ TURN'R SL'SMN VW 3W"S'A"W2 233 3

V12 6RD SL'SMN VW 11"B'"W2 213 33


@33 su$

""""""""""

su$ 131

EE T:NFQ EE

CL'R

This will !lea the e/isting %uffes o %ea& o !o$putations o !olu$ns fo$atting5

S7nta/0Clea o !le %uffe X %e X !o$p X !ol.

'/0

SQL- !lea %uffe

uffe !leaed

SQL- !lea %e

ea&s !leaed

SQL- !lea !o$p

88



Ceated file ss5sl

SQL- save ss epla!e

6ote file ss5sl

'+'CUT'

This will %e used to e/e!ute stoed su%poga$s o pa!&aged su%poga$s5

S7nta/0

'/e!ute o e/e! , !ubpro"ram_name-

'/0

SQL- e/e! sa$plepo!

SAOOL

This will e!od the data when 7ou spool on# upto when 7ou sa7 spool off5 7 default it will give

l!t as e/tension5

S7nta/0

Spool on X off X out X ,'ile_name-5'/tension

'/0

SQL- spool on


D'ATNO DNM' LOC

""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""

23 CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF

13 R'S'RC: DLLS

43 SL'S C:IC8O

@3 OA'RTIONS OSTON

SQL- spool off

SQL- ed on5lst


D'ATNO DNM' LOC

""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""


13 R'S'RC: DLLS

43 SL'S C:IC8O @3 OA'RTIONS OSTON

SQL- spool off

LIST

This will give the !uent SQL state$ent5

S7nta/0

List o li !tart_line_number end_line_number

'/0

90



SQL- sele!t

1 E

4 fo$

@ dept.

SQL- list

2 sele!t

1 E

4 fo$

@E dept

SQL- list 2

2E sele!t

SQL- list 4

4E fo$

SQL- list 2 4

2 sele!t

1 E

4E fo$

INAUT

This will inset the new line to the !uent SQL state$ent5

S7nta/0

Input o in , !trin"-

'/0

SQL- sele!t E

SQL- list

2E sele!t E

SQL- input fo$ dept

SQL- list

2 sele!t E

1E fo$ dept

AA'ND

This will adds a new sting to the e/isting sting in the SQL state$ent without an7 spa!e5S7nta/0

ppend o app , !trin"-

'/0

SQL- sele!t E

SQL- list

2E sele!t E

SQL- append fo$ dept

91



2E sele!t E fo$ dept

SQL- list

2E sele!t E fo$ dept

D'L'T'

This will delete the !uent SQL state$ent lines5

S7nta/0

Delete o del , !tart_line_number - ,end_line_number -

'/0

SQL- sele!t

1 E

4 fo$

@ dept

whee

deptno

V -23.

SQL- list

2 sele!t

1 E

4 fo$

@ dept

whee

deptno

VE -23

SQL- del 2

SQL- list

2 E

1 fo$

4 dept

@ whee

deptno

E -23SQL- del 1

SQL- list

2 E

1 dept

4 whee

@ deptno

E -23

92



SQL- del 1 @

SQL- list

2 E

1E -23

SQL- del

SQL- list

2 E

9RIL'

This will %e used to de!lae a vaia%le5

S7nta/0

9aia%le o va ,variable_name- ,variable_type-

'/0

SQL- va deptna$e va!ha(2)

SQL- sele!t dna$e into deptna$e fo$ dept whee deptno H 23.

ARINT

This will %e used to pint the output of the vaia%les that will %e de!laed at SQL level5

S7nta/0

Aint ,variable_name-

'/0

SQL- pint deptna$e

D'ATNM'

""""""""""""""

CCOUNTIN8

STRT

This will %e used to e/e!ute SQL s!ipts5

S7nta/0

stat ,filena$e _name-5sl

'/0

SQL- stat ss5sl

SQL- ss5sl "" this will e/e!ute sl s!ipt files onl75

:OSTThis will %e used to intea!t with the OS level fo$ SQL5

S7nta/0

:ost operation

'/0

SQL- host

SQL- host di

S:O6

93



Using this# 7ou !an see seveal !o$$ands that use the set !o$$and and status5

S7nta/0

Show all X , !et_command -

'/0

SQL- show all

appinfo is OBB and set to bSQLEAlusb

aa7sie 2

auto!o$$it OBB

autopint OBB

autoe!ove7 OBB

autota!e OBB

%lo!&te$inato b5b (he/ 1e)

%title OBB and is the fist few !haa!tes of the ne/t S'L'CT state$ent

!$dsep OBB

!olsep b b

!o$pati%ilit7 vesion NTI9'

!on!at b5b (he/ 1e)

!op7!o$$it 3

COA*T*A'C:'CF is ON

define b<b (he/ 1)

des!i%e D'AT: 2 LIN'NUM OBB IND'NT ON

e!ho OBB

editfile bafiedt5%ufb

e$%edded OBB

es!ape OBB

B''DCF ON fo o $oe ows

flagge OBB

flush ON

SQL- sho veif7

veif7 OBB

RUNThis will uns the !o$$and in the %uffe5

S7nta/0

Run X ?

'/0

SQL- un

SQL- ?

STOR'

94



S7nta/0

Define vaia%lena$e

'/0

SQL- define

D'BIN' DT' H b2"M*"3Vb (C:R)

D'BIN' CONN'CTID'NTIBI'R H boa!leb (C:R)

D'BIN' US'R H bSCOTTb (C:R)

D'BIN' ARI9IL'8' H bb (C:R)

D'BIN' SQLALUSR'L'S' H b2332333133b (C:R)

D'BIN' 'DITOR H bNotepadb (C:R)

D'BIN' O9'RSION H bOa!le Data%ase 23g 'ntepise 'dition Release

2352535153 \ Aodu!tion 6ith the Aatitioning# OLA and

Data Mining optionsb (C:R)

D'BIN' OR'L'S' H b2332333133b (C:R)

S'T COMMNDS

These !o$$ands does not euie state$ent te$inato and appli!a%le to the sessions # those

will %e auto$ati!all7 !leaed when session was !losed5

LIN'SIZ'

This will %e used to set the linesie5 Default linesie is W35

S7nta/0

Set linesie ,value-

'/0

SQL- set linesie 233

A8'SIZ'

This will %e used to set the pagesie5 Default pagesie is 2@5

S7nta/0

Set pagesie ,value-

'/0

SQL- set pagesie 43

D'SCRI'

This will %e used to see the o%Je!t;s stu!tue5

S7nta/0

Des!i%e o des! ,ob#ect_name-

'/0

SQL- des! dept

Na$e Null[ T7pe

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""

D'ATNO NOT NULL NUM'R(1)

96



DNM' 9RC:R1(2@)

LOC 9RC:R1(24)

AUS'

6hen the displa7ed data !ontains hundeds o thousands of lines# when 7ou sele!t it then it

will auto$ati!all7 s!olls and displa7s the last page data5 To pevent this 7ou !an use this

pause option5 7 using this it will displa7 the data !oespoinding to the pagesie with a %ea&

whi!h will !ontinue %7 hitting the etun &e75 7 default this will %e off5

S7nta/0

Set pause on X off

'/0

SQL- set pause on

B''DCF

This will give the info$ation egading how$an7 ows 7ou sele!ted the o%Je!t5 7 default the

feed%a!& $essage will %e displa7ed# onl7 when the o%Je!t !ontains $oe than ows5

S7nta/0

Set feed%a!& ,value-

'/0

SQL- set feed%a!& @


D'ATNO DNM' LOC

"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""


13 R'S'RC: DLLS

43 SL'S C:IC8O

@3 OA'RTIONS OSTON

@ ows sele!ted5

:'DIN8

If 7ou want to displa7 data without headings# then 7ou !an a!hieve with this5 7 default

heading is on5

S7nta/0

Set heading on X off '/0

SQL- set heading off



13 R'S'RC: DLLS

43 SL'S C:IC8O

@3 OA'RTIONS OSTON

97



S'R9'ROUTAUT

This will %e used to displa7 the output of the AL?SQL poga$s5 7 default this will %e off5

S7nta/0

Set seveoutput on X off

'/0

SQL- set seveoutput on

TIM'

This will %e used to displa7 the ti$e5 7 default this will %e off5

S7nta/0

Set ti$e on X off

'/0

SQL- set ti$e on

20044 SQL-

TIMIN8

This will give the ti$e ta&en to e/e!ute the !uent SQL state$ent5 7 default this will %e off5

S7nta/0

Set ti$ing on X off

'/0

SQL- set ti$ing on


D'ATNO DNM' LOC

"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""


13 R'S'RC: DLLS

43 SL'S C:IC8O

@3 OA'RTIONS OSTON

'lapsed0 3303303353

SQLAROMAT

This will %e used to !hange the SQL po$pt5

S7nta/0

Set slpo$pt , prompt -'/0

SQL- set slpo$pt =ORCL'-=

ORCL'-

SQLCS'

This will %e used to !hange the !ase of the SQL state$ents5 7 default the !ase is $i/ed5

S7nta/0

Set sl!ase uppe X $i/ed X lowe

98



'/0

SQL- set sl!ase uppe

SQLT'RMINTOR

This will %e used to !hange the te$inato of the SQL state$ents5 7 default the te$inato is .5

S7nta/0

Set slte$inato ,termination_caracter -

'/0

SQL- set slte$inato 0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ dept0

D'BIN'

7 default if the < !haa!te finds then it will teat as %ind vaia%le and as& fo the input5

Suppose 7ou want to teat it as a no$al !haa!te while inseting data# then 7ou !an pevent

this %7 using the define option5 7 default this will %e on

S7nta/0

Set define on X off

'/0

SQL-inset into dept values(3#=R<D=#=:*D=).

'nte value fo d0

old 20 inset into dept values(3#=R<D=#=:*D=)

new 20 INS'RT INTO D'AT 9LU'S(3#=R=#=:*D=)

SQL- set define off

SQL-inset into dept values(3#=R<D=#=:*D=). "" hee it won;t as& fo value

N'6A8'

This will shows how $an7 %lan& lines will %e left %efoe the epot5 7 default it will leave one

%lan& line5

S7nta/0

Set newpage ,value-

'/0

SQL- set newpage 23

The eo value fo newpage does not podu!e eo %lan& lines instead it swit!hes to a spe!ial

popet7 whi!h podu!es a top"of"fo$ !haa!te (he/ 24) Just %efoe the date on ea!h page5Most $oden pintes espond to this %7 $oving i$$ediatel7 to the top of the ne/t page#

whee the piting of the epot will %egin5

:'DS'A

This allow 7ou to indi!ate whee 7ou want to %ea& a page title o a !olu$n heading that uns

longe than one line5 The default heading sepaato is veti!al %a (X)5

S7nta/0

Set headsep , !eparation_car -

99



D'ATNO DNM' LOC

"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""

13 R'S'RC: DLLS

ANO

This will give displa7s the page nu$%es5 7 default the value would %e eo5

'/0

SQL- !ol hiedate newvalue /toda7 nopint fo$at a2 tun!

SQL- ttitle left /toda7 ight =page= sl5pno

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p whee deptno H 23.

3">UN"W2 page 2

'MANO 'NM' >O M8R SL COMM D'ATNO

"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""" """"""""" """"" """""""""" """"""""""

VVW1 CLRF MN8'R VW4 1@3 23

VW4 FIN8 AR'SID'NT 333 23

V4@ MILL'R CL'RF VVW1 2433 23

In the a%ove nopint tells SQLALUS not to displa7 this !olu$n when it pints the esults of the SQL

state$ent5 Dates that have %een efo$atted %7 TOC:R get a default width of a%out 233

!haa!tes5 7 !hanging the fo$at to a2 tun!# 7ou $ini$ie this effe!t5 N'69LU' insets

!ontents of the !olu$n etieved %7 the SQL state$ent into a vaia%le !alled /toda75

SA'CIL BIL'S

LO8IN5sl

If 7ou would li&e SQLALUS to define 7ou own envion$ental settings# put all the euied

!o$$ands in a file na$ed login5sl5 This is a spe!ial filena$e that SQLALUS alwa7s loo&s fo

wheneve it stats up5 If it finds login5sl# it e/e!utes an7 !o$$ands in it as if 7ou had enteed

then %7 hand5 *ou !an put an7 !o$$and in login5sl that 7ou !an use in SQLALUS# in!luding

SQLALUS !o$$ands and SQL state$ents5 ll ot the$ e/e!uted %efoe SQLALUS gives 7ou the SQL-

po$pt5

8LO8IN5sl

This is used in the sa$e wa7s as LO8IN5sl %ut to esta%lish default SQLALUS settings fo all uses

of a data%ase5

IMAORTNT QU'RI'S

2) To find the nth ow of a ta%le

SQL- Sele!t Efo$ e$p whee owid H (sele!t $a/(owid) fo$ e$p whee ownu$

,H @).

O

SQL- Sele!t Efo$ e$p whee ownu$ ,H @ $inus sele!t Efo$ e$p whee ownu$

,H 4.

101



1) To find dupli!ate ows

SQL- Sele!t Efo$ e$p whee owid in (sele!t $a/(owid) fo$ e$p goup %7

e$pno# ena$e# $g# Jo%# hiedate# !o$$# deptno# sal).

O

SQL- Sele!t e$pno#ena$e#sal#Jo%#hiedate#!o$$ # !ount(E) fo$ e$p goup %7

e$pno#ena$e#sal#Jo%#hiedate#!o$$ having !ount(E) -H2.

4) To delete dupli!ate ows

SQL- Delete e$p whee owid in (sele!t $a/(owid) fo$ e$p goup %7

e$pno#ena$e#$g#Jo%#hiedate#sal#!o$$#deptno).

@) To find the !ount of dupli!ate ows

SQL- Sele!t ena$e# !ount(E) fo$ e$p goup %7 ena$e having !ount(E) -H 2.

) :ow to displa7 altenative ows in a ta%le[

SQL- sele!t Efo$ e$p whee (owid#3) in (sele!t owid#$od(ownu$#1) fo$ e$p).

) 8etting e$plo7ee details of ea!h depat$ent who is dawing $a/i$u$ sal[

SQL- sele!t Efo$ e$p whee (deptno#sal) in

( sele!t deptno#$a/(sal) fo$ e$p goup %7 deptno).

V) :ow to get nu$%e of e$plo7ees in ea!h depat$ent # in whi!h depat$ent is having

$oe than 133 e$plo7ees[

SQL- Sele!t deptno#!ount(E) fo$ e$p goup %7 deptno having !ount(E) -133.

W) To eset the ti$e to the %eginning of the da7SQL- Sele!t to!ha(tun!(s7sdate)#;dd"$on"7777 hh0$i0ss a$;) fo$ dual.

) To find nth $a/i$u$ sal

SQL- Sele!t Efo$ e$p whee sal in (sele!t $a/(sal) fo$ (sele!t Efo$ e$p ode

%7 sal) whee ownu$ ,H ).

INTRODUCTION

C:RCT'RSTICS

:ighl7 stu!tued# eada%le and a!!essi%le language5

Standad and Aota%le language5

'$%edded language5

I$poved e/e!ution authoit75

23g B'TUR'S

/ptimied compiler

.To !hange the opti$ie settings fo the entie data%ase# set the data%ase paa$ete

ALSQLOATIMIZ'L'9'L5 9alid settings ae as follows

3 " No opti$iation

2 " Modeate opti$iation

1 " ggessive opti$iation

102



These settings ae also $odifia%le fo the !uent session5

SQL- alte session set plslopti$elevelH1.

Oa!le etains opti$ie settings on a $odule"%7"$odule %asis5 6hen 7ou e!o$pile a

pati!ula $odule with nondefault settings# the settings will sti!& allowing 7ou to

e!o$pile late on using R'US' S'TTIN8S5

SQL- lte po!edue po! !o$pile plslopti$ielevelH2.

SQL- lte po!edue po! !o$pile euse settings.

Compile0time warnin"!.

Stating with oa!le data%ase 23g elease 2 7ou !an ena%le additional !o$pile"ti$e

wanings to help $a&e 7ou poga$s $oe o%ust5 The !o$pile !an dete!t potential

unti$e po%le$s with 7ou !ode# su!h as identif7ing lines of !ode that will neve %e un5

This po!ess# also &nown as lint cecin"5

To ena%le these wanings fo the entie data%ase# set the data%ase paa$ete

ALSQL6RNIN8S5 These settings ae also $odifia%le fo the !uent session5SQL- alte session set plslwanings H Kena%le0all;.

The a%ove !an %e a!hieved using the %uilt"in pa!&age DMS6RNIN85

Conditional compilation.

Conditional !o$pilation allows the !o$pile to allow to !o$pile sele!ted pats of a

poga$ %ased on !onditions 7ou povide with the `IB die!tive5

$upport 'or non0!euential collection! in /44.

5mproved datatype !upport.

6actrace an eception to it! line number.

6hen handling an eo# how !an 7ou find the line nu$%e on whi!h the eo was

oiginall7 aised[

In ealie elease# the onl7 wa7 to do this was allow 7ou e/!eption to go unhandled and

then view the full eo ta!e sta!&5

Now 7ou !an !all DMSUTILIT*5BORMT'RRORCFTRC' fun!tion to o%tain that sta!& and

$anipulate it poga$$ati!all7 within 7ou poga$5

$et operator! 'or ne!ted table!.

$upport 'or re"ular epre!!ion!.

Oa!le data%ase 23g suppots the use of egula e/pessions inside AL?SQL !ode via fou

new %uilt"in fun!tions5

R'8'+ALIF'

R'8'+AINSTR

R'8'+ASUSTR

R'8'+AR'ALC'

7ro"rammer0de'ined uotin" mecani!m.

103



Stating with oa!le data%ase 23g elease 2# 7ou !an define 7ou own uoting

$e!hanis$ fo sting liteals in %oth SQL and AL?SQL5

Use the !haa!tes ;( followed %7 a single uote) to note the poga$$e"defined

delie$ete fo 7ou sting liteal5

'/0

D'CLR'

v va!ha(23) 0H =!o$pute=.

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=Ev H E= XX v).

d%$soutput5putline(=`v H `= XX v).

'ND.

Output0

v H !o$pute

v H !o$pute

8any new built0in paca"e!.

DMSSC:'DUL'R

Repesents a $aJo update to DMS>O5 DMSSC:'DUL'R povides $u!h i$poved

fun!tionalit7 fo s!heduling and e/e!uting Jo%s defined via stoed po!edues5

DMSCR*ATO

Offes the a%ilit7 to en!7pt and de!7pt !o$$on oa!le datat7pe# in!luding R6s# LOs#

and CLOs5 It also povides glo%aliation suppot fo en!7pting data a!oss diffeent

!haa!tesets5

DMSMONITOR Aovides an AI to !ontol additional ta!ing and statisti!s gatheing of sessions5

DMS6RNIN8

Aovides an AI into the AL?SQL !o$pile wanings $odule# allowing 7ou to ead and

!hange settings that !ontol whi!h wanings ae suppessed# displa7ed# o teated as

eos5

STNDRD ACF8'

Oa!le has defined in this spe!ial pa!&age5 Oa!le defines uite a few identifies in this

pa!&age# in!luding %uilt"in e/!eptions# fun!tions and su%t7pes5

*ou !an efeen!e the %uilt"in fo$ %7 pefi/ing it with STNDRD5

The %asi! unit in an7 AL?SQL poga$ is %lo!&5 ll AL?SQL poga$s ae !o$posed of %lo!&s

whi!h !an o!!u seuentiall7 o nested5

LOCF STRUCTUR'

De!lae

"" de!laative se!tion

egin

"" e/e!uta%le se!tion

104



'/!eption

"" e/!eption se!tion

'nd.

In the a%ove de!laative and e/!eptiona se!tions ae optional5

LOCF T*A'S

non7$ous %lo!&s

Na$ed %lo!&s

La%eled %lo!&s

Su%poga$s

Tigges

NON*MOUS LOCFS

non7$ous %lo!&s i$plies %asi! %lo!& stu!tue5

'/0

'8IN D%$soutput5putline(KM7 fist poga$;)0

'ND.

L'L'D LOCFS

La%eled %lo!&s ae anon7$ous %lo!&s with a la%el whi!h gives a na$e to the %lo!&5

'/0

,,$7%loo!&--

'8IN

D%$soutput5putline(KM7 fist poga$;)0

'ND.

SUARO8RMS

Su%poga$s ae po!edues and fun!tions5 The7 !an %e stoed in the data%ase as stand"alone

o%Je!ts# as pat of pa!&age o as $ethods of an o%Je!t t7pe5

TRI88'RS

Tigges !onsists of a AL?SQL %lo!& that is asso!iated with an event that o!!u in the data%ase5

N'ST'D LOCFS

%lo!& !an %e nested within the e/e!uta%le o e/!eption se!tion of an oute %lo!&5

ID'NTIBI'RS

Identifies ae used to na$e AL?SQL o%Je!ts# su!h as vaia%les# !usos# t7pes and su%poga$s5Identifies !onsists of a lette# optionall7 followed %7 an7 seuen!e of !haa!tes# in!luding

lettes# nu$%es# dolla signs# undes!oes# and pound signs onl75 The $a/i$u$ length fo an

identifie is 43 !haa!tes5

QUOT'D ID'NTIBI'RS

If 7ou want to $a&e an identifie !ase sensitive# in!lude !haa!tes su!h as spa!es o use a

eseved wod# 7ou !an en!lose the identifie in dou%le uotation $a&s5

'/0

105



D'CLR'

bab nu$%e 0H .

bb nu$%e 0H .

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=a H = XX a).

d%$soutput5putline(= H = XX ).

'ND.

Output0

a H

H

COMM'NTS

Co$$ents i$pove eada%ilit7 and $a&e 7ou poga$ $oe undestanda%le5 The7 ae ignoed

%7 the AL?SQL !o$pile5 Thee ae two t7pes of !o$$ents availa%le5

Single line !o$$ents

Multiline !o$$ents

SIN8L' LIN' COMM'NTS

single"line !o$$ent !an stat an7 point on a line with two dashes and !ontinues until the end

of the line5

'/0

'8IN

D%$soutput5putline(Khello;). "" sa$ple poga$

'ND.

MULTILIN' COMM'NTS

Multiline !o$$ents stat with the ?E deli$ite and ends with E? deli$ite5

'/0

'8IN

D%$soutput5putline(Khello;). ?E sa$ple poga$ E?

'ND.

9RIL' D'CL'RTIONS

9aia%les !an %e de!laed in de!laative se!tion of the %lo!&.

'/0

D'CLR'

a nu$%e.

% nu$%e 0H .

! nu$%e default .

CONSTNT D'CL'RTIONS

To de!lae a !onstant# 7ou in!lude the CONSTNT &e7wod# and 7ou $ust suppl7 a default value5

'/0

D'CLR'

% !onstant nu$%e 0H .

106



! !onstant nu$%e default .

NOT NULL CLUS'

*ou !an also spe!if7 that the vaia%le $ust %e not null5

'/0

D'CLR'

% !onstant nu$%e not null0H . ! nu$%e not null default .

NC:OR'D D'CL'RTIONS

AL?SQL offes two &inds of a!hoing5

S!ala an!hoing

Re!od an!hoing

SCLR NC:ORIN8

Use the T*A' atti%ute to define 7ou vaia%le %ased on ta%le;s !olu$n of so$e othe AL?SQL

s!ala vaia%le5

'/0

D'CLR'

dno dept5deptnot7pe.

Su%t7pe tnu$%e is nu$%e.

a tnu$%e.

Su%t7pe tsno is student5snot7pe.

9sno tsno.

R'CORD NC:ORIN8

Use the RO6T*A' atti%ute to define 7ou e!od stu!tue %ased on a ta%le5

'/0

cD'CLR'

9dept deptowt7pe.

'N'BITS OB NC:OR'D D'CLRTIONS

S7n!honiation with data%ase !olu$ns5

No$aliation of lo!al vaia%les5

ARO8RMM'R"D'BIN'D T*A'S

6ith the SUT*A' state$ent# AL?SQL allows 7ou to define 7ou own su%t7pes o aliases of

pedefined datat7pes# so$eti$es efeed to as a%sta!t datat7pes5

Thee ae two &inds of su%t7pes5

Constained

Un!onstained

CONSTRIN'D SUT*A'

su%t7pe that esti!ts o !onstains the values no$all7 allowd %7 the datat7pe itself5

'/0

Su%t7pe positive is %ina7intege ange 25512@V@W4@V.

107



In the a%ove de!laation a vaia%le that is de!laed as positive !an stoe onl7 ingege geate

than eo even though %ina7intege anges fo$ "12@V@W4@V55G12@V@W4@V5

UNCONSTRIN'D SUT*A'

su%t7pe that does not esti!t the values of the oiginal datat7pe in vaia%les de!laed with

the su%t7pe5

'/0

Su%t7pe float is nu$%e.

DTT*A' CON9'RSIONS

AL?SQL !an handle !onvesions %etween diffeent fa$ilies a$ong the datat7pes5

Convesion !an %e done in two wa7s5

'/pli!it !onvesion

I$pli!it !onvesion

'+ALICIT CON9'RSION

This !an %e done using the %uilt"in fun!tions availa%le5

IMALICIT CON9'RSION

AL?SQL will auto$ati!all7 !onvet %etween datat7pe fa$ilies when possi%le5

'/0

D'CLR'

a va!ha(23).

'8IN

sele!t deptno into a fo$ dept whee dna$eH=CCOUNTIN8=.

'ND.

In the a%ove vaia%le a is !ha t7pe and deptno is nu$%e t7pe even though# oa!le will

auto$ati!all7 !onvets the nu$ei! data into !ha t7pe assigns to the vaia%le5

AL?SQL !an auto$ati!all7 !onvet %etween

Chaa!tes and nu$%es

Chaa!tes and dates

9RIL' SCOA' ND 9ISIILIT*

The s!ope of a vaia%le is the potion of the poga$ in whi!h the vaia%le !an %e a!!essed5 Bo

AL?SQL vaia%les# this is fo$ the vaia%le de!laation until the end of the %lo!&5 6hen a vaia%le

goes out of s!ope# the AL?SQL engine will fee the $e$o7 used to stoe the vaia%le5

The visi%ilit7 of a vaia%le is the potion of the poga$ whee the vaia%le !an %e a!!essed

without having to ualif7 the efeen!e5 The visi%ilit7 is alwa7s within the s!ope5 If it is out of

s!ope# it is not visi%le5

'/20

D'CLR'

a nu$%e. "" s!ope of a

'8IN

""""""""

D'CLR'

108



% nu$%e. "" s!ope of %

'8IN

"""""

'ND.

""""""

'ND.

'/10

D'CLR'

a nu$%e.

% nu$%e.

'8IN

"" a # % availa%le hee

D'CLR'

% !ha(23).

'8IN

"" a and !ha t7pe % is availa%le hee

'ND.

"""""

'ND.

'/40

,,$7%lo!&--

D'CLR'

a nu$%e.

% nu$%e.

'8IN

"" a # % availa%le hee

D'CLR'

% !ha(23).

'8IN

"" a and !ha t7pe % is availa%le hee

"" nu$%e t7pe % is availa%le using ,,$7%lo!&--5%

'ND.

""""""

'ND.

AL?SQL CONTROL STRUCTUR'S

AL?SQL has a vaiet7 of !ontol stu!tues that allow 7ou to !ontol the %ehaviou of the %lo!& as

it uns5 These stu!tues in!lude !onditional state$ents and loops5

If"then"else

Case

Case with no else

La%eled !ase

109



Sea!hed !ase

Si$ple loop

6hile loop

Bo loop

8oto and La%els

IB"T:'N"'LS'

S7nta/0

If ,condition1- then

$euence o' !tatement!;

'lsif ,condition1- then


'lse


'nd if.

'/0

D'CLR'

dno nu$%e(1).

'8IN

sele!t deptno into dno fo$ dept whee dna$e H =CCOUNTIN8=.

if dno H 23 then

d%$soutput5putline(=Lo!ation is N'6 *ORF=).

elsif dno H 13 then

d%$soutput5putline(=Lo!ation is DLLS=).

elsif dno H 43 then

d%$soutput5putline(=Lo!ation is C:IC8O=).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=Lo!ation is OSTON=).

end if.

'ND.

Output0Lo!ation is N'6 *ORF

CS'

S7nta/0

Case te!t0variable

6hen value1 then !euence o' !tatement!;


110



when 43 then


when @3 then


end !ase.

'ND.

Output0

Lo!ation is N'6 *ORF

L'L'D CS'

S7nta/0

,,label --

Case te!t0variable



6hen valuen then !euence o' !tatement!;

'nd !ase.

'/0

D'CLR'

dno nu$%e(1).

'8IN


,,$7!ase--

!ase dno

when 23 then


when 13 then


when 43 then


when @3 then


end !ase $7!ase.

'ND.

Output0


S'RC:'D CS'

S7nta/0

Case

112



6hen ,condition1- then !euence o' !tatement!;

6hen ,condition2- then !euence o' !tatement!;

6hen ,conditionn- then !euence o' !tatement!;

'nd !ase.

'/0D'CLR'

dno nu$%e(1).

'8IN


!ase dno

when dno H 23 then


when dno H 13 then


when dno H 43 then


when dno H @3 then


end !ase.

'ND.

Output0


SIMAL' LOOA

S7nta/0

Loop


'/it when ,condition-.

'nd loop.

In the s7nta/ e/it when ,condition- is euivalent to

If ,condition- then

'/it.

'nd if.

'/0

D'CLR'

i nu$%e 0H 2.

'8IN

loop

d%$soutput5putline(=i H = XX i).

113



i 0H i G 2.

e/it when i - .

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

i H 2i H 1

i H 4

i H @

i H

6:IL' LOOA

S7nta/0

6hile ,!ondition- loop


'nd loop.

'/0

D'CLR'

i nu$%e 0H 2.

'8IN

6hile i ,H loop


i 0H i G 2.

end loop.'ND.

Output0

i H 2

i H 1

i H 4

i H @

i H

BOR LOOA

S7nta/0

Bo ,loop_counter_variable- in low_bound 55i"_bound loop


'nd loop.

'/20

'8IN

Bo i in 255 loop


114



end loop.

'ND.

Output0

i H 2

i H 1

i H 4i H @

i H

'/10

'8IN

Bo i in evese 255 loop


end loop.

'ND.

Output0

i H

i H @

i H 4

i H 1

i H 2

NULL STT'M'NT

Usuall7 when 7ou wite a state$ent in a poga$# 7ou want it to do so$ething5 Thee ae

!ases# howeve# when 7ou want to tell AL?SQL to do a%solutel7 nothing# and that is whee the

NULL !o$es5

The NULL state$ent deos nothing e/!ept pass !ontol to the ne/t e/e!uta%le state$ent5

*ou !an use NULL state$ent in the following situations5

I$poving poga$ eada%ilit75

So$eti$es# it is helpful to avoid an7 a$%iguit7 inheent in an IB state$ent that doesn;t

!ove all possi%le !ases5 Bo e/a$ple# when 7ou wite an IB state$ent# 7ou do not have to

in!lude an 'LS' !lause5

Nullif7ing a aised e/!eption5

6hen 7ou don;t want to wite an7 spe!ial !ode to handle an e/!eption# 7ou !an use the

NULL state$ent to $a&e sue that a aised e/!eption halts e/e!ution of the !uent AL?SQL

%lo!& %ut does not popagate an7 e/!eptions to en!losing %lo!&s5

Using null afte a la%el5

In so$e !ases# 7ou !an pai NULL with 8OTO to avoid having to e/e!ute additiona

state$ents5 Bo e/a$ple# I use a 8OTO state$ent to ui!&l7 $ove to the end of $7 poga$

if the state of $7 data indi!ates that no futhe po!essing is euied5 e!ause I do not

115



have to do an7thing at the te$ination of the poga$# I pla!e a NULL state$ent afte the

la%el %e!ause at least one e/e!uta%le state$ent is euied thee5 'ven though NULL deos

nothing# it is still an e/e!uta%le state$ent5

8OTO ND L'LS

S7nta/0

8oto label .

6hee label is a la%el defined in the AL?SQL %lo!&5 La%els ae en!losed in dou%le angle %a!&ets5

6hen a goto state$ent is evaluated# !ontol i$$ediatel7 passes to the state$ent identified %7

the la%el5

'/0

'8IN

Bo i in 255 loop


if i H @ then

goto e/itloop.

end if.

end loop.

,,e/itloop--

Null.

'ND.

Output0

i H 2

i H 1i H 4

i H @

R'STRICTIONS ON 8OTO

It is illegal to %an!h into an inne %lo!&# loop5

t least one e/e!uta%le state$ent $ust follow5

It is illegal to %an!h into an if state$ent5

It is illegal to %an!h fo$ one if state$ent to anothe if state$ent5

It is illegal to %an!h fo$ e/!eption %lo!& to the !uent %lo!&5

AR8MS

Aag$as ae !o$pile die!tives5 The7 seve as instu!tions to the AL?SQL !o$pile5 The

!o$pile will a!t on the pag$a duing the !o$pilation of the %lo!&5

S7nta/0

AR8M in!truction_to_compiler 5

AL?SQL offes seveal pag$as0

UTONOMOUSTRNSCTION

116



'+C'ATIONINIT

R'STRICTR'B'R'NC'S

S'RILL*R'USL'

SUARO8RMS

AROC'DUR'S

po!edue is a $odule that pefo$s one o $oe a!tions5

S7nta/0

Ao!edue s!he$a5name ( parameter1 # parameter2 )

authid define X !uentuse is

"" de!laations

egin

"" e/e!uta%le state$ents

'/!eption

"" e/!eption handles

'nd na$e.

In the a%ove autid !lause defines whethe the po!edue will e/e!ute unde the authoit7 of

the define of the po!edue o unde the authoit7 of the !uent use5

BUNCTIONS

fun!tion is a $odule that etuns a value5

S7nta/0

Bun!tion s!he$a5name ( parameter1 # parameter2 )

Retun etundatat7pe authid define X !uentuse

dete$inisti!

paallelena%le is

"" de!laations

egin

"" e/e!uta%le state$ents

'/!eption

"" e/!eption handles

'nd na$e.

In the a%ove autid !lause defines whethe the po!edue will e/e!ute unde the authoit7 of

the define of the po!edue o unde the authoit7 of the !uent use5

-etermini!tic !lause defines# an opti$iation hint that lets the s7ste$ use a saved !op7 of the

fun!tion;s etun esult# if availa%le5 The uet7 opti$ie !an !hoose whethe to use the saved

!op7 o e"!all the fun!tion5

7arallel_enable !lause defines# an opti$iation hint that ena%les the fun!tion to %e e/e!uted in

paallel when !alled fo$ within S'L'CT state$ent5

117



ARM'T'R MOD'S

In (Default)

Out

In out

IN

In paa$ete will a!t as pl9!l con!tant 5

OUT

Out paa$ete will a!t as unintialied variable5

*ou !annot povide a default value to an out paa$ete5

n7 assign$ents $ade to out paa$ete ae olled %a!& when an e/!eption is aised in

the poga$5

n a!tual paa$ete !oesponding to an out fo$al paa$ete $ust %e a vaia%le5

IN OUT

In out paa$ete will a!t as initialied variable5

n a!tual paa$ete !oesponding to an in out fo$al paa$ete $ust %e a vaia%le5

D'BULT ARM'T'RS

Default Aaa$etes will not allow in the be"innin" and middle5

/ut and 5n /ut paa$etes !an not have default values5

'/0

po!edue p(a in nu$%e default # % in nu$%e default # ! in nu$%e default V) \ valid

po!edue p(a in nu$%e# % in nu$%e default # ! in nu$%e default V) \ valild

po!edue p(a in nu$%e# % in nu$%e# ! in nu$%e default V) \ valild

po!edue p(a in nu$%e# % in nu$%e default # ! in nu$%e) \ invalild

po!edue p(a in nu$%e default # % in nu$%e default # ! in nu$%e) \ invalild

po!edue p(a in nu$%e default # % in nu$%e# ! in nu$%e) \ invalild

NOTTIONS

Notations ae of two t7pes5

Aositional notation

Na$e notation

6e !an !o$%ine positional and na$e notation %ut positional notation !an not %e followed %7

the na$e notation5

'/0

Suppose we have a po!edue po!(a nu$%e#% nu$%e#! nu$%e) and we have one

anon7$ous %lo!& whi!h !ontains v2#v1# and v4.

SQL- e/e! po! (v2#v1#v4) "" Aositional notation

SQL- e/e! po! (aH-v2#%H-v1#!H-v4) "" Na$ed notation

BORML ND CTUL ARM'T'RS

Aaa$etes whi!h ae in !alling su%poga$ ae actual parameter!5

118



Aaa$etes whi!h ae in !alled su%poga$ ae 'ormal parameter!5

If an7 su%poga$ was !alled# on!e the !all was !o$pleted then the values of fo$al

paa$etes ae !opied to the a!tual paa$etes5

'/20

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC'DUR' SMAL'(a in nu$%e#% out nu$%e#! in out

nu$%e) is

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=fte !all=).

d%$soutput5putline(=a H = XX a XX= % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !).

% 0H 23.

! 0H 13.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte assign$ent=).

d%$soutput5putline(=a H = XX a XX= % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !).

'ND SMAL'.

D'CLR'

v2 nu$%e 0H @.

v1 nu$%e 0H .

v4 nu$%e 0H .

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=efoe !all=).

d%$soutput5putline(=v2 H = XX v2 XX = v1 H = XX v1 XX = v4 H = XX v4).

sa$ple(v2#v1#v4).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte !o$pletion of !all=).


'ND.

Output0

efoe !all

v2 H @ v1 H v4 H

fte !all

a H @ % H ! H

fte assign$enta H @ % H 23 ! H 13

fte !o$pletion of !all

v2 H @ v1 H 23 v4 H 13

'/10

CR'T' OR R'ALC' BUN(a in nu$%e#% out nu$%e#! in out nu$%e) etun

nu$%e IS

'8IN

119



d%$soutput5putline(=fte !all=).

d%$soutput5putline(=a H = XX a XX = % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !).

d%$soutput5putline(=efoe assigne$ent Result H = XX (aEnvl(%#2)E!)).

% 0H .

! 0H V.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte assign$ent=).

d%$soutput5putline(=a H = XX a XX = % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !).

etun (aE%E!).

'ND BUN.

D'CLR'

v2 nu$%e 0H 2.

v1 nu$%e 0H 1.

v4 nu$%e 0H 4.

v nu$%e.'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=efoe !all=).


v 0H fun(v2#v1#v4).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte !all !o$pleted=).


d%$soutput5putline(=Result H = XX v).

'ND.

Output0

efoe !all

v2 H 2 v1 H 1 v4 H 4

fte !all

a H 2 % H ! H 4

efoe assigne$ent Result H 4

fte assign$ent

a H 2 % H ! H V

fte !all !o$pletedv2 H 2 v1 H v4 H V

Result H 4

R'STRICTIONS ON BORML ARM'T'RS

7 de!laing with spe!ified sie in a!tual paa$etes5

7 de!laing fo$al paa$etes with t7pe spe!ifie5

USIN8 NOCOA*

120



:ocopy is a hint# not a !o$$and5 This $eans that the !o$pile $ight silentl7 de!ide that

it !an;t fulfill 7ou euest fo a nocopy paa$ete5

The !op7ing fo$ fo$al to a!tual !an %e esti!ted %7 issuing nocopy ualifie5

To pass the out and in out paa$etes %7 efeen!e use no!op7 ualifie5

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC'DUR' AROC(a in out no!op7 nu$%e) IS

'8IN

""""

'ND AROC.

CLL ND '+'C

Call is a SQL state$ent# whi!h !an %e used to e/e!ute su%poga$s li&e e/e!5

S7nta/0

Call !ubpro"ram_name(ar"ument_li!t ) into o!t_variable.

The paantheses ae alwa7s euied# even if the su%poga$ ta&es no agu$ents5

6e !an not use !all with out and in out paa$etes5

Call is a SQL state$ent# it is not valid inside a AL?SQL %lo!&.

The INTO !lause is used fo the output vaia%les of fun!tions onl75

6e !an not use Ke/e!; with out o in out paa$etes5

'/e! is not valid inside a AL?SQL %lo!&.

'/20

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC IS

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=hello wold=).'ND AROC.

Output0

SQL- !all po!().

hello wold

'/10

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC(a in nu$%e#% in nu$%e) IS

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=a H = XX a XX = % H = XX %).

'ND AROC.

Output0

SQL- !all po!(#).

a H % H

'/40

CR'T' OR R'ALC' BUNCTION BUN R'TURN 9RC:R IS

'8IN

121



etun =hello wold=.

'ND BUN.

Output0

SQL- vaia%le v va!ha(13)

SQL- !all fun() into 0v.

SQL- pint v hello wold

CLL * R'B'R'NC' ND CLL * 9LU'

In paa$etes %7 default call by re'erence whee as out and in out call by value5

6hen paa$ete passed %7 efeen!e# a pointe to the a!tual paa$ete is passed to the

!oesponding fo$al paa$ete5

6hen paa$ete passed %7 value it !opies the value of the a!tual paa$ete to the

fo$al paa$ete5

Call %7 efeen!e is faste than the !all %7 value %e!ause it avoids the !op7ing5

SUARO8RMS O9'RLODIN8

Aossi%le with diffeent nu$%e of paa$etes5

Aossi%le with diffeent t7pes of data5

Aossi%le with sa$e t7pe with o%Je!ts5

Can not %e possi%le with diffeent t7pes of $odes5

6e !an oveload lo!al su%poga$s also5

'/0

SQL- !eate o epla!e t7pe t2 as o%Je!t(a nu$%e).?SQL- !eate o epla!e t7pe t2 as o%Je!t(a nu$%e).?

D'CLR'

i t2 0H t2().

J t1 0H t1().

AROC'DUR' A($ t2) IS

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=a H = XX $5a).

'ND A.

AROC'DUR' A(n t1) IS

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=% H = XX n5%).

'ND A.

AROC'DUR' ARODUCT(a nu$%e#% nu$%e) IS

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=Aodu!t of a#% H = XX a E %).

'ND ARODUCT.

AROC'DUR' ARODUCT(a nu$%e#% nu$%e#! nu$%e) IS

'8IN

122



d%$soutput5putline(=Aodu!t of a#% H = XX a E % E !).

'ND ARODUCT.

'8IN

p(i).

p(J).

podu!t(@#).

podu!t(@##).

'ND.

Output0

a H

% H

Aodu!t of a#% H 13

Aodu!t of a#% H 213

'N'BITS OB O9'RLODIN8

Suppoting $an7 data !o$%inations Bitting the poga$ to the use5

R'STRICTIONS ON O9'RLODIN8

Oveloaded poga$s with paa$ete lists that diffe onl7 %7 na$e $ust %e !alled using

na$ed notation5

The paa$ete list of oveloaded poga$s $ust diffe %7 $oe than paa$ete $ode5

ll of the oveloaded poga$s $ust %e defined within the sa$e AL?SQL s!ope o %lo!&5

Oveloaded fun!tions $ust diffe %7 $oe than thei etun t7pe5

IMAORTNT AOINTS OUT SUARO8RMS 6hen a stoed su%poga$ is !eated# it is stoed in the data dictionary 5

The su%poga$ is stoed in !o$pile fo$ whi!h is &nown as p0code in addition to the

sou!e te/t5

The p"!ode has all of the efeen!es in the su%poga$ evaluated# and the sou!e !ode is

tanslated into a fo$ that is easil7 eada%le %7 AL?SQL engine5

6hen the su%poga$ is !alled# the p"!ode is ead fo$ the dis&# if ne!essa7# and

e/e!uted5

On!e it eads fo$ the dis&# the p"!ode is stoed in the shaed pool potion of the s7ste$

glo%al aea (S8)# whee it !an %e a!!essed %7 $ultiple uses as needed5

Li&e all of the !ontents of the shaed pool# p"!ode is aged out of the shaed poo

a!!oding to a least e!entl7 used (LRU) algoith$5

Su%poga$s !an %e local 5

Lo!al su%poga$s $ust %e de!laed in the de!laative se!tion of AL?SQL %lo!& and !alled

fo$ the e/e!uta%le se!tion5

Su%poga$s !an not have the de!laative se!tion sepaatel75

123



Ti$esta$p Model

Signatue Model

TIM'STMA MOD'L

This is the default $odel used %7 oa!le5

6ith this $odel# the ti$esta$ps of the last $odifi!ations of the two o%Je!ts ae

!o$paed5

The la!t_ddl_time field of u!er_ob#ect! !ontains the ti$esta$p5

If the %ase o%Je!t has a newe ti$esta$p than the dependent o%Je!t# the

dependent o%Je!t will %e e!o$piled5

ISSU'S 6IT: T:IS MOD'L

If the o%Je!ts ae in diffeent ti$e ones# the !o$paison is invalid5

6hen A2 is in a !lient side AL?SQL engine su!h as oa!le fo$s# in this !ase it $a7 not

possi%le to e!o$pile A2# %e!ause the sou!e fo it $a7 not %e in!luded with the fo$s5

SI8NTUR' MOD'L

6hen a po!edue is !eated# a signatue is stoed in the data di!tiona7 in addition to

the p"!ode5

The signatue en!odes the t7pes and ode of the paa$etes5

6hen A2 is !o$piled the fist ti$e# the signatue of A1 is in!luded5 Thus# A2 onl7 needs

to e!o$piled when the signatue of A1 !hanges5

In ode to use the signatue $odel# the paa$ete R'MOT'D'A'ND'NCI'SMOD' $ust %e

set to SI8NTUR'5 This is a paa$ete in the data%ase initialiation file5

T:R'' 6*S OB S'TTIN8 T:IS MOD'

dd the line R'MOT'D'A'ND'NCI'SMOD'HSI8NTUR' to the data%ase initialiation file5 The

ne/t ti$e the data%ase is stated# the $ode will %e set to SI8NTUR' fo all sessions5

lte s7ste$ set e$otedependen!ies$ode H signatue.

This will affe!t the entie data%ase (all sessions) fo$ the ti$e the state$ent is

issued5 *ou $ust have the LT'R S*ST'M pivilege to issue this !o$$and5

lte session set e$otedependen!ies$ode H signatue.

This will onl7 affe!t 7ou session

ISSU'S 6IT: T:IS MOD'L

Signatues don;t get $odified if the default values of fo$al paa$etes ae

!hanged5

Suppose A1 has a default value fo one of its paa$etes# and A2 is using this

default value5 If the default in the spe!ifi!ation fo A1 is !hanged# A2 will not %e

e!o$piled %7 default5 The old value fo the default paa$ete will still %e used until

A2 is $anuall7 e!o$piled5

126



If A2 is !alling a pa!&aged po!edue A1# and a new oveloaded vesion of A1 is added to

the e$ote pa!&age# the signatue is not !hanged5 A2 will still use the old vesion(not

the new oveloaded one) until A2 is e!o$piled $anuall75

BOR6RD D'CL'RTION

efoe going to use the po!edue in an7 othe su%poga$ o othe %lo!& # 7ou $ust de!lae

the potot7pe of the po!edue in de!laative se!tion5

'/20

D'CLR'

AROC'DUR' A2 IS

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=Bo$ po!edue p2=).

p1.

'ND A2.

AROC'DUR' A1 IS

'8IN d%$soutput5putline(=Bo$ po!edue p1=).

p4.

'ND A1.

AROC'DUR' A4 IS

'8IN


'ND A4.

'8IN

p2.

'ND.

Output0

p1.

E

'RROR at line 0

OR"330 line # !olu$n 20

ALS"334240 =A1= not de!laed in this s!ope

OR"330 line # !olu$n 20

AL?SQL0 State$ent ignoed

OR"330 line 23# !olu$n 20

ALS"334240 =A4= not de!laed in this s!ope

OR"330 line 23# !olu$n 20

AL?SQL0 State$ent ignoed

'/10

D'CLR'

AROC'DUR' A1. "" fowad de!laation

AROC'DUR' A4.

127



AROC'DUR' A2 IS

'8IN


p1.

'ND A2.

AROC'DUR' A1 IS

'8IN


p4.

'ND A1.

AROC'DUR' A4 IS

'8IN


'ND A4.

'8IN

p2.

'ND.

Output0

Bo$ po!edue p2

Bo$ po!edue p1

Bo$ po!edue p4

ARI9IL'8'S ND STOR'D SUARO8RMS

'+'CUT' AR'9IL'8'

Bo stoed su%poga$s and pa!&ages the elevant pivilege is '+'CUT'5

If use had the po!edue !alled e$ppo! then use gants e/e!ute pivilege onpo!edue to use with the following !o$$and5

SQL- 8ant e/e!ute on e$ppo! to use 5

Then use !an un the po!edue %7 issuing

SQL- '/e! use 5e$ppo!

use !eated the following po!edue

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC'DUR' A IS

!uso is sele!t Efo$ student2.

'8IN

fo v in ! loop

inset into student1 values(v5no#v5na$e#v5$a&s).

end loop.

'ND A.

use ganted e/e!ute pivilege to use using

SQL- gant e/e!ute on p to use

Then use e/e!uted the po!edue

SQL- '/e! use5p

128



If suppose use also having student1 ta%le then whi!h ta%le will populate whethe use;s o

use;s5

The answe is use;s student1 ta%le onl7 %e!ause %7 default the po!edue will e/e!ute unde

the pivlige set of its owne5

The a%ove po!edue is &nown as define;s po!edue5

:O6 TO AOAULT' US'R ;s TL'

Oa!le intodu!es 5nvoer! and -e'iner! ri"t!.

7 default it will use the define;s ights5

n invo&e;s ights outine !an %e !eated %7 using UT:ID !lause to populate the

use;s ta%le5

It is valid fo stand"alone su%poga$s# pa!&age spe!ifi!ations# and o%Je!t t7pe

spe!ifi!ations onl75

use !eated the following po!edue

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC'DUR' A

UT:ID CURR'NTUS'R IS

!uso is sele!t Efo$ student2.

'8IN

fo v in ! loop

inset into student1 values(v5no#v5na$e#v5$a&s).

end loop.

'ND A.

Then gant e/e!ute pivilege on p to use5

'/e!uting the po!edue %7 use# whi!h populates use;s ta%le5

The a%ove po!edue is !alled invo&e;s po!edue5

Instead of !uentuse of authid !lause# if 7ou use define then it will %e !alled define

po!edue5

STOR'D SUARO8RMS ND ROL'S

we have two uses sa&eth and sudha in whi!h sa&eth has student ta%le and sudha does not5

Sudha is going to !eate a po!edue %ased on student ta%le owned %7 sa&eth5 efoe doing

this sa&eth $ust gant the pe$issions on this ta%le to sudha5

SQL- !onn sa&eth?sa&eth

SQL- gant all on student to sudha.

then sudha !an !eate po!edue

SQL- !onn sudha?sudha


!uso ! is sele!t Efo$ sa&eth5student.

'8IN

fo v in ! loop

d%$soutput5putline(KNo H K XX v5no).

end loop.

129



'ND A.

hee po!edue will %e !eated5

If the sa$e pivilege was ganted though a ole it wont !eate the po!edue5

'/a$ine the following !ode


SQL- !eate ole sa&ethole.SQL- gant all on student to sa&ethole.

SQL- gant sa&ethole to sudha.

then !onn sudha?sudha


!uso ! is sele!t Efo$ sa&eth5student.

'8IN

fo v in ! loop

d%$soutput5putline(KNo H K XX v5no).

end loop.'ND A.

The a%ove !ode will aise eo instead of !eating po!edue 5

This is %e!ause of eal7 %inding whi!h AL?SQL uses %7 default in whi!h efeen!es ae evaluated

in !o$pile ti$e %ut when 7ou ae using a ole this will affe!t i$$ediatel75

ISSU'S 6IT: IN9OF'R;S RI8:TS

In an invo&e;s ights outine# e/tenal efeen!es in SQL state$ents will %e esolved

using the !alle;s pivilege set5

ut efeen!es in AL?SQL state$ents ae still esolved unde the owne;s pivilege set5

TRI88'RS# 9I'6S ND IN9OF'R;S RI8:TS

data%ase tigge will alwa7s %e e/e!uted with define;s ights and will e/e!ute unde

the pivilege set of the s!he$a that owns the tiggeing ta%le5

This is also tue fo AL?SQL fun!tion that is !alled fo$ a view5 In this !ase# the fun!tion

will e/e!ute unde the pivilege set of the view;s owne5

ACF8'S

paca"e is a !ontaine fo elated o%Je!ts5 It has spe!ifi!ation and %od75 'a!h of the$ is

stoed sepaatel7 in data di!tiona75

ACF8' S*NT+

Ceate o epla!e pa!&age , paca"e_name- is

"" pa!&age spe!ifi!ation in!ludes su%poga$s signatues# !usos and glo%al o

pu%li! vaia%les5

'nd , paca"e_name-.

Ceate o epla!e pa!&age %od7 , paca"e_name- is

"" pa!&age %od7 in!ludes %od7 fo all the su%poga$s de!laed in the spe!# pivate

9aia%les and !usos5

130



egin

"" initialiation se!tion

'/!eption

"" '/!eption handling se!iton

'nd , paca"e_name-.

IMAORTNT AOIN8S OUT ACF8'S

The fist ti$e a pa!&aged su%poga$ is !alled o an7 efeen!e to a pa!&aged vaia%le

o t7pe is $ade# the pa!&age is instantiated5

'a!h session will have its own !op7 of pa!&aged vaia%les# ensuing that two sessions

e/e!uting su%poga$s in the sa$e pa!&age use diffeent $e$o7 lo!ations5

In $an7 !ases initialiation needs to %e un the fist ti$e the pa!&age is instantiated

within a session5 This !an %e done %7 adding initialiation se!tion to the pa!&age %od7

afte all the o%Je!ts5

Aa!&ages ae stoed in the data di!tiona7 and !an not %e lo!al5

Aa!&aged su%poga$s has an advantage ove stand alone su%poga$5

6hen eve an7 efeen!e to pa!&age# the whole pa!&age p"!ode was stoed in shaed

pool of S85

Aa!&age $a7 have lo!al su%poga$s5

*ou !an in!lude authid !lause inside the pa!&age spe! not in the %od75

The e/e!ution se!tion of a pa!&age is &now as initialiation se!tion5

*ou !an have an e/!eption se!tion at the %otto$ of a pa!&age %od75

Aa!&ages su%poga$s ae not invalidated5

COMAILIN8 ACF8'S

SQL- lte pa!&age AF8 !o$pile.

SQL- lte pa!&age AF8 !o$pile spe!ifi!ation.

SQL- lte pa!&age AF8 !o$pile %od7.

ACF8' D'A'ND'NCI'S

The pa!&age %od7 depends on the so$e o%Je!ts and the pa!&age heade5

The pa!&age heade does not depend on the pa!&age %od7# whi!h is an advantage of

pa!&ages5

6e !an !hange the pa!&age %od7 with out !hanging the heade5

ACF8' RUNTIM' STT'

Aa!&age unti$e state is diffe fo the following pa!&ages5

Seiall7 eusa%le pa!&ages

Non seiall7 eusa%le pa!&ages

S'RILL* R'USL' ACF8'S

131



To fo!e the oa!le to use seiall7 eusa%le vesion then in!lude AR8M S'RILL*R'USL' in

%oth pa!&age spe! and %od7# '/a$ine the following pa!&age5

CR'T' OR R'ALC' ACF8' AF8 IS

pag$a seiall7eusa%le.

po!edue e$ppo!.

'ND AF8.CR'T' OR R'ALC' ACF8' OD* AF8 IS

pag$a seiall7eusa%le.

!uso ! is sele!t ena$e fo$ e$p.

AROC'DUR' 'MAAROC IS

vena$e e$p5ena$et7pe.

vflag %oolean 0H tue.

vnu$ows nu$%e 0H 3.

'8IN

if not !isopen then

open !.

end if.

while vflag loop

fet!h ! into vena$e.

vnu$ows 0H vnu$ows G 2.

if vnu$ows H then

vflag 0H false.

end if.

d%$soutput5putline(='na$e H = XX vena$e).

end loop.

'ND 'MAAROC.

'ND AF8.

SQL- e/e! p&g5e$ppo!

'na$e H SMIT:

'na$e H LL'N

'na$e H 6RD

'na$e H >ON'S

'na$e H MRTIN


'na$e H SMIT:

'na$e H LL'N

'na$e H 6RD

'na$e H >ON'S

'na$e H MRTIN

132



The a%ove pa!&age displa7s the sa$e output fo ea!h e/e!ution even though the !uso

is not !losed5

e!ause the seiall7 eusa%le vesion esets the state of the !uso ea!h ti$e it was

!alled5

NON S'RILL * R'USL' ACF8'S

This is the default vesion used %7 the oa!le# e/a$ine the following pa!&age5CR'T' OR R'ALC' ACF8' AF8 IS

po!edue e$ppo!.

'ND AF8.

CR'T' OR R'ALC' ACF8' OD* AF8 IS

!uso ! is sele!t ena$e fo$ e$p.

AROC'DUR' 'MAAROC IS

vena$e e$p5ena$et7pe.

vflag %oolean 0H tue.

vnu$ows nu$%e 0H 3.'8IN

if not !isopen then

open !.

end if.

while vflag loop

fet!h ! into vena$e.

vnu$ows 0H vnu$ows G 2.

if vnu$ows H then

vflag 0H false.

end if.

d%$soutput5putline(='na$e H = XX vena$e).

end loop.

'ND 'MAAROC.

'ND AF8.


'na$e H SMIT:

'na$e H LL'N

'na$e H 6RD

'na$e H >ON'S

'na$e H MRTIN


'na$e H LF'

'na$e H CLRF

'na$e H SCOTT

'na$e H FIN8

133



'na$e H TURN'R

The a%ove pa!&age displa7s the diffeent output fo ea!h e/e!ution even though the

!uso is not !losed5

e!ause the non"seiall7 eusa%le vesion e$ains the state of the !uso ove data%ase

!alls5

D'A'ND'NCI'S OB ACF8' RUNTIM' STT'

Dependen!ies !an e/ists %etween pa!&age state and anon7$ous %lo!&s5

'/a$ine the following poga$

Ceate this pa!&age in fist session


v nu$%e 0H .

po!edue p.

'ND AF8.


AROC'DUR' A IS'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=v H = XX v).

v 0H 23.

d%$soutput5putline(=v H = XX v).

'ND A.

'ND AF8.

Conne!t to se!ond session# un the following !ode5

'8IN

p&g5p.

'ND.

The a%ove !ode wil wo&5

8o %a!& to fist session and e!eate the pa!&age using !eate5

Then !onne!t to se!ond session and un the following !ode again5

'8IN

p&g5p.

'ND.

This a%ove !ode will not wo& %e!ause of the following5

The anon7$ous %lo!& depends on p&g5 This is !o$pile ti$e dependen!75

Thee is also a unti$e dependen!7 on the pa!&aged vaia%les# sin!e ea!h session has its

own !op7 of pa!&aged vaia%les5

Thus when p&g is e!o$piled the unti$e dependen!7 is followed# whi!h invalidates the

%lo!& and aises the oa!le eo5

Runti$e dependen!ies e/ist onl7 on pa!&age state5 This in!ludes vaia%les and !usos

de!laed in a pa!&age5

134



If the pa!&age had no glo%al vaia%les# the se!ond e/e!ution of the anon7$ous %lo!&

would have su!!eeded5

AURIT* L'9'LS

In geneal# !alls to su%poga$s ae po!edual# the7 !annot %e !alled fo$ SQL state$ents

:oweve# if a stand"alone o pa!&aged fun!tion $eets !etain esti!tions# it !an %e !alled

duing e/e!ution of a SQL state$ent5

Use"defined fun!tions ae !alled the sa$e wa7 as %uilt"in fun!tions %ut it $ust $eet diffeent

esti!tions5 These esti!tions ae defined in te$s of puit7 levels5

Thee ae fou t7pes of puit7 levels5

6NDS "" 6ites No Data%ase State

RNDS "" Reads No Data%ase State

6NAS "" 6ites No Aa!&age State

RNAS "" Reads No Aa!&age State

In addition to the pe!eding esti!tions# a use"defined fun!tion $ust also $eet the followingeuie$ents to %e !alled fo$ a SQL state$ent5

The fun!tion has to %e stoed in the data%ase# eithe stand"alone o as pat of a

pa!&age5

The fun!tion !an ta&e onl7 in paa$etes5

The fo$al paa$etes $ust use onl7 data%ase t7pes# not AL?SQL t7pes su!h as

%oolean o e!od5

The etun t7pe of the fun!tion $ust also %e a data%ase t7pe5

The fun!tion $ust not end the !uent tansa!tion with !o$$it o oll%a!&# o

oll%a!& to a savepoint pio to the fun!tion e/e!ution5

It also $ust not issue an7 alte session o alte s7ste$ !o$$ands5

R'STRICTR'B'R'NC'S

Bo pa!&aged fun!tions# howeve# the R'STRICTR'B'R'NC'S pag$a is euied to spe!if7 the

puit7 level of a given fun!tion5

S7nta/0

AR8M R'STRICTR'B'R'NC'S( !ubpro"ram_name or paca"e_name# 6NDS #6NAS

#RNDS #RNAS).

'/0


fun!tion fun2 etun va!ha.

pag$a esti!tefeen!es(fun2#wnds).


pag$a esti!tefeen!es(fun1#wnds).

'ND AF8.


BUNCTION BUN2 etun va!ha IS

135



'8IN

update dept set deptno H 22.

etun =hello=.

'ND BUN2.


'8IN

update dept set dna$e H=aa=.

etun =hello=.

'ND BUN1.

'ND AF8.

The a%ove pa!&age %od7 will not !eated# it will give the following eos5

ALS"33@10 Su%poga$ =BUN2= violates its asso!iated pag$a




'8IN

etun =hello=.

'ND BUN2.


'8IN

etun =hello=.

'ND BUN1.

'ND AF8.

Now the pa!&age %od7 will %e !eated5

D'BULT

If thee is no R'STRICTR'B'R'NC'S pag$a asso!iated with a given pa!&aged fun!tion# it will not

have an7 puit7 level asseted5 :oweve# 7ou !an !hange the default puit7 level fo a pa!&age5

The D'BULT &e7wod is used instead of the su%poga$ na$e in the pag$a5

'/0


pag$a esti!tefeen!es(default#wnds).



'ND AF8.



'8IN


etun =hello=.

'ND BUN2.


'8IN

136




etun =hello=.

'ND BUN1.

'ND AF8.

The a%ove pa!&age %od7 will not !eated# it will give the following eos %e!ause the pag$a

will appl7 to all the fun!tions5





'8IN

etun =hello=.

'ND BUN2.


'8IN

etun =hello=.

'ND BUN1.

'ND AF8.

Now the pa!&age %od7 will %e !eated5

TRUST

If the TRUST &e7wod is pesent# the esti!tions listed in the pag$a ae not enfo!ed5 Rathe#

the7 ae tusted to %e tue5

'/0



pag$a esti!tefeen!es(fun2#wnds#tust).


pag$a esti!tefeen!es(fun1#wnds#tust).

'ND AF8.



'8IN


etun =hello=.

'ND BUN2.


'8IN


etun =hello=.

'ND BUN1.

'ND AF8.

The a%ove pa!&age will %e !eated su!!essfull75

137



IMAORTNT AOINTS OUT R'STRICTR'B'R'NC'S

This pag$a !an appea an7whee in the pa!&age spe!ifi!ation# afte the fun!tion

de!laation5

It !an appl7 to onl7 one fun!tion definition5

Bo oveload fun!tions# the pag$a applies to the neaest definition pio to the

Aag$a5

This pag$a is euied onl7 fo pa!&ages fun!tions not fo stand"alone fun!tions5

The Aag$a !an %e de!laed onl7 inside the pa!&age spe!ifi!ation5

The pag$a is !he!&ed at !o$pile ti$e# not unti$e5

It is possi%le to spe!if7 without an7 puit7 levels when tust o !o$%ination of

default and tust &e7wods ae pesent5

AINNIN8 IN T:' S:R'D AOOL

The !ared pool is the potion of the S8S that !ontains# a$ong othe things# the p"!ode of

!o$piled su%poga$s as the7 ae un5 The fist ti$e a stoed a stoe su%poga$ is !alled# thep"!ode is loaded fo$ dis& into the shaed pool5 On!e the o%Je!t is no longe efeen!ed# it is

fee to %e aged out5 O%Je!ts ae aged out of the shaed pool using an LRU(Least Re!entl7 Used)

algoith$5

The DMSS:R'DAOOL pa!&age allows 7ou to pin o%Je!ts in the shaed pool5 6hen an o%Je!t is

pinned# it will neve %e aged out until 7ou euest it# no $atte how full the pool gets o how

often the o%Je!t is a!!essed5 This !an i$pove pefo$an!e# as it ta&es ti$e to eload a

pa!&age fo$ dis&5

DMSS:R'DAOOL has fou po!edues

F''A

UNF''A

SIZ'S

ORT'DR'QU'STT:R'S:OLD

F''A

The DMSS:R'DAOOL5F''A po!edue is used to pin o%Je!ts in the pool5

S7nta/0

AROC'DUR' F''A(ob#ect_name va!ha1#'la" !ha default KA;).

:ee the flag epesents diffeent t7pes of flag values fo diffeent t7pes of o%Je!ts5

A "" Aa!&age# fun!tion o po!edue

Q "" Seuen!e

R "" Tigge

C "" SQL Cuso

T "" O%Je!t t7pe

>S "" >ava sou!e

>C "" >ava !lass

>R "" >ava esou!e

138



>D "" >ava shaed data

UNF''A

UNF''A is the onl7 wa7 to e$ove a &ept o%Je!t fo$ the shaed pool# without estating the

data%ase5 Fept o%Je!ts ae neve aged out auto$ati!all75

S7nta/0

AROC'DUR' UNF''A(ob#ect_name va!ha1# 'la" !ha default KA;).SIZ'S

SIZ'S will e!ho the !ontents of the shaed pool to the s!een5

S7nta/0

AROC'DUR' SIZ'S(min!ie nu$%e).

O%Je!ts with geate than the min!ie will %e etuned5 SIZ'S uses DMSOUTAUT to etun the

data5

ORT'DR'QU'STT:R'S:OLD

6hen the data%ase dete$ines that thee is not enough $e$o7 in the shaed pool to satisf7 a

given euest# it will %egin aging o%Je!ts out until thee is enough $e$o75 It enough o%Je!ts

ae aged out# this !an have a pefo$an!e i$pa!t on othe data%ase sessions5 The

ORT'DR'QU'STT:R'S:OLD !an %e used to e$ed7 this5

S7nta/0

AROC'DUR' ORT'DR'QU'STT:R'S:OLD(tre!old_!ie nu$%e).

On!e this po!edue is !alled# oa!le will not stat aging o%Je!ts fo$ the pool unless at least

tre!old_!ie %7tes is needed5

DT MOD'L BOR SUARO8RMS ND ACF8'S

US'RO>'CTS

US'RSOURC'

US'R'RRORS

DO>'CTS

DSOURC'

D'RRORS

LLO>'CTS

LLSOURC'

LL'RRORS

CURSORS

Cur!or is a pointe to $e$o7 lo!ation whi!h is !alled as contet area whi!h !ontains the

info$ation ne!essa7 fo po!essing# in!luding the nu$%e of ows po!essed %7 the

state$ent# a pointe to the pased epesentation of the state$ent# and the active !et whi!h is

the set of ows etuned %7 the ue75

Cuso !ontains two pats

:eade

139



od7

:eade in!ludes !uso na$e# an7 paa$etes and the t7pe of data %eing loaded5

od7 in!ludes the sele!t state$ent5

'/0

Cuso !(dno in nu$%e) etun deptowt7pe is sele!t Efo$ dept.

In the a%ove

:eade \ !uso !(dno in nu$%e) etun deptowt7pe

od7 \ sele!t Efo$ dept

CURSOR T*A'S

I$pli!it (SQL)

'/pli!it

Aaa$eteied !usos

R'B !usos

CURSOR ST8'S

Open

Bet!h

Close

CURSOR TTRIUT'S

found

notfound

ow!ount

isopen

%ul&ow!ount

%ul&e/!eptions

CURSOR D'CL'RTION

S7nta/0

Cuso ,cur!or_name- is !elect !tatement .

'/0

Cuso ! is sele!t Efo$ dept.

CURSOR LOOAS

Si$ple loop

6hile loop

Bo loop

SIMAL' LOOA

S7nta/0

Loop

Bet!h ,cur!or_name- into ,record_variable-.

140



'/it when ,cur!or_name- notfound.

, !tatement!-.

'nd loop.

'/0

D'CLR'

!uso ! is sele!t E fo$ student. vstud studentowt7pe.

'8IN

open !.

loop

fet!h ! into vstud.

e/it when !notfound.

d%$soutput5putline(=Na$e H = XX vstud5na$e).

end loop.

!lose !.

'ND.

Output0

Na$e H sa&eth

Na$e H sinu

Na$e H satish

Na$e H sudha

6:IL' LOOA

S7nta/0

6hile ,cur!or_name- found loop

Bet!h ,cur!or_name- nto ,record_variable-.

, !tatement!-.

'nd loop.

'/0

D'CLR'

!uso ! is sele!t E fo$ student.

vstud studentowt7pe.

'8IN open !.

fet!h ! into vstud.

while !found loop

fet!h ! into vstud.


end loop.

!lose !.

'ND.

141



Output0

Na$e H sa&eth

Na$e H sinu

Na$e H satish

Na$e H sudha

BOR LOOA

S7nta/0

fo ,record_variable- in ,cur!or_name- loop

, !tatement!-.

'nd loop.

'/0

D'CLR'


'8IN

fo vstud in ! loop


end loop.

'ND.

Output0

Na$e H sa&eth

Na$e H sinu

Na$e H satish

Na$e H sudha

ARM'TRIZ'D CURSORS

This was used when 7ou ae going to use the !uso in $oe than one pla!e with

diffeent values fo the sa$e whee !lause5

Cuso paa$etes $ust %e in $ode5

Cuso paa$etes $a7 have default values5

The s!ope of !uso paa$ete is within the sele!t state$ent5

'/0

D'CLR'

!uso !(dno in nu$%e) is sele!t E fo$ dept whee deptno H dno.

vdept deptowt7pe.

'8IN

open !(13).

loop

fet!h ! into vdept.


d%$soutput5putline(=Dna$e H = XX vdept5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX vdept5lo!).

142



end loop.

!lose !.

'ND.

Output0

Dna$e H R'S'RC: Lo! H DLLS

ACF8'D CURSORS 6IT: :'D'R IN SA'C ND OD* IN ACF8' OD* !usos de!laed in pa!&ages will not !lose auto$ati!all75

In pa!&aged !usos 7ou !an $odif7 the sele!t state$ent without $a&ing an7 !hanges to

the !uso heade in the pa!&age spe!ifi!ation5

Aa!&aged !usos with $ust %e defined in the pa!&age %od7 itself# and then use it as

glo%al fo the pa!&age5

*ou !an not define the pa!&aged !uso in an7 su%poga$s5

Cuso de!laation in pa!&age with out %od7 needs the etun !lause5

'/20CR'T' OR R'ALC' ACF8' AF8 IS

!uso ! etun deptowt7pe is sele!t E fo$ dept.

po!edue po! is

'ND AF8.

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AFC8' OD* AF8 IS

!uso ! etun deptowt7pe is sele!t E fo$ dept.

AROC'DUR' AROC IS

'8IN

fo v in ! loop

d%$soutput5putline(=Deptno H = XX v5deptno XX = Dna$e H = XX

v5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX v5lo!).

end loop.

'ND AROC.

'ND AF8.

Output0

SQL- e/e! p&g5po!

Deptno H 23 Dna$e H CCOUNTIN8 Lo! H N'6 *ORF

Deptno H 13 Dna$e H R'S'RC: Lo! H DLLS

Deptno H 43 Dna$e H SL'S Lo! H C:IC8O

Deptno H @3 Dna$e H OA'RTIONS Lo! H OSTON

'/10

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AFC8' OD* AF8 IS

!uso ! etun deptowt7pe is sele!t E fo$ dept whee deptno - 13.

AROC'DUR' AROC IS

'8IN

fo v in ! loop

143



d%$soutput5putline(=Deptno H = XX v5deptno XX = Dna$e H = XX

v5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX v5lo!).

end loop.

'ND AROC.

'ND AF8.

Output0

SQL- e/e! p&g5po!



R'B CURSORS ND CURSOR 9RIL'S

This is un!onstained !uso whi!h will etun diffeent t7pes depends upon the use

input5

Ref !usos !an not %e !losed i$pli!itl75

Ref !uso with etun t7pe is !alled !tron" cur!or 5

Ref !uso with out etun t7pe is !alled wea cur!or 5

*ou !an de!lae ef !uso t7pe in pa!&age spe! as well as %od75

*ou !an de!lae ef !uso t7pes in lo!al su%poga$s o anon7$ous %lo!&s5

Cuso vaia%les !an %e assigned fo$ one to anothe5

*ou !an de!lae a !uso vaia%le in one s!ope and assign anothe !uso vaia%le with

diffeent s!ope# then 7ou !an use the !uso vaia%le even though the assigned !uso

vaia%le goes out of s!ope5

Cuso vaia%les !an %e passed as a paa$etes to the su%poga$s5

Cuso vaia%les $odes ae in o out o in out5

Cuso vaia%les !an not %e de!laed in pa!&age spe! and pa!&age %od7 (e/!luding

su%poga$s)5

*ou !an not use e$ote po!edue !alls to pass !uso vaia%les fo$ one seve to

anothe5

Cuso vaia%les !an not use fo update !lause5

*ou !an not assign nulls to !uso vaia%les5

*ou !an not !o$pae !uso vaia%les fo eualit7# ineualit7 and nullit75

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC'DUR' R'BCURSOR(TL'NM' IN 9RC:R) IS

t7pe t is ef !uso.

! t.

vdept deptowt7pe.

t7pe is e!od(ena$e e$p5ena$et7pe#Jo% e$p5Jo%t7pe#sal e$p5salt7pe).

ve$p .

vstud student5na$et7pe.

144



'8IN

if ta%lena$e H =D'AT= then

open ! fo sele!t E fo$ dept.

elsif ta%lena$e H ='MA= then

open ! fo sele!t ena$e#Jo%#sal fo$ e$p.

elsif ta%lena$e H =STUD'NT= thenopen ! fo sele!t na$e fo$ student.

end if.

loop

if ta%lena$e H =D'AT= then

fet!h ! into vdept.


d%$soutput5putline(=Deptno H = XX vdept5deptno XX = Dna$e H = XX

vdept5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX vdept5lo!).

elsif ta%lena$e H ='MA= then

fet!h ! into ve$p.


d%$soutput5putline(='na$e H = XX ve$p5ena$e XX = >o% H = XX ve$p5Jo%

XX = Sal H = XX ve$p5sal).

elsif ta%lena$e H =STUD'NT= then

fet!h ! into vstud.


d%$soutput5putline(=Na$e H = XX vstud).

end if.

end loop.

!lose !.

'ND.

Output0

SQL- e/e! ef!uso(=D'AT=)

Deptno H 23 Dna$e H CCOUNTIN8 Lo! H N'6 *ORF

Deptno H 13 Dna$e H R'S'RC: Lo! H DLLS



SQL- e/e! ef!uso(='MA=)

'na$e H SMIT: >o% H CL'RF Sal H W33

'na$e H LL'N >o% H SL'SMN Sal H 233

'na$e H 6RD >o% H SL'SMN Sal H 213

'na$e H >ON'S >o% H MN8'R Sal H 1V

'na$e H MRTIN >o% H SL'SMN Sal H 213

145



'na$e H LF' >o% H MN8'R Sal H 1W3

'na$e H CLRF >o% H MN8'R Sal H 1@3

'na$e H SCOTT >o% H NL*ST Sal H 4333

'na$e H FIN8 >o% H AR'SID'NT Sal H 333

'na$e H TURN'R >o% H SL'SMN Sal H 233

'na$e H DMS >o% H CL'RF Sal H 2233

'na$e H >M'S >o% H CL'RF Sal H 3

'na$e H BORD >o% H NL*ST Sal H 4333

'na$e H MILL'R >o% H CL'RF Sal H 2433

SQL- e/e! ef!uso(=STUD'NT=)

Na$e H sa&eth

Na$e H sinu

Na$e H satish

Na$e H sudha

CURSOR '+AR'SSIONS

*ou !an use !uso e/pessions in e/pli!it !usos5

*ou !an use !uso e/pessions in d7na$i! SQL5

*ou !an use !uso e/pessions in R'B !uso de!laations and vaia%les5

*ou !an not use !uso e/pessions in i$pli!it !usos5

Oa!le opens the nested !uso defined %7 a !uso e/pession i$pli!itl7 as soon as it

fet!hes the data !ontaining the !uso e/pession fo$ the paent o oute !uso5

Nested !uso !loses if 7ou !lose e/pli!itl75

Nested !uso !loses wheneve the oute o paent !uso is e/e!uted again o !losed o

!an!eled5

Nested !uso !loses wheneve an e/!eption is aised while fet!hing data fo$ a paent

!uso5

Cuso e/pessions !an not %e used when de!laing a view5

Cuso e/pessions !an %e used as an agu$ent to ta%le fun!tion5

*ou !an not pefo$ %ind and e/e!ute opeations on !uso e/pessions when using the

!uso e/pessions in d7na$i! SQL5

USIN8 N'ST'D CURSORS OR CURSOR '+AR'SSIONS

'/0

D'CLR'

!uso ! is sele!t ena$e#!uso(sele!t dna$e fo$ dept d whee e5e$pno H d5deptno)

fo$ e$p e.

t7pe t is ef !uso.

!2 t.

!1 t.

146



v2 e$p5ena$et7pe.

v1 dept5dna$et7pe.

'8IN

open !.

loop

fet!h !2 into v2. e/it when !2notfound.

fet!h !1 into v1.

e/it when !1notfound.

d%$soutput5putline(='na$e H = XX v2 XX = Dna$e H = XX v1).

end loop.

end loop.

!lose !.

'ND.

CURSOR CLUS'S

Retun

Bo update

6hee !uent of

ul& !olle!t

R'TURN

Cuso ! etun deptowt7pe is sele!t Efo$ dept.

O

Cuso !2 is sele!t Efo$ dept.

Cuso ! etun !2owt7pe is sele!t Efo$ dept.

O

T7pe t is e!od(deptno dept5deptnot7pe# dna$e dept5dna$et7pe).

Cuso ! etun t is sele!t deptno# dna$e fo$ dept.

BOR UADT' ND 6:'R' CURR'NT OB

No$all7# a sele!t opeation will not ta&e an7 lo!&s on the ows %eing a!!essed5 This will allow

othe sessions !onne!ted to the data%ase to !hange the data %eing sele!ted5 The esult set is

still !onsistent5 t open ti$e# when the a!tive set is dete$ined# oa!le ta&es a snapshot of the

ta%le5 n7 !hanges that have %een !o$$itted pio to this point ae efle!ted in the a!tive set5

n7 !hanges $ade afte this point# even if the7 ae !o$$itted# ae not efle!ted unless the

!uso is eopened# whi!h will evaluate the a!tive set again5

:oweve# if the BOR UADT' !aluse is pesent# e/!lusive ow lo!&s ae ta&en on the ows in the

a!tive set %efoe the open etuns5 These lo!&s pevent othe sessions fo$ !hanging the ows

in the a!tive set until the tansa!tion is !o$$itted o olled %a!&5 If anothe session alead7

has lo!&s on the ows in the a!tive set# then S'L'CT BOR UADT' opeation will wait fo these

lo!&s to %e eleased %7 the othe session5 Thee is no ti$e"out fo this waiting peiod5 The

147



S'L'CTBOR UADT' will hang until the othe session eleases the lo!&5 To handle this situation#

the NO6IT !lause is availa%le5

S7nta/0

Sele!t fo$ fo update of !olu$nna$e wait n.

If the !uso is de!laed with the BOR UADT' !lause# the 6:'R' CURR'NT OB !lause !an %e

used in an update o delete state$ent5

S7nta/0

6hee !uent of !uso.

'/0

D'CLR'

!uso ! is sele!t E fo$ dept fo update of dna$e.

'8IN

fo v in ! loop

update dept set dna$e H =aa= whee !uent of !.

!o$$it.

end loop.

'ND.

ULF COLL'CT

This is used fo aa7 fet!hes

6ith this 7ou !an etieve $ultiple ows of data with a single oundtip5

This edu!es the nu$%e of !onte/t swit!hes %etween the pl?sl and sl engines5

Redu!es the ovehead of etieving data5

*ou !an use %ul& !olle!t in %oth d7na$i! and stati! sl5

*ou !an use %ul& !olle!t in sele!t# fet!h into and etuning into !lauses5

SQL engine auto$ati!all7 initialies and e/tends the !olle!tions 7ou efeen!e in the %ul&

!olle!t !lause5

ul& !olle!t opeation e$pties the !olle!tion efeen!ed in the into !lause %efoe

e/e!uting the ue75

*ou !an use the li$it !lause of %ul& !olle!t to esti!t the no of ows etieved5

*ou !an fet!h into $ulti%le !olle!tions with one !olu$n ea!h5

Using the etuning !lause we !an etun data to the anothe !olle!tion5ULF COLL'CT IN B'TC:

'/0

D'CLR'

T7pe t is ta%le of deptowt7pe.

nt t.


'8IN

Open !.

148



Bet!h ! %ul& !olle!t into nt.

Close !.

Bo i in nt5fist55nt5last loop

d%$soutput5putline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX

nt(i)5lo!).

end loop.'ND.

Output0

Dna$e H CCOUNTIN8 Lo! H N'6 *ORF


Dna$e H SL'S Lo! H C:IC8O

Dna$e H OA'RTIONS Lo! H OSTON

ULF COLL'CT IN S'L'CT

'/0

D'CLR'


Nt t.

'8IN

Sele!t E %ul& !olle!t into nt fo$ dept.

fo i in nt5fist55nt5last loop

d%$soutput5putline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX

nt(i)5lo!).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0



Dna$e H SL'S Lo! H C:IC8O

Dna$e H OA'RTIONS Lo! H OSTON

LIMIT IN ULF COLL'CT

*ou !an use this to li$it the nu$%e of ows to %e fet!hed5

'/0

D'CLR'


nt t.


'8IN

Open !.

Bet!h ! %ul& !olle!t into nt li$it 1.

Close !.

149




d%$soutput5putline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX nt(i)5lo!).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0



MULTIAL' B'TC:'S IN INTO CLUS'

'/20

D'CLR'

T7pe t is ta%le of dept5dna$et7pe.

nt t.

T7pe t2 is ta%le of dept5lo!t7pe.

nt2 t. Cuso ! is sele!t dna$e#lo! fo$ dept.

'8IN

Open !.

Bet!h ! %ul& !olle!t into nt#nt2.

Close !.


d%$soutput5putline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)).

end loop.


d%$soutput5putline(=Lo! H = XX nt2(i)).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

Dna$e H CCOUNTIN8

Dna$e H R'S'RC:

Dna$e H SL'S

Dna$e H OA'RTIONSLo! H N'6 *ORF

Lo! H DLLS

Lo! H C:IC8O

Lo! H OSTON

'/10

D'CLR'

t7pe t is ta%le of dept5dna$et7pe.

t7pe t2 is ta%le of dept5lo!t7pe.

150



nt t.

nt2 t2.

'8IN

Sele!t dna$e#lo! %ul& !olle!t into nt#nt2 fo$ dept.


d%$soutput5putline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)). end loop.


d%$soutput5putline(=Lo! H = XX nt2(i)).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

Dna$e H CCOUNTIN8

Dna$e H R'S'RC:

Dna$e H SL'S

Dna$e H OA'RTIONS

Lo! H N'6 *ORF

Lo! H DLLS

Lo! H C:IC8O

Lo! H OSTON

R'TURNIN8 CLUS' IN ULF COLL'CT

*ou !an use this to etun the po!essed data to the ouput vaia%les o t7ped vaia%les5

'/0

D'CLR'

t7pe t is ta%le of nu$%e(1).

nt t 0H t(2#1#4#@).

t7pe t2 is ta%le of va!ha(1).

nt2 t2.

t7pe t1 is ta%le of studentowt7pe.

nt1 t1.

'8IN

sele!t na$e %ul& !olle!t into nt2 fo$ student. foall v in nt25fist55nt25last

update student set no H nt(v) whee na$e H nt2(v) etuning

no#na$e#$a&s %ul& !olle!t into nt1.

fo v in nt15fist55nt15last loop

d%$soutput5putline(=Ma&s H = XX nt1(v)).

end loop.

'ND.

151



Output0

Ma&s H 233

Ma&s H 133

Ma&s H 433

Ma&s H @33

AOINTS TO R'M'M'R

Cuso na$e !an %e up to 43 !haa!tes in length5

Cusos de!laed in anon7$ous %lo!&s o su%poga$s !loses auto$ati!all7 when that

%lo!& te$inates e/e!ution5

%ul&ow!ount and %ul&e/!eptions !an %e used onl7 with foall !onstu!t5

Cuso de!laations $a7 have e/pessions with !olu$n aliases5

These e/pessions ae !alled vitual !olu$ns o !al!ulated !olu$ns5

SQL IN AL?SQL

The onl7 state$ents allowed die!tl7 in pl?sl ae DML and TCL5

INDIN8

inding a vaia%le is the po!ess of identif7ing the stoage lo!ation asso!iated with an

identifie in the poga$5

T7pes of %inding

'al7 %inding

Late %inding

inding duing the !o$piled phase is eal7 %inding5

inding duing the unti$e phase is late %inding5

In eal7 %inding !o$pile phase will ta&e longe %e!ause of %inding wo& %ut the

e/e!ution is faste5

In late %inding it will shoten the !o$pile phase %ut lengthens the e/e!ution ti$e5

AL?SQL %7 default uses eal7 %inding5

inding also involves !he!&ing the data%ase fo pe$issions to a!!ess the o%Je!t

Refeen!ed5

D*NMIC SQL

If 7ou use DDL in pl?sl it validates the pe$issions and e/isten!e if euies duing

!o$pile ti$e whi!h $a&es invalid5

6e !an avoid this %7 using D7na$i! SQL5

D7na$i! SQL allows 7ou to !eate a SQL state$ent d7na$i!all7 at unti$e5

Two te!hniues ae availa%le fo D7na$i! SQL5

Native D7na$i! SQL

DMSSQL pa!&age

152



USIN8 NTI9' D*NMIC SQL

USIN8 '+'CUT' IMM'DIT'

'/0

'8IN

'/e!ute i$$ediate K!eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23));.

o

'/e!ute i$$ediate (K!eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23));).

'ND.

USIN8 '+'CUT' IMM'DIT' 6IT: AL?SQL 9RIL'S

'/0

D'CLR'

v va!ha(233).

'8IN

v 0H =!eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23))=.

e/e!ute i$$ediate v.

'ND.

USIN8 '+'CUT' IMM'DIT' 6IT: IND 9RIL'S ND USIN8 CLUS'

'/0

D'CLR'

v va!ha(233).

'8IN

v 0H =inset into student values(0v2#0v1#0v4)=.

e/e!ute i$$ediate v using #=f=#33.

'ND.

'+'CUTIN8 QU'RI'S 6IT: OA'N BOR ND USIN8 CLUS'

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC'DUR' A(s$a&s in nu$%e) IS

s va!ha(233) 0H =sele!t Efo$ student whee $a&s - 0$=.

t7pe t is ef !uso.

! t.

v studentowt7pe.

'8IN

open ! fo s using s$a&s.

loop

fet!h ! into v.


d%$soutput5putline(=Student Ma&s H = XX v5$a&s).

end loop.

!lose !.

'ND.

Output0

153



SQL- e/e! p(233)

Student Ma&s H 133

Student Ma&s H 433

Student Ma&s H @33

QU'RI'S 6IT: '+'CUT' IMM'DIT'

'/0 D'CLR'

dna$e dept5dna$et7pe.

l! dept5lo!t7pe.

v va!ha(233).

'8IN

v 0H =sele!t dna$e fo$ dept whee deptno H 23=.

e/e!ute i$$ediate v into dna$e.

d%$soutput5putline(=Dna$e H =XX dna$e).

v 0H =sele!t lo! fo$ dept whee dna$e H 0dn=.

e/e!ute i$$ediate v into l! using dna$e.

d%$soutput5putline(=Lo! H = XX l!).

'ND.

Output0

Dna$e H CCOUNTIN8

Lo! H N'6 *ORF

9RIL' NM'S

'/0

D'CLR'

Ma&s nu$%e(4) 0H 233.

'8IN

Delete student whee $a&s H $a&s. "" this will delete all the ows in the

"" student ta%le

'ND.

This !an %e avoided %7 using the la%eled %lo!&s5

,,$7%lo!&--

D'CLR'

Ma&s nu$%e(4) 0H 233.

'8IN

Delete student whee $a&s H $7%lo!&5$a&s. "" delete ows whi!h has

"" a $a&s of 233

'ND.

8'TTIN8 DT INTO AL?SQL 9RIL'S

'/0

D'CLR'

154



92 nu$%e.

91 va!ha(1).

'8IN

Sele!t no#na$e into v2#v1 fo$ student whee $a&s H 233.

'ND.

DML ND R'CORDS

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC'DUR' A(sow in studentowt7pe) IS

'8IN

inset into student values sow.

'ND A.

D'CLR'

s studentowt7pe.

'8IN

s5no 0H 22.

s5na$e 0H =aa=.

s5$a&s 0H 233.

p(s).

'ND.

R'CORD S'D INS'RTS

'/0

D'CLR'

sow studentowt7pe.

'8IN

sow5no 0H V.

sow5na$e 0H =!!=.

sow5$a&s 0H 33.

inset into student values sow.

'ND.

R'CORD S'D UADT'S

'/0

D'CLR'

sow studentowt7pe.

'8IN

sow5no 0H .

sow5na$e 0H =!!=.

sow5$a&s 0H 33.

update student set owHsow whee no H sow5no.

'ND.

USIN8 R'CORDS 6IT: R'TURNIN8 CLUS'

'/0

D'CLR'

155



sow studentowt7pe.

setun studentowt7pe.

'8IN

sow5no 0H W.

sow5na$e 0H =dd=.

sow5$a&s 0H 33. inset into student values sow etuning no#na$e#$a&s into setun.

d%$soutput5putline(=No H = XX setun5no).

d%$soutput5putline(=No H = XX setun5na$e).

d%$soutput5putline(=No H = XX setun5$a&s).

'ND.

Output0

No H W

No H dd

No H 33

USIN8 DMSSQL ACF8'

DMSSQL is used to e/e!ute d7na$i! SQL fo$ with in AL?SQL5 Unli&e native d7na$i! SQL#

it is not %uilt die!tl7 into the language# and thus is less effi!ient5 The DMSSQL pa!&age

allows 7ou to die!tl7 !ontol the po!essing of a state$ent within a !uso# with opeations

su!h as opening and !losing a !uso# pasing a state$ent# %inding input vaia%le# and

defining output vaia%les5

'/20

D'CLR' !usoid nu$%e.

flag nu$%e.

vst$t va!ha(3).

'8IN

!usoid 0H d%$ssl5open!uso.

vst$t 0H =!eate ta%le stud(sno nu$%e(1)#sna$e va!ha(23))=.

d%$ssl5pase(!usoid#vst$t#d%$ssl5native).

flag 0H d%$ssl5e/e!ute(!usoid).

d%$ssl5!lose!uso(!usoid).

d%$soutput5putline(=Ta%le !eated=).

'ND.

Output0

Ta%le !eated

SQL- des! stud

Na$e Null[ T7pe

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""" """"""""

156



SNO NUM'R(1)

SNM' 9RC:R1(23)

'/10

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC'DUR' DMSSQLAROC(v2 student5not7pe#

v1 student5$a&st7pe) is

!usoid nu$%e.

flag nu$%e.

vupdate va!ha(3).

'8IN

!usoid 0H d%$ssl5open!uso.

vupdate 0H =update student set $a&s H 0s$a&s whee no H 0sno=.

d%$ssl5pase(!usoid#vupdate#d%$ssl5native).

d%$ssl5%indvaia%le(!usoid#=0sno=#v2).

d%$ssl5%indvaia%le(!usoid#=0s$a&s=#v1).

flag 0H d%$ssl5e/e!ute(!usoid).

d%$ssl5!lose!uso(!usoid).

'ND DMSSQLAROC.

Output0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student. "" %efoe e/e!ution

NO N MRFS

"""" """""" "" """"""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133 4 ! 433

SQL- e/e! d%$sslpo!(1#111)

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student. "" afte e/e!ution

NO N MRFS

"""" """""" "" """"""""""

2 a 233

1 % 111

4 ! 433

BORLL STT'M'NT

This !an %e used to get the data fo$ the data%ase at on!e %7 edu!ting the nu$%e of

!onte/t swit!hes whi!h is a tansfe of !ontol %etween AL?SQL and SQL engine5

S7nta/0

Boall inde/va in

4ower_bound 55upper_bound X

Indi!es of indein"_collection X

9alues of indein"_collection

157



SQL state$ent.

BORLL 6IT: NON"S'QU'NTIL RR*S

'/0

D'CLR'

t7pe t is ta%le of student5not7pe inde/ %7 %ina7intege.

i%t t.

'8IN

i%t(2) 0H 2.

i%t(23) 0H 1.

foall i in i%t5fist55i%t5last

update student set $a&s H 33 whee no H i%t(i).

'ND.

The a%ove poga$ will give eo li&e Kele$ent at inde/ 1 does not e/ists5

*ou !an e!tif7 it in one of the two following wa7s5

US88' OB INDIC'S OB TO 9OID T:' O9' ':9IOUR This will %e used when 7ou have a !olle!tion whose defined ows spe!if7 whi!h ows in the

%inding aa7 7ou would li&e to po!essed5

'/0

D'CLR'


i%t t.

t7pe t2 is ta%le of %oolean inde/ %7 %ina7intege.

i%t2 t2.

'8IN

i%t(2) 0H 2.

i%t(23) 0H 1.

i%t(233) 0H 4.

i%t2(2) 0H tue.

i%t2(23) 0H tue.

i%t2(233) 0H tue.

foall i in indi!es of i%t2

update student set $a&s H 33 whee no H i%t(i).

'ND.

Ouput0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student "" %efoe e/e!ution

NO N MRFS

"""""""""" """"""""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133

4 ! 433

158



SQL- sele!t E fo$ student "" afte e/e!ution

NO N MRFS

"""""""""" """"""""""""

2 a 33

1 % 33

4 ! 33US88' OB 9LU'S OB TO 9OID T:' O9' ':9IOUR

This will %e used when 7ou have a !olle!tion of integes whose !ontent identifies the position

in the %inding aa7 that 7ou want to %e po!essed %7 the BORLL state$ent5

'/0

D'CLR'


i%t t.

t7pe t2 is ta%le of plsintege inde/ %7 %ina7intege.

i%t2 t2.

'8IN

i%t(2) 0H 2.

i%t(23) 0H 1.

i%t(233) 0H 4.

i%t2(22) 0H 2.

i%t2(2) 0H 23.

i%t2(2W) 0H 233.

foall i in values of i%t2 update student set $a&s H V whee no H i%t(i).

'ND.

Ouput0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student "" %efoe e/e!ution

NO N MRFS

"""""""""" """"""""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133

4 ! 433

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student "" afte e/e!ution

NO N MRFS

"""""""""" """"""""""""

2 a 33

1 % 33

4 ! 33

AOINTS OUT ULF INDS

159



Aassing the entie AL?SQL ta%le to the SQL engine in one step is &nown as %ul& %ind5

ul& %inds ae done using the foall state$ent5

If thee is an eo po!essing one of the ows in %ul& DML opeation# onl7 that ow is

olled %a!&5

AOINTS OUT R'TURIN8 CLUS'

This will %e used onl7 with DML state$ents to etun data into AL?SQL vaia%les5

This will %e useful in situations li&e # when pefo$ing inset o update o delete if 7ou

want to &now the data of the ta%le whi!h has %een effe!ted %7 the DML5

6ith out going fo anothe S'L'CT using R'TURNIN8 !lause we will get the data whi!h will

avoid a !all to RDMS &enel5

COLL'CTIONS

Colle!tions ae also !o$posite t7pes# in that the7 allow 7ou to teat seveal vaia%les as a unit5

!olle!tion !o$%ines vaia%les of the sa$e t7pe5

T*A'S

9aa7s

Nested ta%les

Inde/ " %7 ta%les (sso!iate aa7s)

9RR*S

vaa7 is datat7pe ve7 si$ila to an aa75 vaa7 has a fi/ed li$it on its sie# spe!ified as

pat of the de!laation5 'le$ents ae inseted into vaa7 stating at inde/ 2# up to $a/i$u$

lenth de!laed in the vaa7 t7pe5 The $a/i$u$ sie of the vaa7 is 1 giga %7tes5

S7nta/0

T7pe ,type_name is vaa7 X va7ing aa7 (,limit) of ,element_type.

'/20

D'CLR'

t7pe t is vaa7(23) of va!ha(1).

va t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=!=#=d=).

flag %oolean.

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=Li$it H = XX va5li$it).

d%$soutput5putline(=Count H = XX va5!ount).

d%$soutput5putline(=Bist Inde/ H = XX va5fist).

d%$soutput5putline(=Last Inde/ H = XX va5last).

d%$soutput5putline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX va5ne/t(1)).

d%$soutput5putline(=Aevious Inde/ H = XX va5pio(4)).

d%$soutput5putline(=9RR* 'L'M'NTS=).

fo i in va5fist55va5last loop

160



d%$soutput5putline(=va= XX i XX = H = XX va(i)).

end loop.

flag 0H va5e/ists(4).

if flag H tue then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX va(4)).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ 4 does not e/ists=).

end if.

va5e/tend.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount).

flag 0H va5e/ists().

if flag H tue then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ e/ists with an ele$ent = XX va()).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ does not e/ists=).

end if.

flag 0H va5e/ists().

if flag H tue then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ e/ists with an ele$ent = XX va()).

else


end if.

va5e/tend(1).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H = XX va5!ount).




end loop.

va() 0H =e=.

va() 0H =f=.

va(V) 0H =g=. d%$soutput5putline(=BT'R SSIN8NIN8 9LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS#

9RR* 'L'M'NTS=).



end loop.

va5e/tend(4#1).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte e/tend of thee inde/es# Count H = XX va5!ount).

161






end loop.

va5ti$.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount).

va5ti$(4).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte ti$ of thee inde/s# Count H = XX va5!ount).

d%$soutput5putline(=BT'R TRIM# 9RR* 'L'M'NTS=).



end loop.

va5delete.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of entie vaa7# Count H = XX va5!ount).

'ND.

Output0

Li$it H 23

Count H @

Bist Inde/ H 2

Last Inde/ H @

Ne/t Inde/ H 4

Aevious Inde/ H 1

9RR* 'L'M'NTS

va2 H a

va1 H %

va4 H !

va@ H d

Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent !

fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H

Inde/ e/ists with an ele$ent

Inde/ does not e/ists

fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H V

9RR* 'L'M'NTS

va2 H a

va1 H %

va4 H !

va@ H d

va H

162



va H

vaV H

BT'R SSIN8NIN8 9LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS# 9RR* 'L'M'NTS

va2 H a

va1 H %

va4 H !

va@ H d

va H e

va H f

vaV H g

fte e/tend of thee inde/es# Count H 23

9RR* 'L'M'NTS

va2 H a

va1 H %

va4 H !

va@ H d

va H e

va H f

vaV H g

vaW H %

va H %

va23 H %

fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H

fte ti$ of thee inde/s# Count H

BT'R TRIM# 9RR* 'L'M'NTS

va2 H a

va1 H %

va4 H !

va@ H d

va H e

va H f fte delete of entie vaa7# Count H 3

'/10

D'CLR'

t7pe t is vaa7(@) of studentowt7pe.

va t 0H t(null#null#null#null).

'8IN

fo i in 255va5!ount loop

sele!t E into va(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.

163



d%$soutput5putline(=Sno H = XX va(i)5sno XX = Sna$e H = XX va(i)5sna$e).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

Sno H 2 Sna$e H sa&eth

Sno H 1 Sna$e H sinuSno H 4 Sna$e H div7a

Sno H @ Sna$e H $anogni

'/40

D'CLR'

t7pe t is vaa7(@) of student5s$a&st7pe.


'8IN


sele!t s$a&s into va(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.

d%$soutput5putline(=S$a&s H = XX va(i)).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

S$a&s H 233

S$a&s H 133

S$a&s H 433

S$a&s H @33

'/@0

D'CLR'

t7pe is e!od(!2 student5sna$et7pe#!1 student5s$a&st7pe).

t7pe t is vaa7(@) of .


'8IN


sele!t sna$e#s$a&s into va(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.

d%$soutput5putline(=Sna$e H = XX va(i)5!2 XX = S$a&s H = XX va(i)5!1).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

Sna$e H sa&eth S$a&s H 233

Sna$e H sinu S$a&s H 133

Sna$e H div7a S$a&s H 433

Sna$e H $anogni S$a&s H @33

'/0

164



D'CLR'

t7pe t is vaa7(2) of add.

va t 0H t(null).

!uso ! is sele!t E fo$ e$plo7.

i nu$%e 0H 2.

'8IN

fo v in ! loop

sele!t addess into va(i) fo$ e$plo7 whee ena$e H v5ena$e.

d%$soutput5putline(=:no H = XX va(i)5hno XX = Cit7 H = XX va(i)5!it7).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

:no H 22 Cit7 H h7d

:no H 11 Cit7 H %ang

:no H 44 Cit7 H &o!hi

'/0

D'CLR'

t7pe t is vaa7() of va!ha(1).

va2 t.

va1 t 0H t().

'8IN

if va2 is null then

d%$soutput5putline(=va2 is null=).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=va2 is not null=).

end if.

if va1 is null then

d%$soutput5putline(=va1 is null=).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=va1 is not null=).

end if.

'ND.

Output0

va2 is null

va1 is not null

N'ST'D TL'S

nested ta%le is thought of a data%ase ta%le whi!h has no li$it on its sie5 'le$ents ae

inseted into nested ta%le stating at inde/ 25 The $a/i$u$ sie of the vaa7 is 1 giga %7tes5

S7nta/0

T7pe ,type_name is ta%le of ,table_type.

165



'/20

D'CLR'

t7pe t is ta%le of va!ha(1).

nt t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=!=#=d=).

flag %oolean.

'8IN if nt5li$it is null then

d%$soutput5putline(=No li$it to Nested Ta%les=).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=Li$it H = XX nt5li$it).

end if.

d%$soutput5putline(=Count H = XX nt5!ount).

d%$soutput5putline(=Bist Inde/ H = XX nt5fist).

d%$soutput5putline(=Last Inde/ H = XX nt5last).

d%$soutput5putline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX nt5ne/t(1)).

d%$soutput5putline(=Aevious Inde/ H = XX nt5pio(4)).

d%$soutput5putline(=N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS=).

fo i in 255nt5!ount loop

d%$soutput5putline(=nt= XX i XX = H = XX nt(i)).

end loop.

flag 0H nt5e/ists(4).

if flag H tue then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX nt(4)). else


end if.

nt5e/tend.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX nt5!ount).

flag 0H nt5e/ists().

if flag H tue then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ e/ists with an ele$ent = XX nt()).

else


end if.

flag 0H nt5e/ists().

if flag H tue then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ e/ists with an ele$ent = XX nt()).

else


166



end if.

nt5e/tend(1).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H = XX nt5!ount).




end loop.

nt() 0H =e=.

nt() 0H =f=.

nt(V) 0H =g=.

d%$soutput5putline(=BT'R SSIN8NIN8 9LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS# N'ST'D

TL' 'L'M'NTS=).



end loop.

nt5e/tend(#1).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte e/tend of five inde/es# Count H = XX nt5!ount).




end loop.

nt5ti$.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H = XX nt5!ount).

nt5ti$(4).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte ti$ of thee inde/s# Count H = XX nt5!ount).

d%$soutput5putline(=BT'R TRIM# N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS=).



end loop.

nt5delete(2).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of fist inde/# Count H = XX nt5!ount).


fo i in 155nt5!ountG2 loop


end loop.

nt5delete(@).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of fouth inde/# Count H = XX nt5!ount).


167



fo i in 1554 loop


end loop.

fo i in 55nt5!ountG1 loop


end loop.

nt5delete.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of entie nested ta%le# Count H = XX

nt5!ount).

'ND.

Output0

No li$it to Nested Ta%les

Count H @

Bist Inde/ H 2

Last Inde/ H @

Ne/t Inde/ H 4

Aevious Inde/ H 1

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt2 H a

nt1 H %

nt4 H !

nt@ H d



Inde/ e/ists with an ele$ent

Inde/ does not e/ists

fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H V

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt2 H a

nt1 H %

nt4 H !

nt@ H d

nt H

nt H

ntV H

BT'R SSIN8NIN8 9LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS# N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt2 H a

nt1 H %

168



nt4 H !

nt@ H d

nt H e

nt H f

ntV H g

fte e/tend of five inde/es# Count H 21

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt2 H a

nt1 H %

nt4 H !

nt@ H d

nt H e

nt H f

ntV H g

ntW H %

nt H %

nt23 H %

nt22 H %

nt21 H %

fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H 22

fte ti$ of thee inde/s# Count H W

BT'R TRIM# N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt2 H a

nt1 H %

nt4 H !

nt@ H d

nt H e

nt H f

ntV H g

ntW H %

fte delete of fist inde/# Count H VN'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt1 H %

nt4 H !

nt@ H d

nt H e

nt H f

ntV H g

169



S$a&s H @33

'/@0

D'CLR'

t7pe is e!od(!2 student5sna$et7pe#!1 student5s$a&st7pe).

t7pe t is ta%le of .

nt t 0H t(null#null#null#null).'8IN


sele!t sna$e#s$a&s into nt(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.

d%$soutput5putline(=Sna$e H = XX nt(i)5!2 XX = S$a&s H = XX nt(i)5!1).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

Sna$e H sa&eth S$a&s H 233

Sna$e H sinu S$a&s H 133

Sna$e H div7a S$a&s H 433

Sna$e H $anogni S$a&s H @33

'/0

D'CLR'

t7pe t is ta%le of add.

nt t 0H t(null).

!uso ! is sele!t E fo$ e$plo7.

i nu$%e 0H 2.

'8IN

fo v in ! loop

sele!t addess into nt(i) fo$ e$plo7 whee ena$e H v5ena$e.

d%$soutput5putline(=:no H = XX nt(i)5hno XX = Cit7 H = XX nt(i)5!it7).

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

:no H 22 Cit7 H h7d

:no H 11 Cit7 H %ang

:no H 44 Cit7 H &o!hi

'/0

D'CLR'

t7pe t is vaa7() of va!ha(1).

nt2 t.

nt1 t 0H t().

'8IN

if nt2 is null then

171



d%$soutput5putline(=nt2 is null=).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=nt2 is not null=).

end if.

if nt1 is null then

d%$soutput5putline(=nt1 is null=).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=nt1 is not null=).

end if.

'ND.

Output0

nt2 is null

nt1 is not null

S'T OA'RTIONS IN N'ST'D TL'S

*ou !an pefo$ set opeations in the nested ta%les5 *ou !an also pefo$ eualit7

!o$paisions %etween nested ta%les5

Aossi%le opeations ae

UNION

UNION DISTINCT

INT'RS'CT

'+C'AT ( a!t li&e MINUS)

'/0

D'CLR'

t7pe t is ta%le of va!ha(1).

nt2 t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=!=).

nt1 t 0H t(=!=#=%=#=a=).

nt4 t 0H t(=%=#=!=#=a=#=!=).

nt@ t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=d=).

nt t.

'8IN

nt 0H set(nt2).



d%$soutput5putline(=nt = XX i XX = H = XX nt(i)).

end loop.

nt 0H set(nt4).




172



end loop.

nt 0H nt2 $ultiset union nt@.




end loop.

nt 0H nt2 $ultiset union nt4.




end loop.

nt 0H nt2 $ultiset union distin!t nt4.




end loop.

nt 0H nt2 $ultiset e/!ept nt@.




end loop.

nt 0H nt@ $ultiset e/!ept nt2.




end loop.

'ND.

Output0

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt 2 H a

nt 1 H %

nt 4 H !

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt 2 H %

nt 1 H !

nt 4 H a

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt 2 H a

173



nt 1 H %

nt 4 H !

nt @ H a

nt H %

nt H d

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt 2 H a

nt 1 H %

nt 4 H !

nt @ H %

nt H !

nt H a

nt V H !

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt 2 H a

nt 1 H %

nt 4 H !

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt 2 H !

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt 2 H d

IND'+"* TL'S

n inde/"%7 ta%le has no li$it on its sie5 'le$ents ae inseted into inde/"%7 ta%le whose

inde/ $a7 stat non"seuentiall7 in!luding negative integes5

S7nta/0

T7pe ,type_name is ta%le of ,table_type inde/ %7 %ina7intege.

'/0

D'CLR'

t7pe t is ta%le of va!ha(1) inde/ %7 %ina7intege.

i%t t.

flag %oolean.

'8IN

i%t(2) 0H =a=.

i%t("13) 0H =%=.

i%t(43) 0H =!=.

i%t(233) 0H =d=.

if i%t5li$it is null then

d%$soutput5putline(=No li$it to Inde/ %7 Ta%les=).

else

174



d%$soutput5putline(=Li$it H = XX i%t5li$it).

end if.

d%$soutput5putline(=Count H = XX i%t5!ount).

d%$soutput5putline(=Bist Inde/ H = XX i%t5fist).

d%$soutput5putline(=Last Inde/ H = XX i%t5last).

d%$soutput5putline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX i%t5ne/t(1)).

d%$soutput5putline(=Aevious Inde/ H = XX i%t5pio(4)).

d%$soutput5putline(=IND'+ * TL' 'L'M'NTS=).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t"13 H = XX i%t("13)).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t2 H = XX i%t(2)).



flag 0H i%t5e/ists(43).

if flag H tue then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ 43 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX i%t(43)).

else


end if.


if flag H tue then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ 3 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX i%t(43)).

else


end if.

i%t5delete(2).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of fist inde/# Count H = XX i%t5!ount).

i%t5delete(43).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of inde/ thit7# Count H = XX i%t5!ount).

d%$soutput5putline(=IND'+ * TL' 'L'M'NTS=).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t"13 H = XX i%t("13)).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t233 H = XX i%t(233)). i%t5delete.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of entie inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H = XX

i%t5!ount).

'ND.

Output0

No li$it to Inde/ %7 Ta%les

Count H @

175



Bist Inde/ H "13

Last Inde/ H 233

Ne/t Inde/ H 43

Aevious Inde/ H 2

IND'+ * TL' 'L'M'NTS

i%t"13 H %

i%t2 H a

i%t43 H !

i%t233 H d


Inde/ 3 does not e/ists

fte delete of fist inde/# Count H 4

fte delete of inde/ thit7# Count H 1

IND'+ * TL' 'L'M'NTS

i%t"13 H %

i%t233 H d

fte delete of entie inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H 3

DIBB'R'NC'S MON8 COLL'CTIONS

9aa7s has li$it# nested ta%les and inde/"%7 ta%les has no li$it5

9aa7s and nested ta%les $ust %e initialied %efoe assign$ent of ele$ents# in inde/"%7

ta%les we !an die!tl7 assign ele$ents5

9aa7s and nested ta%les stoed in data%ase# %ut inde/"%7 ta%les !an not5

Nested ta%les and inde/"%7 ta%les ae AL?SQL ta%les# %ut vaa7s !an not5

Fe7s $ust %e positive in !ase of nested ta%les and vaa7s# in !ase of inde/"%7 ta%les

&e7s !an %e positive o negative5

Refeen!ing none/istent ele$ents aises SUSCRIAT'*ONDCOUNT in %oth nested ta%les

and vaa7s# %ut in !ase of inde/"%7 ta%les NODTBOUND aises5

Fe7s ae seuential in %oth nested ta%les and vaa7s# non"seuential in inde/"%7 ta%les5

Individual inde/es !an %e deleted in %oth nested ta%les and inde/"%7 ta%les# %ut in

vaa7s !an not5

Individual inde/es !an %e ti$$ed in %oth nested ta%les and vaa7s# %ut in inde/"%7

ta%les !an not5

Individual inde/es !an %e e/tended in %oth nested ta%les and vaa7s# %ut in inde/"%7

ta%les !an not5

MULTIL'9'L COLL'CTIONS

Colle!tions of $oe than one di$ension whi!h is a !olle!tion of !olle!tions# &nown as $ultilevel

!olle!tions5

S7nta/0

176



T7pe ,type_name1 is ta%le of ,table_type inde/ %7 %ina7intege.

T7pe ,type_name2 is vaa7(,limit -) X ta%le X of ,type_name1 < inde/ %7

%ina7intege.

'/20

D'CLR'

t7pe t2 is ta%le of va!ha(1) inde/ %7 %ina7intege. t7pe t1 is vaa7() of t2.

va t1 0H t1().

! nu$%e 0H V.

flag %oolean.

'8IN

va5e/tend(@).

d%$soutput5putline(=Count H = XX va5!ount).

d%$soutput5putline(=Li$it H = XX va5li$it).


fo J in 255va5!ount loop

va(i)(J) 0H !h(!).

! 0H ! G 2.

end loop.

end loop.



fo J in 255va5!ount loop d%$soutput5putline(=va= XX i XX == XX J XX = H = XX va(i)(J)).

end loop.

end loop.

d%$soutput5putline(=Bist inde/ H = XX va5fist).

d%$soutput5putline(=Last inde/ H = XX va5last).

d%$soutput5putline(=Ne/t inde/ H = XX va5ne/t(1)).

d%$soutput5putline(=Aevious inde/ H = XX va5pio(4)).

flag 0H va5e/ists(1).

if flag H tue then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ 1 e/ists=).

else


end if.

va5e/tend.

va(2)() 0H ==.

va(1)() 0H ==.

177



va(4)() 0H =s=.

va(@)() 0H =t=.

va()(2) 0H =u=.

va()(1) 0H =v=.

va()(4) 0H =w=.

va()(@) 0H =/=.

va()() 0H =7=.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount).




d%$soutput5putline(=va= XX i XX == XX J XX = H = XX va(i)(J)).

end loop.

end loop.

va5ti$.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount).

va5ti$(1).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte ti$ of two inde/es# Count H = XX va5!ount).




d%$soutput5putline(=va= XX i XX == XX J XX = H = XX va(i)(J)).

end loop.

end loop.

va5delete.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of entie vaa7# Count H = XX va5!ount).

'ND.

Output0

Count H @

Li$it H

9RR* 'L'M'NTS

va22 H a

va21 H %

va24 H !

va2@ H d

va12 H e

va11 H f

va14 H g

178



va1@ H h

va42 H i

va41 H J

va44 H &

va4@ H l

va@2 H $

va@1 H n

va@4 H o

va@@ H p

Bist inde/ H 2

Last inde/ H @

Ne/t inde/ H 4

Aevious inde/ H 1

Inde/ 1 e/ists


9RR* 'L'M'NTS

va22 H a

va21 H %

va24 H !

va2@ H d

va2 H

va12 H e

va11 H f

va14 H g

va1@ H h

va1 H

va42 H i

va41 H J

va44 H &

va4@ H l

va4 H sva@2 H $

va@1 H n

va@4 H o

va@@ H p

va@ H t

va2 H u

va1 H v

179



va4 H w

va@ H /

va H 7

fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H @

fte ti$ of two inde/es# Count H 1

9RR* 'L'M'NTS

va22 H a

va21 H %

va12 H e

va11 H f

fte delete of entie vaa7# Count H 3

'/10

D'CLR'

t7pe t2 is ta%le of va!ha(1) inde/ %7 %ina7intege.

t7pe t1 is ta%le of t2.

nt t1 0H t1().

! nu$%e 0H .

v nu$%e 0H 2.

flag %oolean.

'8IN

nt5e/tend(@).


if nt5li$it is null then d%$soutput5putline(=No li$it to Nested Ta%les=).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=Li$it H = XX nt5li$it).

end if.


fo J in 255nt5!ount loop

nt(i)(J) 0H !h(!).

! 0H ! G 2.

if ! H 2 then

! 0H V.

end if.

end loop.

end loop.




180



d%$soutput5putline(=nt= XX i XX == XX J XX = H = XX nt(i)(J)).

end loop.

end loop.

d%$soutput5putline(=Bist inde/ H = XX nt5fist).

d%$soutput5putline(=Last inde/ H = XX nt5last).

d%$soutput5putline(=Ne/t inde/ H = XX nt5ne/t(1)).

d%$soutput5putline(=Aevious inde/ H = XX nt5pio(4)).

flag 0H nt5e/ists(1).

if flag H tue then


else


end if.

nt5e/tend(1).

nt(2)() 0H =Q=.

nt(2)() 0H =R=.

nt(1)() 0H =S=.

nt(1)() 0H =T=.

nt(4)() 0H =U=.

nt(4)() 0H =9=.

nt(@)() 0H =6=.

nt(@)() 0H =+=.

nt()(2) 0H =*=.

nt()(1) 0H =Z=.

nt()(4) 0H =a=.

nt()(@) 0H =%=.

nt()() 0H =!=.

nt()() 0H =d=.

nt()(2) 0H =e=.

nt()(1) 0H =f=.

nt()(4) 0H =g=. nt()(@) 0H =h=.

nt()() 0H =i=.

nt()() 0H =J=.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX nt5!ount).




181




end loop.

end loop.

nt5ti$.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte ti$ of one inde/e# Count H = XX nt5!ount).

nt5ti$(1).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte ti$ of two inde/es# Count H = XX nt5!ount).





end loop.

end loop.

nt5delete(1).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of se!ond inde/# Count H = XX nt5!ount).


loop

e/it when v H @.

fo J in 255nt5!ountG2 loop

d%$soutput5putline(=nt= XX v XX == XX J XX = H = XX nt(v)(J)).

end loop.

v 0H v G 2.

if vH 1 then

v 0H 4.

end if.

end loop.

nt5delete.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of entie nested ta%le# Count H = XX

nt5!ount).

'ND.

Output0

Count H @

No li$it to Nested Ta%les

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt22 H

nt21 H

nt24 H C

nt2@ H D

182



nt12 H '

nt11 H B

nt14 H 8

nt1@ H :

nt42 H I

nt41 H >

nt44 H F

nt4@ H L

nt@2 H M

nt@1 H N

nt@4 H O

nt@@ H A

Bist inde/ H 2

Last inde/ H @

Ne/t inde/ H 4

Aevious inde/ H 1

Inde/ 1 e/ists


N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt22 H

nt21 H

nt24 H C

nt2@ H D

nt2 H Q

nt2 H R

nt12 H '

nt11 H B

nt14 H 8

nt1@ H :

nt1 H S

nt1 H Tnt42 H I

nt41 H >

nt44 H F

nt4@ H L

nt4 H U

nt4 H 9

nt@2 H M

183



nt@1 H N

nt@4 H O

nt@@ H A

nt@ H 6

nt@ H +

nt2 H *

nt1 H Z

nt4 H a

nt@ H %

nt H !

nt H d

nt2 H e

nt1 H f

nt4 H g

nt@ H h

nt H i

nt H J

fte ti$ of one inde/e# Count H

fte ti$ of two inde/es# Count H 4

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt22 H

nt21 H

nt24 H C

nt12 H '

nt11 H B

nt14 H 8

nt42 H I

nt41 H >

nt44 H F

fte delete of se!ond inde/# Count H 1

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTSnt22 H

nt21 H

nt24 H C

nt42 H I

nt41 H >

nt44 H F

fte delete of entie nested ta%le# Count H 3

184



'/40

D'CLR'


t7pe t1 is ta%le of t2 inde/ %7 %ina7intege.

i%t t1.

flag %oolean.'8IN


if i%t5li$it is null then

d%$soutput5putline(=No li$it to Inde/"%7 Ta%les=).

else

d%$soutput5putline(=Li$it H = XX i%t5li$it).

end if.

i%t(2)(2) 0H =a=.

i%t(@)() 0H =%=.

i%t()(2) 0H =!=.

i%t()(1) 0H =d=.

i%t(W)(4) 0H =e=.

i%t(4)(@) 0H =f=.

d%$soutput5putline(=IND'+"* TL' 'L'M'NTS=).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t(22 H = XX i%t(2)(2)).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t(@ H = XX i%t(@)()).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t(2 H = XX i%t()(2)). d%$soutput5putline(=i%t(1 H = XX i%t()(1)).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t(W4 H = XX i%t(W)(4)).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t(4@ H = XX i%t(4)(@)).

d%$soutput5putline(=Bist Inde/ H = XX i%t5fist).

d%$soutput5putline(=Last Inde/ H = XX i%t5last).

d%$soutput5putline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX i%t5ne/t(4)).

d%$soutput5putline(=Aio Inde/ H = XX i%t5pio(W)).

i%t(2)(1) 0H =g=.

i%t(2)(4) 0H =h=.

i%t(2)(@) 0H =i=.

i%t(2)() 0H =&=.

i%t(2)() 0H =l=.

i%t(2)(V) 0H =$=.

i%t(2)(W) 0H =n=.



185



fo i in 255W loop

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t2= XX i XX = H = XX i%t(2)(i)).

end loop.

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t(@ H = XX i%t(@)()).

d%$soutput5putline(=i%t(2 H = XX i%t()(2)).





if flag H tue then


else


end if.

i%t5delete(2).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of fist inde/# Count H = XX i%t5!ount).

i%t5delete(@).

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of fouth inde/# Count H = XX i%t5!ount).






i%t5delete.

d%$soutput5putline(=fte delete of entie inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H = XX

i%t5!ount).

'ND.

Output0

Count H 3

No li$it to Inde/"%7 Ta%les

IND'+"* TL' 'L'M'NTS

i%t(22 H a

i%t(@ H %

i%t(2 H !

i%t(1 H d

i%t(W4 H e

i%t(4@ H f

Bist Inde/ H 2

186



Last Inde/ H W

Ne/t Inde/ H @

Aio Inde/ H

Count H


i%t22 H a

i%t21 H g

i%t24 H h

i%t2@ H i

i%t2 H &

i%t2 H l

i%t2V H $

i%t2W H n

i%t(@ H %

i%t(2 H !

i%t(1 H d

i%t(W4 H e

i%t(4@ H f

Inde/ 4 e/ists

fte delete of fist inde/# Count H

fte delete of fouth inde/# Count H @


i%t(2 H !

i%t(1 H d

i%t(W4 H e

i%t(4@ H f

fte delete of entie inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H 3

'/@0

D'CLR'


t7pe t1 is ta%le of t2 inde/ %7 %ina7intege.

t7pe t4 is ta%le of t1.

nt t4 0H t4().

! nu$%e 0H .

'8IN

nt5e/tend(1).




187



fo & in 255nt5!ount loop

nt(i)(J)(&) 0H !h(!).

! 0H ! G 2.

end loop.

end loop.

end loop.




fo & in 255nt5!ount loop

d%$soutput5putline(=nt= XX i XX == XX J XX == XX & XX = H = XX

nt(i)(J)(&)).

end loop.

end loop.

end loop.

'ND.

Output0

Count H 1

N'ST'D TL' 'L'M'NTS

nt222 H

nt221 H

nt212 H C

nt211 H D

nt122 H '

nt121 H B

nt112 H 8

nt111 H :

O>'CTS US'D IN T:' '+MAL'S


SNO SNM' SMRFS

"""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""

2 sa&eth 233

1 sinu 133

4 div7a 433

@ $anogni @33

SQL- !eate o epla!e t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(1)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$plo7.

'NM' >O DDR'SS(:NO# CIT*)

188



"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""

RanJit !le& DDR(22# =h7d=)

Satish $anage DDR(11# =%ang=)

Sinu enginee DDR(44# =&o!hi=)

'RROR :NDLIN8

AL?SQL i$ple$ents eo handling with e/!eptions and e/!eption handles5 '/!eptions !an %e

asso!iated with oa!le eos o with 7ou own use"defined eos5 7 using e/!eptions and

e/!eption handles# 7ou !an $a&e 7ou AL?SQL poga$s o%ust and a%le to deal with %oth

une/pe!ted and e/pe!ted eos duing e/e!ution5

'RROR T*A'S

Co$pile"ti$e eos

Runti$e eos

'os that o!!u duing the !o$pilation phase ae dete!ted %7 the AL?SQL engine and epoted

%a!& to the use# we have to !oe!t the$5

Runti$e eos ae dete!ted %7 the AL?SQL unti$e engine whi!h !an poga$$ati!all7 aise

and !aught %7 e/!eption handles5

'/!eptions ae designed fo un"ti$e eo handling# athe than !o$pile"ti$e eo handling5

:NDLIN8 '+C'ATIONS

6hen e/!eption is aised# !ontol passes to the e/!eption se!tion of the %lo!&5 The e/!eption

se!tion !onsists of handles fo so$e o all of the e/!eptions5 n e/!eption handle !ontains

the !ode that is e/e!uted when the eo asso!iated with the e/!eption o!!us# and the

e/!eption is aised5S7nta/0

'+C'ATION

6hen e/!eptionna$e then

Seuen!eofstate$ents.

6hen e/!eptionna$e then


6hen othes then


'ND.

'+C'ATION T*A'S

Aedefined e/!eptions

Use"defined e/!eptions

AR'D'BIN'D '+C'ATIONS

Oa!le has pedefined seveal e/!eptions that !oesponds to the $ost !o$$on oa!le eos5

Li&e the pedefined t7pes# the identifies of these e/!eptions ae defined in the STNDRD

189



pa!&age5 e!ause of this# the7 ae alead7 availa%le to the poga$# it is not ne!essa7 to

de!lae the$ in the de!laative se!ion5

'/20

D'CLR'

a nu$%e.

% va!ha(1). v$a&s nu$%e.


t7pe t is vaa7(4) of va!ha(1).

va t 0H t(=a=#=%=).

va2 t.

'8IN

"" NODTBOUND

'8IN

sele!t s$a&s into v$a&s fo$ student whee sno H 3.'+C'ATION

when nodatafound then

d%$soutput5putline(=Invalid student nu$%e=).

'ND.

"" CURSORLR'D*OA'N

'8IN

open !.

open !.

'+C'ATION

when !usoalead7open then

d%$soutput5putline(=Cuso is alead7 opened=).

'ND.

"" IN9LIDCURSOR

'8IN

!lose !.

open !.

!lose !.

!lose !.

'+C'ATION

when invalid!uso then

d%$soutput5putline(=Cuso is alead7 !losed=).

'ND.

"" TOOMN*RO6S

'8IN

sele!t s$a&s into v$a&s fo$ student whee sno - 2.

'+C'ATION

190



when too$an7ows then

d%$soutput5putline(=Too $an7 values ae !o$ing to $a&s

vaia%le=).

'ND.

"" Z'RODI9ID'

'8IN

a 0H ?3.

'+C'ATION

when eodivide then

d%$soutput5putline(=Divided %7 eo " invalid opeation=).

'ND.

"" 9LU''RROR

'8IN

% 0H =sa&eth=.

'+C'ATION

when valueeo then

d%$soutput5putline(=Invalid sting length=).

'ND.

"" IN9LIDNUM'R

'8IN

inset into student values(=a=#=sinu=#233).

'+C'ATION

when invalidnu$%e then

d%$soutput5putline(=Invalid nu$%e=).

'ND. "" SUSCRIATOUTSID'LIMIT

'8IN

va(@) 0H =!=.

'+C'ATION

when su%s!iptoutsideli$it then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ is geate than the li$it=).

'ND.

"" SUSCRIAT'*ONDCOUNT

'8IN

va(4) 0H =!=.

'+C'ATION

when su%s!ipt%e7ond!ount then

d%$soutput5putline(=Inde/ is geate than the !ount=).

'ND.

"" COLL'CTIONISNULL

'8IN

va2(2) 0H =a=.

'+C'ATION

191



when !olle!tionisnull then

d%$soutput5putline(=Colle!tion is e$pt7=).

'ND.

""

'ND.

Output0Invalid student nu$%e

Cuso is alead7 opened

Cuso is alead7 !losed

Too $an7 values ae !o$ing to $a&s vaia%le

Divided %7 eo " invalid opeation

Invalid sting length

Invalid nu$%e

Inde/ is geate than the li$it

Inde/ is geate than the !ount

Colle!tion is e$pt7

'/10

D'CLR'

! nu$%e.

'8IN

! 0H ?3.

'+C'ATION

when eodivide then

d%$soutput5putline(=Invalid Opeation=).

when othes then

d%$soutput5putline(=Bo$ OT:'RS handle0 Invalid

Opeation=).

'ND.

Output0

Invalid Opeation

US'R"D'BIN'D '+C'ATIONS use"defined e/!eption is an eo that is defined %7 the poga$$e5 Use"defined

e/!eptions ae de!laed in the de!laative se!ion of a AL?SQL %lo!&5 >ust li&e vaia%les#

e/eptions have a t7pe '+C'ATION and s!ope5

RISIN8 '+C'ATIONS

Use"defined e/!eptions ae aised e/pli!itl7 via the RIS' state$ent5

'/0

'CLR'

e e/!eption.

192



'8IN

aise e.

'+C'ATION

when e then

d%$soutput5putline(=e is aised=).

'ND.

Output0

e is aised

ULIT"IN 'RROR BUNCTIONS

SQLCOD' ND SQL'RRM

SQLCOD' etuns the !uent eo !ode# and SQL'RRM etuns the !uent eo $essage

te/t.

Bo use"defined e/!eption SQLCOD' etuns 2 and SQL'RRM etuns Puse"deifned

e/!eption5

SQL'RRM wiil ta&e onl7 negative value e/!ept 2335 If an7 positive value othe than 233

etuns non"oa!le e/!eption5

'/20

D'CLR'

e e/!eption.

vdna$e va!ha(23).

'8IN

"" US'R"D'BIN'D '+C'ATION '8IN

aise e.

'+C'ATION

when e then

d%$soutput5putline(SQLCOD' XX = = XX SQL'RRM).

'ND.

"" AR'D'BIN'D '+C'ATION

'8IN

sele!t dna$e into vdna$e fo$ dept whee deptno H 3.

'+C'ATION

when nodatafound then

d%$soutput5putline(SQLCOD' XX = = XX SQL'RRM).

'ND.

'ND.

Output0

2 Use"Defined '/!eption

233 OR"32@340 no data found

193



'/10

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(SQL'RRM(233)).



d%$soutput5putline(SQL'RRM("233)). d%$soutput5putline(SQL'RRM("33)).


d%$soutput5putline(SQL'RRM("33)).

'ND.

Output0

OR"32@340 no data found

OR"33330 no$al# su!!essful !o$pletion

Use"Defined '/!eption

OR"332330 no data found

OR"33330 Message 33 not found. podu!tHRDMS. fa!ilit7HOR

"1330 non"ORCL' e/!eption

OR"33330 invalid SQL state$ent

DMSUTILIT*5BORMT'RRORSTCF

The %uilt"in fun!tion# li&e SQL'RRM# etuns the $essage asso!iated with the !uent

eo5

It diffes fo$ SQL'RRM in two wa7s0

Its length is not esti!ted. it will etun the full eo $essage sting5

*ou !an not pass an eo !ode nu$%e to this fun!tion. it !annot %e used to etun the

$essage fo a ando$ eo !ode5

'/0

D'CLR'

v nu$%e 0H =a%=.

'8IN

null.

'+C'ATION

when othes then d%$soutput5putline(d%$sutilit75fo$ateosta!&).

'ND.

Output0

de!lae

E

'RROR at line 20

OR"3310 AL?SQL0 nu$ei! o value eo0 !haa!te to nu$%e !onvesion eo

194



OR"3210 at line 1

DMSUTILIT*5BORMTCLLSTCF

This fun!tion etuns a fo$atted sting showing the e/e!ution !all sta!& inside 7ou AL?SQL

appli!ation5 Its usefulness is not esti!ted to eo $anage$ent. 7ou will also find its hand7

fo ta!ing the e/e!tution of 7ou !ode5 *ou $a7 not use this fun!tion in e/!eption %lo!&5'/0

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(d%$sutilit75fo$at!allsta!&).

'ND.

Output0

""""" AL?SQL Call Sta!& """""

O%Je!thandle linenu$%e o%Je!tna$e

V3@VW 1 anon7$ous %lo!&

DMSUTILIT*5BORMT'RRORCFTRC'

It displa7s the e/e!ution sta!& at the point whee an e/!eption was aised5 Thus # 7ou !an !all

this fun!tion with an e/!eption se!tion at the top level of 7ou sta!& and still find out whee the

eo was aised deep within the !all sta!&5

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' AROC'DUR' A2 IS

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=fo$ po!edue 2=).

aise valueeo.

'ND A2.


'8IN


p2.

'ND A1.


'8IN


p1.

'+C'ATION

when othes then

d%$soutput5putline(d%$sutilit75fo$ateo%a!&ta!e).

'ND A4.

Output0

SQL- e/e! p4

fo$ po!edue 4

fo$ po!edue 1

195



fo$ po!edue 2

OR"3210 at bSF'T:5A2b# line @



'+C'ATIONINIT AR8M

Using this 7ou !an asso!iate a na$ed e/!eption with a pati!ula oa!le eo5 This gives 7ou

the a%ilit7 to tap this eo spe!ifi!all7# athe than via an OT:'RS handle5

S7nta/0

AR8M '+C'ATIONINIT(eception_name# oracle_error_number ).

'/0

D'CLR'

e e/!eption.

pag$a e/!eptioninit(e#"2@V).

! nu$%e.

'8IN

! 0H ?3.

'+C'ATION

when e then

d%$soutput5putline(=Invalid Opeation=).

'ND.

Output0

Invalid Opeation

RIS'AALICTION'RROR

*ou !an use this %uilt"in fun!tion to !eate 7ou own eo $essages# whi!h !an %e $oe

des!iptive than na$ed e/!eptions5

S7nta/0

RIS'AALICTION'RROR (error_number # error_me!!a"e## eep_error!_'la").

The oolean paa$ete eep_error!_'la" is optional5 If it is TRU'# the new eo is added to the

list of eos alead7 aised5 If it is BLS'# whi!h is default# the new eo will epla!e the !uent

list of eos5

'/0D'CLR'

! nu$%e.

'8IN

! 0H ?3.

'+C'ATION

when eodivide then

aiseappli!ationeo("13111#=Invalid Opeation=).

'ND.

196



Output0

D'CLR'

E

'RROR at line 20

OR"131110 Invalid Opeation

OR"3210 at line V'+C'ATION AROA8TION

'/!eptions !an o!!u in the de!laative# the e/e!uta%le# o the e/!eption se!tion of a AL?SQL

%lo!&5

'+C'ATION RIS'D IN T:' '+'CUTL' S'CTION

'/!eptions aised in e/e!uata%le se!tion !an %e handled in !uent %lo!& o oute %lo!&5

'/20

D'CLR'

e e/!eption.

'8IN

'8IN

aise e.

'ND.

'+C'ATION

when e then


'ND.

Output0

e is aised

'/10

D'CLR'

e e/!eption.

'8IN

'8IN

aise e.

'ND.

'ND.

Output0

'RROR at line 20

OR"3230 AL?SQL0 unhandled use"defined e/!eption

OR"3210 at line

'+C'ATION RIS'D IN T:' D'CLRTI9' S'CTION

'/!eptions aised in the de!laative se!ion $ust %e handled in the oute %lo!&5

'/20

D'CLR'

! nu$%e(4) 0H =a%!d=.

197



'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=:ello=).

'+C'ATION

when othes then


'ND.

Output0

'RROR at line 20

OR"3310 AL?SQL0 nu$ei! o value eo0 !haa!te to nu$%e !onvesion eo

OR"3210 at line 1

'/10

'8IN

D'CLR'

! nu$%e(4) 0H =a%!d=.

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(=:ello=).

'+C'ATION

when othes then


'ND.

'+C'ATION

when othes then

d%$soutput5putline(=Bo$ oute %lo!&0 Invalid sting length=).

'ND.

Output0

Bo$ oute %lo!&0 Invalid sting length

'+C'ATION RIS'D IN T:' '+C'ATION S'CTION

'/!eptions aised in the de!laative se!ion $ust %e handled in the oute %lo!&5

'/20

D'CLR'

e2 e/!eption.

e1 e/!eption.

'8IN

aise e2.

'+C'ATION

when e2 then

d%$soutput5putline(=e2 is aised=).

aise e1.

when e1 then


198



'ND.

Output0

e2 is aised

D'CLR'

E

'RROR at line 20OR"3230 AL?SQL0 unhandled use"defined e/!eption

OR"3210 at line


'/10

D'CLR'

e2 e/!eption.

e1 e/!eption.

'8IN

'8IN

aise e2.

'+C'ATION

when e2 then


aise e1.

when e1 then


'ND.

'+C'ATION

when e1 then

d%$soutput5putline(=Bo$ oute %lo!&0 e1 is aised=).

'ND.

Output0

e2 is aised

Bo$ oute %lo!&0 e1 is aised

'/40

D'CLR'

e e/!eption.'8IN

aise e.

'+C'ATION

when e then


aise e.

'ND.

Output0

199



e is aised

D'CLR'

E

'RROR at line 20


OR"3210 at line W


R'STRICTIONS

*ou !an not pass e/!eption as an agu$ent to a su%poga$5

DTS' TRI88'RS

Tigges ae si$ila to po!edues o fun!tions in that the7 ae na$ed AL?SQL %lo!&s with

de!laative# e/e!uta%le# and e/!eption handling se!tions5 tigge is e/e!uted i$pli!itl7

wheneve the tiggeing event happens5 The a!t of e/e!uting a tigge is &nown as fiing the

tigge5

R'STRICTIONS ON TRI88'R'S

Li&e pa!&ages# tigges $ust %e stoed as stand"alone o%Je!ts in the data%ase and

!annot %e lo!al to a %lo!& o pa!&age5

tigge does not a!!ept agu$ents5

US' OB TRI88'RS

Maintaining !o$ple/ integit7 !onstaints not possi%le though de!laative !onstaints

ena%le at ta%le !eation5

uditing info$ation in a ta%le %7 e!oding the !hanges $ade and who $ade the$5 uto$ati!all7 signaling othe poga$s that a!tion needs to ta&e pla!e when !hages ae

$ade to a ta%le5

Aefo$ validation on !hanges %eing $ade to ta%les5

uto$ate $aintenan!e of the data%ase5

T*A'S OB TRI88'RS

DML Tigges

Instead of Tigges

DDL Tigges

S7ste$ Tigges

Suspend Tigges

CT'8ORI'S

Ti$ing "" efoe o fte

Level "" Row o State$ent

Row level tigge fies on!e fo ea!h ow affe!ted %7 the tiggeing state$ent5 Row leve

tigge is identified %7 the BOR 'C: RO6 !lause5

200



State$ent level tigge fies on!e eithe %efoe o afte the state$ent5

DML TRI88'R S*NT+

Ceate o epla!e tigge ,tri""er_name-

^efoe X afte_ ^inset o update o delete_ on ,table_name-

Bo ea!h ow

6hen ()

De!lae

"" de!laation

egin

"" tigge %od7

'/!eption


'nd ,tri""er_name-.

DML TRI88'RS

DML tigge is fied on an INS'RT# UADT'# o D'L'T' opeation on a data%ase ta%le5 It !an %e

fied eithe %efoe o afte the state$ent e/e!utes# and !an %e fied on!e pe affe!ted ow# o

on!e pe state$ent5

The !o$%ination of these fa!tos dete$ines the t7pes of the tigges5 These ae a total of 21

possi%le t7pes (4 state$ents E 1 ti$ing E 1 levels)5

STT'M'NT L'9'L

State$ent level tigge fies onl7 on!e5

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le state$entlevel(!ount va!ha(3)).CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R STT'M'NTL'9'LTRI88'R

afte update on student

'8IN

inset into state$entlevel values(=State$ent level fied=).

'ND STT'M'NTL'9'LTRI88'R.

Output0

SQL- update student set s$a&sH33.

4 ows updated5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ state$entlevel.

COUNT

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

State$ent level fied

RO6 L'9'L

Row level tigge fies on!e fo ea!h ow affe!ted %7 the tiggeing state$ent5

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le owlevel(!ount va!ha(3)).

201



CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R RO6L'9'LTRI88'R

afte update on student

'8IN

inset into owlevel values(=Row level fied=).

'ND RO6L'9'LTRI88'R.

Output0

SQL- update student set s$a&sH33.

4 ows updated5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ state$entlevel.

COUNT

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

Row level fied

Row level fied

Row level fied

ORD'R OB DML TRI88'R BIRIN8

efoe state$ent level

efoe ow level

fte ow level

fte state$ent level

'/0

Suppose we have a follwing ta%le5


NO NM' MRFS """"" """"""" """"""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133

4 ! 433

@ d @33

SQL- !eate ta%le fiingode(ode va!ha(3)).

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R 'BOR'STT'M'NT

%efoe inset on student

'8IN

inset into fiingode values(=efoe State$ent Level=).

'ND 'BOR'STT'M'NT.

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R 'BOR'RO6

%efoe inset on student

fo ea!h ow

'8IN

inset into fiingode values(=efoe Row Level=).

202



'ND 'BOR'RO6.

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R BT'RSTT'M'NT

afte inset on student

'8IN

inset into fiingode values(=fte State$ent Level=).

'ND BT'RSTT'M'NT.

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R BT'RRO6


fo ea!h ow

'8IN

inset into fiingode values(=fte Row Level=).

'ND BT'RRO6.

Output0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ fiingode.

no ows sele!ted

SQL- inset into student values(#=e=#33).

2 ow !eated5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ fiingode.

ORD'R

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

efoe State$ent Level

efoe Row Level

fte Row Level

fte State$ent LevelSQL- sele!t E fo$ student.

NO NM' MRFS

"""" """""""" """"""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133

4 ! 433

@ d @33

e 33

CORR'LTION ID'NTIBI'RS IN RO6"L'9'L TRI88'RS

Inside the tigge# 7ou !an a!!ess the data in the ow that is !uentl7 %eing po!essed5 This is

a!!o$plished though two !oelation identifies " 0old and 0new5

correlation identi'ier is a spe!ial &ind of AL?SQL %ind vaia%le5 The !olon in font of ea!h

indi!ates that the7 ae %ind vaia%les# in the sense of host vaia%les used in e$%edded AL?SQL#

and indi!ates that the7 ae not egula AL?SQL vaia%les5 The AL?SQL !o$pile will teat the$ as

e!ods of t7pe

Tiggeingta%leRO6T*A'5

203



lthough s7nta!ti!all7 the7 ae teated as e!ods# in ealit7 the7 ae not5 0old and 0new ae

also &nown as p!eudorecord!# fo this eason5

TRI88'RIN8 STT'M'NT 0OLD 0N'6

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

INS'RT all fields ae NULL5 values that will %e inseted

6hen the state$ent is !o$pleted5

UADT' oiginal values fo new values that will %e updated

the ow %efoe the when the state$ent is !o$pleted5

update5

D'L'T' oiginal values %efoe all fields ae NULL5

the ow is deleted5

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le $a&s(no nu$%e(1) old$a&s nu$%e(4)#new$a&s

nu$%e(4)).CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R OLDN'6

%efoe inset o update o delete on student

fo ea!h ow

'8IN

inset into $a&s values(0old5no#0old5$a&s#0new5$a&s).

'ND OLDN'6.

Output0


NO NM' MRFS

""""" """"""" """"""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133

4 ! 433

@ d @33

e 33

SQL- sele!t E fo$ $a&s.

no ows sele!ted

SQL- inset into student values(#=f=#33).

2 ow !eated5


NO NM' MRFS

"""" """""""" """"""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133

204



4 ! 433

@ d @33

e 33

f 33


NO OLDMRFS N'6MRFS

"""" """"""""""""""" """""""""""""""

33

SQL- update student set $a&sH whee noH.

2 ow updated5


NO NM' MRFS

""""" """"""" """"""""""

2 a 233

1 % 133

4 ! 433

@ d @33

e

f 33


NO OLDMRFS N'6MRFS

"""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""""""

33

33

SQL- delete student whee no H 1.

2 ow deleted5


NO NM' MRFS

"""" """""""" """"""""""

2 a 233

4 ! 433 @ d @33

e

f 33


NO OLDMRFS N'6MRFS

""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""""""

33

205



33

1 133

R'B'R'NCIN8 CLUS'

If desied# 7ou !an use the R'B'R'NCIN8 !lause to spe!if7 a diffeent na$e fo 0old ane 0new5

This !lause is found afte the tiggeing event# %efoe the 6:'N !lause5

S7nta/0 R'B'R'NCIN8 old as oldna$e new as newna$e

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R R'B'R'NC'TRI88'R


efeen!ing old as oldstudent new as newstudent

fo ea!h ow

'8IN

inset into $a&s

values(0oldstudent5no#0oldstudent5$a&s#0newstudent5$a&s).'ND R'B'R'NC'TRI88'R.

6:'N CLUS'

6:'N !lause is valid fo ow"level tigges onl75 If pesent# the tigge %od7 will %e e/e!uted

onl7 fo those ows that $eet the !ondition spe!ified %7 the 6:'N !lause5

S7nta/0

6:'N tri""er_condition.

6hee tri""er_condition is a oolean e/pession5 It will %e evaluated fo ea!h ow5 The =new

and =old e!ods !an %e efeen!ed inside tri""er_condition as well# %ut li&e R'B'R'NCIN8# the

!olon is not used thee5 The !olon is onl7 valid in the tigge %od75

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R 6:'NTRI88'R


efeen!ing old as oldstudent new as newstudent

fo ea!h ow

when (newstudent5$a&s - 33)

'8IN

inset into $a&s

values(0oldstudent5no#0oldstudent5$a&s#0newstudent5$a&s).

'ND 6:'NTRI88'R.

TRI88'R AR'DICT'S

Thee ae thee oolean fun!tions that 7ou !an use to dete$ine what the opeation is5

The pedi!ates ae

INS'RTIN8

UADTIN8

D'L'TIN8

206



'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le pedi!ates(opeation va!ha(13)).

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R AR'DICT'TRI88'R


'8IN

if inseting then

inset into pedi!ates values(=Inset=).

elsif updating then

inset into pedi!ates values(=Update=).

elsif deleting then

inset into pedi!ates values(=Delete=).

end if.

'ND AR'DICT'TRI88'R.

Output0

SQL- delete student whee noH2.

2 ow deleted5

SQL- sele!t E fo$ pedi!ates.

MS8

"""""""""""""""

Delete

SQL- inset into student values(V#=g=#V33).

2 ow !eated5


MS8

"""""""""""""""

Delete

Inset

SQL- update student set $a&s H VVV whee noHV.

2 ow updated5


MS8

"""""""""""""""

Delete

Inset

Update

INST'D"OB TRI88'RS

Instead"of tigges fie instead of a DML opeation5 lso# instead"of tigges !an %e defined onl7

on views5 Instead"of tigges ae used in two !ases0

To allow a view that would othewise not %e $odifia%le to %e $odified5

207



To $odif7 the !olu$ns of a nested ta%le !olu$n in a view5

'/0

SQL- !eate view e$pdept as sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo!#sal#e5deptno fo$

e$p e# dept d whee e5deptno H d5deptno.

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R INST'DOBTRI88'R

instead of inset on e$pdept

'8IN

inset into dept2 values(3#=d=#=%ang=).

inset into

e$p2(e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#sal#deptno)values(1111#=sa&eth=#=do!to=#W333#3).

'ND INST'DOBTRI88'R.

Output0

SQL- inset into e$pdept values(1111#=sa&eth=#=do!to=#W333#=d=#=%ang=#3).

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$pdept. 'MANO 'NM' >O SL DNM' LOC D'ATNO

"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """"""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""

V4 SMIT: CL'RF W33 R'S'RC: DLLS 13

V@ LL'N SL'SMN 233 SL'S C:IC8O 43

V12 6RD SL'SMN 213 SL'S C:IC8O 43

V >ON'S MN8'R 1V R'S'RC: DLLS 13

V@ MRTIN SL'SMN 213 SL'S C:IC8O 43

VW LF' MN8'R 1W3 SL'S C:IC8O 43

VVW1 CLRF MN8'R 1@3 CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF 23

VVWW SCOTT NL*ST 4333 R'S'RC: DLLS 13

VW4 FIN8 AR'SID'NT 333 CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF 23

VW@@ TURN'R SL'SMN 233 SL'S C:IC8O 43

VWV DMS CL'RF 2233 R'S'RC: DLLS 13

V33 >M'S CL'RF 3 SL'S C:IC8O 43

V31 BORD NL*ST 4333 R'S'RC: DLLS 13

V4@ MILL'R CL'RF 2433 CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF 23

1111 sa&eth do!to W333 d %ang 3


D'ATNO DNM' LOC

"""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""


13 R'S'RC: DLLS

43 SL'S C:IC8O

@3 OA'RTIONS OSTON

208



3 d %ang

SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p.


"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""" """""""" """""""""""""" """"""""" """"""""" """"""""""

V4 SMIT: CL'RF V31 2 V"D'C"W3 W33 13

V@ LL'N SL'SMN VW 13"B'"W2 233 433 43

V12 6RD SL'SMN VW 11"B'"W2 213 33 43

V >ON'S MN8'R VW4 31"AR"W2 1V 13

V@ MRTIN SL'SMN VW 1W"S'A"W2 213 2@33 43

VW LF' MN8'R VW4 32"M*"W2 1W3 43

VVW1 CLRF MN8'R VW4 3">UN"W2 1@3 23



VW@@ TURN'R SL'SMN VW 3W"S'A"W2 233 3 43

VWV DMS CL'RF VVWW 14"M*"WV 2233 13

V33 >M'S CL'RF VW 34"D'C"W2 3 43

V31 BORD NL*ST V 34"D'C"W2 4333 13

V4@ MILL'R CL'RF VVW1 14">N"W1 2433 23

1111 sa&eth do!to W333 3

DDL TRI88'RS

Oa!le allows 7ou to define tigges that will fie when Data Definition Language state$ents

ae e/e!uted5

S7nta/0


^efoe X afte_ ^DDL event_ on ^data%ase X s!he$a_

6hen ()

De!lae

"" de!laation

egin

"" tigge %od7

'/!eption"" e/!eption se!tion

'nd ,tri""er_name-.

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le $7o%Je!ts(o%Jna$e va!ha(23)#o%Jt7pe va!ha(23)#o%Jowne

va!ha(23)#o%Jti$e date).

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R CR'T'TRI88'R

afte !eate on data%ase

'8IN

209



inset into $7o%Je!ts values(s7s5di!tiona7o%Jna$e#s7s5di!tiona7o%Jt7pe#

s7s5di!tiona7o%Jowne# s7sdate).

'ND CR'T'TRI88'R.

Output0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ $7o%Je!ts.

no ows sele!tedSQL- !eate ta%le stud2(no nu$%e(1)).


O>NM' O>T*A' O>O6N'R O>TIM'

""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""

STUD2 TL' S*S 12">UL"3V

SQL- !eate seuen!e ss.

SQL- !eate view studview as sele!t E fo$ stud2.


O>NM' O>T*A' O>O6N'R O>TIM'

"""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""""

STUD2 TL' S*S 12">UL"3V

SS S'QU'NC' S*S 12">UL"3V

STUD9I'6 9I'6 S*S 12">UL"3V

6:'N CLUS'

If 6:'N pesent# the tigge %od7 will %e e/e!uted onl7 fo those that $eet the !ondition

spe!ified %7 the 6:'N !lause5

'/0CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R CR'T'TRI88'R

afte !eate on data%ase

when (s7s5di!tiona7o%Jt7pe H KTL';)

'8IN

inset into $7o%Je!ts values(s7s5di!tiona7o%Jna$e#s7s5di!tiona7o%Jt7pe#

s7s5di!tiona7o%Jowne# s7sdate).

'ND CR'T'TRI88'R.

S*ST'M TRI88'RS

S7ste$ tigges will fie wheneve data%ase"wide event o!!us5 The following ae the data%aseevent tigges5 To !eate s7ste$ tigge 7ou need DMINIST'R DTS' TRI88'R pivilege5

STRTUA

S:UTDO6N

LO8ON

LO8OBB

S'R9'R'RROR

S7nta/0


210



^efoe X afte_ ^Data%ase event_ on ^data%ase X s!he$a_

6hen ()

De!lae

"" de!laation se!tion

egin

"" tigge %od7

'/!eption


'nd ,tri""er_name-.

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le uselogs(una$e va!ha(23)#logti$e ti$esta$p).

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R BT'RLO8ON

afte logon on data%ase

'8IN

inset into uselogs values(use#!uentti$esta$p).

'ND BT'RLO8ON.

Output0

SQL- sele!t E fo$ uselogs.

no ows sele!ted



UNM' LO8TIM'

"""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

SF'T: 11">UL"3V 2153V52452@3333 M

SQL- !onn s7ste$?oa!le


UNM' LO8TIM'

"""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

SF'T: 11">UL"3V 2153V52452@3333 M

S*ST'M 11">UL"3V 2153V54@512W333 M

SQL- !onn s!ott?tige


UNM' LO8TIM'

"""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

SF'T: 11">UL"3V 2153V52452@3333 M

S*ST'M 11">UL"3V 2153V54@512W333 M

SCOTT 11">UL"3V 2153W5@4534333 M

S'R9'R'RROR

211



The S'R9'R'RROR event !an %e used to ta!& eos that o!!u in the data%ase5 The eo !ode is

availa%le inside the tigge though the S'R9'R'RROR atti%ute fun!tion5

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%le $7eos(eo$sg va!ha(133)).

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R S'R9'R'RRORTRI88'R

afte seveeo on data%ase'8IN

inset into $7eos values(d%$sutilit75fo$ateosta!&).

'ND S'R9'R'RRORTRI88'R.

Output0

SQL- !eate ta%le ss (no)).

!eate ta%le ss (no))

E

'RROR at line 20

OR"33110 $issing o invalid option

SQL- sele!t E fo$ $7eos.

'RRORMS8

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""


SQL- inset into student values(2#1#4).

inset into student values(2#1#4)

E

'RROR at line 20

OR"33@10 ta%le o view does not e/ist

SQL- sele!t E fo$ $7eos.

'RRORMS8

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""


OR"33@10 ta%le o view does not e/ist

S'R9'R'RROR TTRIUT' BUNCTION

It ta&es a single nu$%e t7pe of agu$ent and etuns the eo at the position on the eo

sta!& indi!ated %7 the agu$ent5 The position 2 is the top of the sta!&5

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R S'R9'R'RRORTRI88'R

afte seveeo on data%ase

'8IN

inset into $7eos values(seveeo(2)).

'ND S'R9'R'RRORTRI88'R.

SUSA'ND TRI88'RS

212



This will fie wheneve a state$ent is suspended5 This $ight o!!u as the esult of a spa!e

issue su!h as e/!eeding an allo!ated ta%lepa!e uota5 This fun!tionalit7 !an %e used to addess

the po%le$ and allow the opeatin to !ontinue5

S7nta/0


afte suspend on ̂ data%ase X s!he$a_

6hen ()

De!lae

"" de!laation se!tion

egin

"" tigge %od7

'/!eption


'nd ,tri""er_name-.

'/0

SQL- !eate ta%lespa!e $7spa!e datafile =f0$7file5d%f= sie 1$.

SQL- !eate ta%le student(sno nu$%e(1)#sna$e va!ha(23)) ta%lespa!e $7spa!e.

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R SUSA'NDTRI88'R

afte suspend on data%ase

'8IN

d%$soutput5putline(K No oo$ to inset in 7ou ta%lespa!e=).

'ND SUSA'NDTRI88'R.

Output0

Inset $oe ows in student ta%le then # 7ou will get

No oo$ to inset in 7ou ta%lespa!e

UTONOMOUS TRNSCTION

Aio to Oa!leWi# thee was no wa7 in whi!h so$e SQL opeations within a tansa!tion !ould %e

!o$$itted independent of the est of the opeations5 Oa!le allows this# howeve# though

autonomou! tran!action!5 n autonomou! tran!action is a tansa!tion that is stated within

the !onte/t of anothe tansa!tion# &nown as paent tansa!tion# %ut is independent of it5 The

autono$ous tansa!tion !an %e !o$$itted o olled %a!& egadless ot the state of the paent

tansa!tion5

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R UTONOMOUSTRNSCTIONTRI88'R


D'CLR'

pag$a autono$oustansa!tion.

'8IN

update student set $a&s H .

213



!o$$it.

'ND UTONOMOUSTRNSCTIONTRI88'R.

Output0


NO N MRFS

""""" """"" "" """""""""" 2 a 222

1 % 111

4 ! 433

SQL- inset into student values(@#=d=#@@@).


NO N MRFS

"""" """""" "" """"""""""

2 a

1 %

4 !

@ d @@@

R'STRICTIONS ON UTONOMOUS TRNSCTION

If an autono$ous tansa!tion atte$pts to a!!ess a esou!e held %7 the $ain

tansa!tion# a deadlo!& !an o!!u in 7ou poga$5

*ou !annot $a& all poga$s in a pa!&age as autono$ous with a single AR8M

de!laation5 *ou $ust indi!ate autono$ous tansa!tions e/pli!it7 in ea!h poga$5

To e/it without eos fo$ an autono$ous tansa!tion poga$ that has e/e!uted at

least one INS'RT o UADT' o D'L'T'# 7ou $ust pefo$ an e/pli!it !o$$it o oll%a!&5

The COMMIT and ROLLCF state$ents end the a!tive autono$ous tansa!tion# %ut the7 do

not fo!e the te$ination of the autono$ous outine5 *ou !an have $ultiple COMMIT

and?o ROLLCF state$ents inside 7ou autono$ous %lo!&5

*ou !an not oll%a!& to a savepoint set in the $ain tansa!tion5

The TRNSCTIONS paa$ete in the oa!le initialiation file spe!ifies the $a/i$u$

nu$%e of tansa!tions allowed !on!uentl7 in a session5 The default value is V fo

this# %ut 7ou !an in!ease the li$it5MUTTIN8 TL'S

Thee ae esti!tions on the ta%les and !olu$ns that a tigge %od7 $a7 a!!ess5 In ode to

define these esti!tions# it is ne!essa7 to undestand $utating and !onstaining ta%les5

$utating ta%le is ta%le that is !uentlt7 %eing $odified %7 a DML state$ent and the tigge

event also DML state$ent5 $utating ta%le eo o!!us when a ow"level tigge ties to

e/a$ine o !hange a ta%le that is alead7 undegoing !hange5

214



!onstaining ta%le is a ta%le that $ight need to %e ead fo$ fo a efeential integit7

!onstaint5

'/0

CR'T' OR R'ALC' TRI88'R MUTTIN8TRI88'R

%efoe delete on student

fo ea!h owD'CLR'

!t nu$%e.

'8IN

sele!t !ount(E) into !t fo$ student whee no H 0old5no.

'ND MUTTIN8TRI88'R.

O t t

215

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