Spirituality and Social Work Some...

Samta P. Pandya Spirituality and Social Work: Some Deliberations

Spirituality and Social WorkSome Deliberations

SAMTA P. PANDYA

This article is an attempt to comprehend association of spirituality and social work andthe corresponding deliberations therein. Commencing with unearthing of thecompound meanings of spirituality as an essentially transcendental construct, therendition delves into the global and Indic conceptualisations of the same. A congruentexploration of the theistic and non-theistic propositions of spirituality also unveilscertain key epistemic contentions that qualify as spirituality. Further contemporarydiscourses on spirituality and critical injunctions have also been reflexivelyconsidered. The discussion is then carried forward towards the realm of socialsciences and the instances of transcendence and actualisation that qualify spiritualityemployed therein. Within social work, apart from the repertoire of ethicalunderpinnings that embarks on spirituality tenets, domains of transpersonal socialwork practice have been conferred. Given the intensities and the brouhaha associatedwith the construct and its interrelationships, the article concludes with spaces thatneed to be negotiated to determine a curriculum on the subject.

Samta .P. Pandya is Assistant Professor, Centre for Equity for Women, Children andFamilies, School of Social Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.

INTRODUCTION

That several normative-ideational orientations guide the social work pro-

fession is a postulate that possesses a plethora of epistemological and

praxis oriented evidences. Particularly the ideologies that navigate and

perspectives that determine the repertoire provide testimony to the same.

Theology, theism and faith have generally been the Archimedean stand-

point, stemming wherefrom are positivist-rationalist, phenomenological,

Marxian, structuralist-poststructuralist-postcolonial-postmodern discourses

that then signify the paradigm shifts. Embedded in theology, theism and faith

is an entire domain of metaphysical deliberations that could be cumula-

tively termed as spirituality. That is to say that apart from the mysticism,

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

Tata Instituteof

Social Sciences

THEINDIAN JOURNAL

OFSOCIAL WORK

Volume 72, Issue 1January 2011

symbology and sacralisation embedded in faith, there exists a quintessen-

tial realm which deals with existential questions and transcendental dimen-

sions –which is called spirituality. The global history of philosophy has

unveiled several theistic realms containing instances of metaphysics-spiri-

tuality entrenched in faith tenets of ecclesiastical, Judaic, Islamic,

Mazdaaic faiths and certain indigenous traditions of South East Asian ori-

gin (Plott, Dolin and Hatton, 1963). Apart from that, certain traditional phi-

losophers have also forwarded epistemological propositions that fall under

the gamut of spirituality tenets (Smart, 1999). In the Indian context, the

richness of the metaphysical-spiritual fabric is evident by Vedic Gnostic

tenets, Post Vedic Literature, Jain Agam and non-Agam literature and

Buddhist critical spirituality (Banerji, 1996). The Bhakti and Sufi tradi-

tions as also the post ‘modernity’ turn through the New Age Spirituality

have added their shades.

In the realm of social sciences, aspects of transcendence and

actualisation that qualify spirituality have been discerned through health

research, ageing research, counselling and positive psychology. In social

work, spirituality is gradually visualised as a crucial locus classicus of in-

terventions (particularly the transpersonal practice domains) as well as in

lending an epistemic base to the values and ethics of the profession (Canda

and Smith, 2001). Further, the spirituality-embedded social capital gener-

ated by spiritual organisations as institutional actors in civil society needs

systematic deliberations.

This paper is thus an attempt to understand the multitude meanings of

spirituality, propositions in theology, theism and philosophy that qualify

as spirituality, global and Indic conceptualisations of spirituality, contem-

porary discourses and critical injunctions. Further the exchange with social

science domains and facets and manifestations in social work episteme and

practice are also discussed. Some deliberations on what could be the fla-

vours of the curriculum on spirituality and social work have been pre-

sented.

MEANINGS OF SPIRITUALITY

Spirituality as a concept has been described in western and indigenous lit-

erature, however a precise definition is still elusive. The primary reason

could be the impalpable that is purported and posited through the construct

of spirituality. Around ten categorisations of interpretations combining

Indic and western theo-spiritual viewpoints have been discerned.

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

92 Samta P. Pandya

The Gnostic view proposes that spirituality is about divinity and divine

beings — the proximity to theism and Absolute Being centred viewpoints

(Canda and Furman, 1999). The transcendental view consists of explana-

tions in spirituality as to asking major existential questions such as: Who

am I? Why do I exist? What is my purpose? How do I fit in this world?

From this viewpoint spirituality appears closer to the realm of metaphysics

(Canda and Furman, 1999).The theological understanding of spirituality

proposes a set of beliefs in a divine being and manifestations of those be-

liefs. It is an awareness of relationships with all creation, an appreciation of

its presence and purpose which then includes a sense of being (McGinn,

1993; Nakasame, 2008; Chatterjee, Patnaik and Cherian, 2008).

There exists in conceptual literature a concept called non-religious spiri-

tual propensity. The alignment is to the belief that religion is not a funda-

mental belief system, but that all features of religiosity can take

non-religious spiritual forms (Frey, Daaleman and Peyton, 2005). The so-

ciological perspective on spirituality is congruent with existential orienta-

tions and described as giving expressions to our inner beliefs — a power that

comes from knowing our deepest self/ selves and what is it that is sacred to

us (Roof, 1993). The psychological perspective of spirituality posits that

characteristics of spirituality within the domain of well-being (Pargament

and Mahoney, 2002). Positive psychology which studies positive subjective

experiences depicts spirituality as providing a framework for adjustment,

growth and reaching one’s human potential (Seligman, Snyder and Lopez,

2002). The social psychology perspective on spirituality is the view of spiri-

tuality/ religiosity (mostly the terms in this vein of literature are used inter-

changeably) as a coping mechanism (Pargament, 1997).

Beyond disciplinary realms, surreal conceptions of spirituality continue

to persist. Herein, spirituality is conceptualised as discourses on an un-

known realm – an outer world that is beyond self (Cox, 1996; Shea, 2000).

The syncretic and amalgamated view on the other hand proposes that spiri-

tuality is about divinity and about self and tied to attributes of personal

meanings that have a positivistic characteristic (Shea, 2000). Further, Frey

Daaleman and Peyton (2005) have conceptualised spirituality as a congru-

ent meaningful life scheme and high functional self-efficacy beliefs that

synergistically promote personal agency. (Agency beliefs refer to an indi-

viduals’ self view as an active participant who constructs his or her own

life course through the choices and actions that he or she takes, given the

opportunities and constraints of his or her circumstances).

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

Spirituality and Social Work: Some Deliberations 93

Meanings of spirituality are further embellished by discussions on spiri-

tual beliefs, spiritual practices and spiritual experiences. Spiritual beliefs

have been in extant literature classified according to three known catego-

ries — (i) beliefs about self-divine connections, (ii) beliefs about

self-world exchange, and (iii) beliefs in the vein of self — absolute self

synergy (Stewart, 2000). Spiritual practices demonstrate the tangible turn

to the ephemeral discourses on spirituality (Zinnbauer,, Pargament, Cole,

Rye, Butler, Beliarich, Hipp, Scott and Kadar, 1997).1 The concept of spiri-

tual experiences is a realm of the unknown and a matter entirely attributed

to subjective experiences. Spiritual experiences are transcendental experi-

ences largely concerned with an alignment/proximity to the Absolute

Being or God. Although adequate conceptualisations on spiritual experi-

ences are not evident in literature, some domains drawing from Aquinas,

Kant and Heidegger can be elaborated. In the indigenous context, the six

philosophical schools and Vedanta in particular, have given pertinent in-

sights into the nature and flavour of spiritual experiences.

PROPOSITIONS IN THEOLOGY, THEISM AND PHILOSOPHYTHAT QUALIFY AS SPIRITUALITY

Broadly in literature there exist three forms of propositions that propound

concepts under the gamut of spirituality discourses. These may be categor-

ised as ontological propositions, cosmological propositions and

epistemological propositions. Ontological propositions contain discourses

on being, being-ness, self, soul, existence and Absolute or Divine Being/

Self and the organic and/or symbolic exchange relations between any or all

of the aforementioned entities. Two core entities herein are nevertheless the

‘being’ and ‘Being’ and the spatial and temporal existential domains that are

traversed. Cosmological propositions contain discursive renditions on cre-

ation and emanationism2 (Walker, 1978) — the theistic archaeology of exis-

tence. The predominant discussions herein are on spirit, matter, primal

elements, fundamental categories, the cosmos and the Universe (Raju, 1992).

Epistemological propositions with twin dimensions of transcendental-

ism and ‘transpersonalism’ (Hart, Nelson and Puhakka, 2000) form a cru-

cial core of spirituality. Transcendentalism implies an ideational position

aligning to the mystical with a sense of ‘going beyond’ the immediate

realms of existence and hence diametrically opposite to utilitarianism and

pragmatism (Walker, 1978). Under the ambit of ‘transpersonalism’, Hart,

Nelson and Puhakka (2000) have outlined the following aspects:

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

94 Samta P. Pandya

• Authentic knowing as knowing by and for oneself. Implying a shift

from intentionally structured consciousness, such knowing makes

direct contact with the known and nourishes a sense of well-being.

• Inspiration as an epistemic event that provides psychological and

spiritual sustenance and a penetrating path to self-knowledge

involving learning to be with our experiences in a way which is called

unconditional presence.

• The psycho-phenomenological mechanism through which spiritual

knowing arises, reframed through William James’ radical empiricism

and the critical process of deconstruction. Spiritual knowing and the

ongoing process of deconstructing our epistemic frames are one and

the same.

• Exploration of consciousness and three major stages and several sub

stages of psycho spiritual development – pre-centred, centred and

de-centred.

• Discursive reconstruction of mystical experience symbolising an

illuminative epistemology which proposes a theory of knowledge by

presence. There is a distinction between representational-predicative

knowledge and pre-sentient3-intuitive knowledge.

Global Conceptualisations of Spirituality

References to spirituality tenets have been made by philosophers and the-

ists, expounding and deliberating on tenets akin to spirituality. Historically

speaking, orientations and positions are sought in the writings of Plato, Ar-

istotle and Plotinus as well as the Latin tradition in early Christian philoso-

phy particularly the writings of St. Augustine. Further, citations are found

in medieval Islamic and Jewish thought and medieval Christian philoso-

phers, particularly the writings of Bonaventure, Eruigena and Aquinas.

Among the 17th century philosophers, the writings of Spinoza and Leibniz

contain allusions followed by Kantian transcendental thought, Hegelian

idealism and Schopenhauer. Teilhard de Chardin was another 19th century

theologist whose writings have spiritual leanings. In the 20th century vein,

Wittgensteinian philosophy contains indications on the mysticism and the

mystical self followed by the phenomenological turn and consciousness

deliberations of Husserl and Heidegger. South East Asian philosophical

traditions of China, Japan and Korea contain further locations and posi-

tions on spirituality tenets. What parallelly deserves a special mention

herein is the entire gamut of understanding embedded in theories of

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011


aesthetics and their transcendental implications which posit an organic

inter-relationship with spirituality tenets.

Within the writings of Plato, there are references to the immortality of

the soul, transmigration and notions of God as an Absolute Being. Aris-

totle’s repertoire includes aspects of the proof of God’s existence and phi-

losophy of the nature and teachings of the soul (Masih, 1994). Instances are

located in his study of ‘beings and first principles’ (contained in his Book

Lambda) amalgamating theology with an account of the ‘unmoved mov-

ers’ which are in some sense, the supreme entities of the universe (Barnes,

1995). Further contributions are those of the Milesians (of the Early Greek

tradition) to cosmology — that of “hylozoism” (considering the first origi-

nating principle of the universe to be divine) and the fundamental principle

of the whole physical world being divine as conceived by Thales (Algra,

1999). Along with Plotinus’s claims to other worldliness, within the Greek

tradition Parmenides has suggested the constancy of the Absolute Being

behind the ephemeral world and Empedocles has references to the incorpo-

real Divine Being governing the whole cosmos (Masih, 1994).

The Latin tradition to Christian philosophy contains the renditions of St.

Augustine, probably the first systematic treatment of spirituality tenets in

the global context. There are philosophical arguments for the human soul

as a spiritual substance, spiritual incorporeality and substantiality of the

human mind. Augustinian arguments for the spiritual substantiality of the

human soul include discussions on the psychic experiences in us that do

not have properties found in bodies and hence the incorporeality of the

soul. The ‘cogitare-seipsum’ argument for the spirituality of the soul pro-

poses its substantiality and spiritual propensity (Holscher, 1986).

Heresiographers have traced elements of spirituality in the scholastic

theology based on Islam. Although Koranic tenets are the prime sources,

later, vast amounts of apocryphal material were added to what was the

original core. These contain deliberations on divine justice and allegorical

interpretations to safeguard the immateriality and the transcendence of

God (determined by varying degree of allegiance to Greek philosophy). Is-

lamic mysticism is rooted in the original matrix of religious experience,

which grows in turn out of the being’s overwhelming awareness of God

and the sense of nothingness without Him and of the urgent need to subor-

dinate reason to experience. The mysticism of Sufis, such as Ibn Arabi, cul-

minated in grandiose cosmological and metaphysical world schemes. The

ninth century systematic philosophical writings within Islamic thought

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

96 Samta P. Pandya

propose that the chief attribute of God as author of the world is ‘unity’ and

all things/ existence is a derivative therefrom. The writings of Islamic phi-

losopher Avicenna (Ibn Sina) posit that God is the only absolute simple en-

tity in the Universe and in God, existence and essence are one and the

same. He developed a triadic scheme of emanation, triangulating God, ex-

istence of things and their subsequent manifestations (Fakhry, 1983).

Jewish Kabbalistic cosmology involved a distinction between ‘Ein Sof’

or infinite Absolute and the various qualities or forces that emanate from it.

Frank and Leaman (2003) have discussed that the spirituality tenets in Jew-

ish thought contain traces of Neoplatonism — particularly the nature of

Godhead and the relationship of Godhead to the cosmos. Further, Judaic

philosopher Gabirol has proposed hierarchies of the ‘Being’ — first es-

sence, being only, universal matter, universal intellect and rational soul

which then subscribe to the positionality that reality is comprised of God,

Will, Matter and Form. This has traces of theistic cosmology and

existentialism emanating from the Absolute Being.

With reference to medieval Christian philosophy and spirituality tenets

embedded therein, there are writings of Bonaventure, Eriugena and Aqui-

nas. Bonaventure has proposed that the material world is constituted by a

coming together of immaterial qualities which are sensibly perceptible

only in their coagulation. Eruigena brought in the mystical element in me-

dieval thought with the proposition that the spatio-temporal world of bod-

ies, therefore, is constituted from incorporeal qualities. This doctrine is

essential to Eruigena’s view that the being of all created things consists in

their being understood by God (Weinburg, 1964). Aquinas posits the being

or existence of creatures is derived from ‘Being’ which is God. ‘Being’ is

the actuality of every form or nature and its essence or nature is a potential-

ity whose actuality is the act of existing.4 The perspectives propose ‘natu-

ralism’ as a metaphysical doctrine with the Absolute as a substantial reality

and finite beings as modes of that reality, hence heralding the basis of a

harmonious existence (Adams, 1929). In this vein, another significant con-

tribution is by the 14th century European philosopher, Johannes Eckhart,

who has discussed the mystical experience and the fact that the highest

mystical experience comes when the individual realises the essential iden-

tity of his/her underlying self with the divine reality.

Deleuze (1992) has discussed Spinoza’s expressionism and tenets of di-

vinity which have implications for spirituality conceptualisations.

Spinoza’s expressionism carries traces of spirituality with arguments on

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011


Infinity. All things according to Spinoza ultimately fold up into the sim-

plicity of an Infinity and there is a Universal Map that folds things back to

the single point. Hence, Infinity and Universal Map are important concepts

in Spinoza’s scheme of things. Further, the Universe according to Spinoza

comprises of substances and attributes. As the core of existence emanates

from a divine being, attributes are affirmations of God. The spirituality

content of his arguments can be inferred from the following: “God is the

substance consisting of an infinity of attributes, each of which expresses an

eternal and infinite essence.” Further arguments are built to demonstrate as

to how all existence is manifestation of this essence. Spinozian substantial

monism thus conceives of God as the fundamental substance and finite be-

ings as modes of this one substance (Garrett, 1996).

Parallel connections are seen to Leibniz’s theory of monads proposing

the thesis that the ultimate constituents of reality are soul like substances

whose states are harmonised by a benevolent God. Other arguments in-

clude the metaphysics of substances (developed along Aristotelian lines)

stating that the primal substances are causally independent of everything

except God (Jolley, 1995). Evidences of spirituality tenets can also be

sought in Kantian transcendental idealism containing teleological argu-

ments for the existence of God. Transcendental idealism admits the exis-

tence of ‘things in themselves’ and endows the arguments that beings are

free noumenal agents, the soul is immortal and God exists (Walker, 1978).5

Corbishley (1971) has discussed the spirituality of Teilhard de Chardin

(19th century) from the ecumenical point of view. The discussion has cen-

tred around what is quintessentially labelled as the phenomenon of spiritu-

ality — which is devised on the consciousness and cosmological

experiences of human beings. Hence in Teilhardian terms, spirituality her-

alds the personalisation of the Universe, incorporating discourses on a new

factor – that of morality which is relative and dynamic in nature and hence

called the morality of movement. The movement component herein is to-

wards the pursuit of a divine being and hence thus is the manifestation of

the principle of unity.

In the Wittgensteinian scheme of things, there are notions of the mysti-

cal, the mystical self and the Weltanschaung which symbolises a desirable

worldview. Under the influence of Schopenhauer, the focus has been on

transcendental values that move beyond pragmatism and phenomenality

and alleviate existence. Within the phenomenological vein, Hegelian phi-

losophy proposes an absolute idealism wherein the ultimate reality is the

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

98 Samta P. Pandya

mind or spirit of which the Universe is a manifestation (Ghosh, 2005). In

‘Being and Time’, Heidegger moves from a phenomenological hermeneu-

tic of human being towards a fundamental ontology of Being. In a sequel

work called ‘Time and Being’, he uncovers layers of experience, analysing

things of nature, artifacts and the core of human beings. All three constitute

the original, indissoluble unity of being-in-the-world. This unity has its

heritage in Husserl’s conceptions of consciousness as intentionality.

‘Beingness’ as deliberated by Heidegger is a manifestation of an onto-the-

ology of sorts tracing its basic forms in the history of philosophy. These

basic forms are the notions of the unifying one, the logos or the centre, sub-

stances and their subsequent manifestations (Heidegger, 1972).

Moving towards the South East Asian philosophical traditions, Smart

(1999) has discussed that the Buddhist philosophy in its Chinese phase was

ultimately concerned with liberation and enlightenment. Other features in-

cluded discussions on the Ultimate principle governing the cosmos, de-

bates about Heaven, the Tao and the Great Ultimate. Confucian systems

contain a predilection for the concepts of cosmic harmony and organic in-

terconnectedness.6 The most significant debates in the Confucian tradition

took place in Korea wherein the prevalent themes were dialectical non-du-

alism, transcendental aspects and moral virtues.

Indic Conceptualisations of Spirituality

Indic conceptualisations largely emerge from the gamut of Vedic and post

Vedic literature, understandings embedded in Jainism and Buddhism,

Indic philosophical schools and Bhakti and Sufi manifestations in the in-

digenous context.

In terms of Vedic conceptualisations, Balasubramanian (1996) has dis-

cussed the primal spirituality of the Vedas and post Vedic literature. It is

concerned with the primal being which is variously called Brahman,

Atman, Sat and so on. It contains the basic ideas of philosophia perennis —

the ‘One’ as the source and support of the many, the spirituality of matter

and the divinity of all living beings. As it integrates the sentient and the in-

sentient beings with the primal Being, its outlook is holistic. The concept

of ‘One’ of the mantras has been further developed into a fully fledged pe-

rennial philosophy by the Upanishads in three ways — by deepening the

concept of Being, by spiritualising nature and by divinising humans.

Banerji (1996) has proposed that the central idea of the Upanishads is the

Universe with the Universal Being (Brahman) and that is the Soul of all

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011


discourses. The core spirituality content of the thirteen principal

Upanishads has been pronounced as theistic existentialism.

Evidences of spirituality are further pronounced in the six schools of

Indic philosophy — Mimansa, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga and

Mimansa. MaxMueller (1899) has discussed that the key themes that have

spirituality leanings in Indic philosophy are the immortality of the soul,

metaphors such as phenomenal reality, concepts of Atman-Brahman and

eschatology. Outlining certain key domains of classical Indian philosophy,

Krishna (1997) and Mohanty (2002) have discussed that in the Indic

scheme of things the ontological and epistemological principles interact to

form predispositions which in turn give rise to categories determining exis-

tence — spiritual attainments being one of them. Herein, the central meta-

physical issues are — the problem of causality, existence of an external

world, whether the world is real/unreal, identity and difference issues, ab-

solutism versus non-absolutism.

The key doctrines of the six philosophical schools that expound spiritu-

ality tenets can be briefly outlined here7. The Samkhya school describes

the cosmic evolution, mergers of human attributes that facilitate transcen-

dence and an ontological dualism between spirit and nature. The Mimansa

and the Yoga schools prescribe pathways to attain the Ultimate reality by

the self through incantations and discipline. The Nyaya school provides

proof of existence of Godhead through inference, syllogism, induction and

causation. The logical progression of the individual soul consciousness to-

wards this Absolute Being is described. The Vaisesika school proposes an

atomistic pluralism, God as the efficient cause of the world and substances

and categories as subsequent manifestations of the same. The full fledged

emphasis on transcendence emerges in the Vedanta school and its varia-

tions.8 The abiding principle is however the propensity of linkages be-

tween entities such as self, world, Absolute and soul liberation.

Within the context of Jainism, spirituality tenets have emerged through

the abiding conceptions of multi-perspectival stance of understanding real-

ity through evidence and logic, equity and universality of soul. There are

references to ‘body’ and ‘soul’ denoting ‘substance’ and ‘quality’ attempt-

ing to attain non-substance that is multiple in nature; the ideal of non-abso-

lutism or ‘Anekantavada’ (Barlingay, 1992). Systematic renditions of

non-theistic spirituality are further found in Buddhistic tenets. Apart from

the theory of dependent origination and self-nature exchange, Ichimura

(2001) has discussed the dimensions of Buddhist critical spirituality

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100 Samta P. Pandya

through the concepts of ‘Prajna’ and ‘Sunyata’. ‘Prajna’ is the transcen-

dental knowledge and ‘Sunyata’ is the non-duality proposition, both also

being key schemes of the Mahayana tradition. Critical spirituality herein

implies the transcendental knowledge or insight into the non-duality of all

existence. For the Yogacara Buddhists, the ultimate spiritual context is the

insight of non-difference of self, matter and the material world of exis-

tence.

Subsequent developments in the indigenous context included renditions

of the Epic and Puranic periods predominated by discussions on the rela-

tions of the individual self with the cosmic phenomena. Through the cardi-

nal lenses of devotion, knowledge and work ethics a repertoire of literature

on practical spirituality emerged, dominated by the Bhakti renaissance. Al-

though historical evidences of Bhakti temperaments are evident and extant

in literature9, the non-Sanskritic literature on Bhakti commencing from the

sixth century, gave newer understandings. Commencing with the rendi-

tions of the Vaisnava Alvars and the Saiva Nayanars, mysticism and

self-Absolute Self relation became governing titans (Balasubramanian,

1996). The paradigm shift herein was that spirituality was viewed as not

primal and classical, but pragmatic and personal — reflected in the writ-

ings of the Dasa poets of Karnataka, Mahanubhavas of Maharashtra and

the Madhura Bhaktas and Advaita Tattvins of North India. Congruently,

the indigenous versions of Sufi mysticism focused on unity of being and

moral transformation.

Twentieth Century and Contemporary Discourses on Spirituality:Some Glimpses

In the global context, contemporary discourses on spirituality have been

carried forward by nature philosophers such as Emerson, Thoreau and pro-

ponents of spiritual ecology, some instances in the works of Habermas and

Roy Bhaskar and new faith movements (self religious movement in West-

ern Europe and Japanese Soka Gakkai). The works of Emerson and

Thoreau propose contentions along the lines of the Universe (cosmos) as a

divine soul representing thus a cosmic consciousness (James, 1941). Pro-

ponents of spiritual ecology posit a transcendental conception of nature

and thereby the cosmos and beings. Dimensions of spiritual ecology in-

clude the Gaia hypothesis, a discourse analysis of the ‘soul of the world’ by

a discussion on the realm of the unknown pertaining to the phenomena of

nature and the ‘reverence for life principle’. Cognition of spirituality and

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011


transcendence are also observed in the recent works of Habermas (1995)

and Roy Bhaskar’s (2002) Meta Reality. New faith movements expound

syncretic tenets and propose either a personal mysticism or universal and

soul-divinity contentions (Sutherland et al, 1988).

In the Indian context, commencing with the socio-religious reform tra-

dition engulfing the occidental-oriental dichotomy and transcending the

same, there have been contributions by B.G. Tilak, S. Radhakrishnan,

Aurobindo Ghosh, Ramakrishna Paramahansa and Swami Vivekananda,

Theosophical Society, Gandhian thought and a gamut of contemporary

faith-based and spiritual organisations and movements (Swaydhyaya and

Brahmakumari being some illustrations) adapting and remodelling tradi-

tional tenets. Whereas the core of spirituality tenets expounded and tack-

led, remain unaltered, newer strands of transcendence have been

discerned. These strands are of the order of eschatology (soul discourses

based on traditional tenets), soteriology (mystical discourses developing

on oriental propositions), recognition of a supramental manifestation, per-

sonal mysticism and pragmatic spirituality.

Comprehending the Critical Injunctions

Despite the vast gamut of literature on spirituality and its evident historic-

ity, the aspects of syntactic and conceptual consensus on the construct re-

main elusive. The genre of critique on the concept has been by postmodern

theorists, feminist thinking, structural social theorists and neo-Indological

scholars who have revisited certain themes in Indic thought. Olson (2002)

proposes that the postmodern theorists address the notions of self and self-

hood on which spirituality discourses are based. Whereas spirituality dis-

cussions posit a certain unification of self and notions of harmony,

postmodern theorists such as Lacan, Derrida and Kristeva posit a decons-

tructed self and do not accept its transcendent and eternal nature. Further,

Levinas and Kristeva propose that this self exists with others, is decentred

by the other and is essentially heterogeneous. Consciousness is recognised

as an important characteristic of self in spirituality discourses but viewed

by Derrida as another form of self presence and not an attribute.

Within the understanding of feminist thinking, on the one hand there are

discussions on the spiritual resources and the spiritual heritage of women

aligning to a feminist mysticism of sorts. On the other hand, King (1989)

proposes that feminist spirituality is not only linked to personal search for

meanings and greater inwardness, but is often closely linked to acceptance

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102 Samta P. Pandya

of social responsibility and political transcendence. Hence, in the feminist

scheme of things, spirituality is perceived to be not about transcendence

alone, but viewed as a search for autonomy and self-affirmation as also de-

picting simultaneously the politics of boundaries and space. For structural

social theorists embedded in spirituality as a concept, are aspects of fas-

cism, totalitarianism, binaries and hegemony (Ilaiah, 2004), and hence its

cognition is negated. Neo-Indological scholars on the other hand have

raised issues on certain basic premises on which Indic spirituality is based.

These include the complex problems of identity in spirituality, the synony-

mous treatment of spirituality and liberation and the inadequate distinction

between consciousness and matter in domains of Ultimate reality (Krishna,

1991, 2001).

However, despite the aforementioned contentions, spirituality as a com-

plex construct is employed in social science and social work discourses in

multitude ways as discussed below.

Spirituality and the Social Sciences

Application of transcendence and actualisation tenets of spirituality in the

social science literature is visualised through health research (Shea, 2000;

Frey, Daaleman and Peyton, 2005; King et al, 2005; Traphagan, 2005;

Markides, 2007), ageing research (O’Brien, 1997; Kristjansen, 2006;

Wink, 2006; Lee, 2007; Chatterjee, Patnaik and Cherian, 2008;Ritsema,

2009; Snodgrass, 2009), positive psychology (Banks, 1962; Elkins,

Hedstrom, Hughes and Leaf-Andrew, 1988) and counselling (Hannan,

1996; Fukuyama and Todd, 1999; Hodge, 2004). At the macro level, from

the teleological point of view, the applications are visualised in peace stud-

ies (Yarnold, 1959; Schuon, 1969) and environmental ethics (in terms of

the divinisation and sacralisation of nature arguments) (Gottlieb, 1996).

The thematic directions which these arenas of exploration have assumed

may be grouped under the functionalist frame, linear positivist frame,

phenomenological frame, humanistic psychosocial frame and the social

construction and critical theory frame. Within the functionalist sense, liter-

ature has conventionally examined the role of spirituality tenets in issues.

The linear positivist frame lends a definitive direction in the sense of antic-

ipating alleviating implications of spirituality in attaining desirable results.

This is particularly seen in domains of well-being studies and gratitude re-

searches. Within the phenomenological frame are encapsulated the phe-

nomena of spiritualisation of belief systems and their multiple dimensions.

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011


Herein several efforts have also been centred around developing scales and

indices to measure multiple dimensions of religiosity and spirituality. Lit-

erature in the humanistic psychosocial frame views the holistic and inte-

grated influences of spirituality on existence. Within the social

construction and critical theory frame are embedded differentials — cap-

turing differences in the construction of spirituality and the cultural repro-

duction of differential consciousness.

Spirituality and Social Work

Four categories of existing literature on spirituality and social work are the

conceptual models of spirituality used in social work, association of core spiri-

tuality tenets with teleological ethics of the profession, aspects of spiritually

inclined social work practice and micro and macro domains of intervention.

Conceptual Models of Spirituality used in Social Work

Carroll (2001) has described seven conceptual models of spirituality used

in social work — the vertical horizontal approach, five levels of conscious-

ness model, integrated approach, self-other-context-spiritual (SOCS) cir-

cle, holistic model of spirituality, the whole person model and the

two-dimension holistic model. The underlying assumption herein is the

spiritual self of the individual which needs to be addressed and all transac-

tions being within the reference system of that self. All other aspects of ex-

istence converge into or diverge from that spiritual self.

In the vertical-horizontal approach, the vertical dimension has to do with rela-

tionship with God and the horizontal dimension has to do with relationship with

self, others and environment. Within the five levels of consciousness model, there

is a recognition of five levels of consciousness or existence — physical, emo-

tional, mental, existential and spiritual. All the previous levels need to be geared

up to the highest and actualised level of existence which is spiritual. The

self-other-context-spiritual (SOCS) circle contains a presentation of four life realities

— self, other, context and spiritual. Within the largely interactionist mode, there is a

true cognition whence the spiritual is taken cognisance of and that eventually leads

to desirable harmony. The holistic model of spirituality considers spirituality as the

centre of the person surrounded by psychological, spiritual, biological and sociolog-

ical aspects of the individual. The outer circle is then synergetically the wholeness of

the spirituality of the person in relation with all domains of existence.

In the whole person model, the traditional clinical dimension, integra-

tive dimension and the spiritual dimension are involved. The spiritual

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

104 Samta P. Pandya

dimension at the top includes affective, behavioural and cognitive aspects;

the traditional clinical dimension at the bottom level includes physical,

emotional and social dimension and the in between space, the integrative

dimension provides the space through which the traditional dimension in-

teracts with the spiritual dimension. This linking of virtual spaces and di-

mensions then leads to well-being of the individual. The two-dimension

holistic model proposes the transpersonal dimension and the bio-psy-

cho-social dimensions. Both these dimensions chart out into infinity,

hence indicating the infiniteness of the spiritual context and the total space

between the two dimensions is wherein the growth occurs.

Core Spirituality Tenets and the Teleological Ethics of theProfession

The core spirituality tenets of inherent equity and transcendence find asso-

ciations with ethics of social work. Some earlier papers in the Indian con-

text have linked aspects of Indic philosophy to harnessing the propensity

for altruism (Dasgupta, 1967; Bannerjee, 1972). In the global context,

apart from metaphysical linkages seeking references in spirituality tenets

towards prudence and detachment as ethics of praxis (Gray, 2008), there

have been several surveys of ‘giving and volunteering’ in the US that have

examined religiosity/ spirituality as bases for engaging in philanthropic

work.

Aspects of Spiritually Inclined Social Work Practice

From the writings of Canda and Furman (1999) and Canda and Smith

(2001) and Carroll (2001), the aspects of spiritually inclined social work

practice include the components of spiritual assessment, spiritually in-

clined interventions and phases of spirituality development and suste-

nance.10 The various domains of spiritual assessment include an

understanding of the spiritual history; whether spirituality is a crucial con-

struct in the individual’s lifeworld; the construction/ meaning of spiritual-

ity; core spiritual beliefs held; spiritual practices followed; personal

narratives of spiritual experiences; spiritual engagements and perceived

implications of spirituality for the lifecourse and lifeworld.

The various domains of spiritually inclined interventions can be broadly

outlined as follows:

• From the spiritual starting point of the individual, moving towards

more transcendental conceptions of spirituality to facilitate

detachment/disengagement.

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011


• Emphasising on ‘self as part of the divine’ and non-duality beliefs for

enhancing self-actualisation propensity.

• Re-negotiating spaces for practices pertaining to unconditional love

and forgiveness and altruism and behaviour patterns demonstrating

positive coping, detachment and practical disengagement.

• Tapping on spiritual experiences and building upon them to construct

personal meanings of spirituality.

Spirituality development and sustenance signifies a further intensive en-

gagement and are broadly of the following nature:

• Shifting from theological/communion with God notions, to more

surreal and transcendental notions of spirituality, simultaneously

constructing personal meanings of spirituality.

• Moving from duality oriented beliefs to non-duality orientations.

• Re-instating unconditional love and forgiveness, altruism,

detachment, disengagement and positive coping.

• Designing the propensity for experiences of the order of Absolute

Being as constant soul companion.

Micro and Macro Domains of Interventions

Within the context of social work, the macro and micro domains of interven-

tion, with spirituality tenets as the locus classicus can be explained through

the following diagrams. Spirituality is the core thought woven around which

are the trajectories of micro and macro domains of interventions.

In the micro domain the core is the self and the concept of being and ex-

istence, issues affecting which are disharmony, dependency and suffering,

which affect the sense of well-being. The source may be located within the

self and significant other. Through spiritual ontologies and

epistemologies, the endeavour is to traverse the vital and psychic domains

of the self towards the transpersonal domain. In this domain, the spiritual

metaphors, constructs and experiences are unearthed, which then lead to

transpersonal development and elevated concepts of selfhood.

In the macro domains of intervention, the core is cosmic consciousness deriv-

ing from notions of theistic existentialism. Issues of imbalance of the cosmic order

and disharmony are primary, sources of which may be colonisation of the

lifeworld and distortion of worldviews. Through spirituality catalogues, the effort

is to re-instate harmonised worldviews, transcend to larger macro-cosmic do-

mains with metaphors of equity, transcendence and reverence for life. The even-

tual outcome is cosmic transcendence and synergies of being and becoming.

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

106 Samta P. Pandya

Diagram 1: Micro Domains of Interventions

Diagram 2: Macro Domains of Interventions

DELIBERATIONS ON THE CURRICULUM: SOME DIMENSIONSFOR A COURSE ON SPIRITUALITY AND SOCIAL WORK

Amidst the variegated range of spirituality meanings and conceptual

forms, the curriculum on spirituality and social work would then incorpo-

rate two components — discursive and practical. Some aspects of the

epistemic intent and the praxis content of the curriculum may be presented

here:

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011


Spiritual Ontologies andEpistemologies

Existence andWell-Being

Spiritual Metaphors,Constructs and

Experiences Unearthed

Self and Being–Consciousness

Vital, Mental, Emotionaland Psychic Domains

Transcending toTranspersonal Domains

TranspersonalDevelopment –

Supramental Realisationand elevated

conceptions of selfhood

Sources within self andsignificant other

Issues of Disharmony,Dependency, Suffering

Cosmic ConsciousnessRe-instatingHarmonisedWorldviews

Transcending toMacrocosmic Domains

Cosmic Transcendenceand Synergies of being

and Becoming

Source – Colonisationof the Lifeworld and

Distortion ofWorldviews

Issues of Imbalance ofthe Consmic Order,

Disharmony

Spiritual Ontologies,Epistemologies and

CosmologiesTheistic Existentialism

Equity, Transcendenceand Reverence for Life

Metaphors

• The Archimedean standpoint of any curriculum on spirituality and

social work would be meanings of spirituality and divergent

positions that emerge both in the global and indigenous contexts.

Further, the epistemological location of the course needs certain

considerations. Given the normative-ideational leanings of

spirituality within theology, theism and metaphysics, the course may

be placed under the thematic umbrella of the philosophy and

ideology related course genre. However, a certain grounding in the

overarching history, ideologies, perspectives and positions of social

work pre-empts this rendition on spirituality due to its

quintessentially transcendental nature. This may include a broad

range of ideas on political philosophies as well as positions on equity

and social justice — positing the spiritual thought as one core strand

in the gamut.

• Within meanings of spirituality, the coverage spans Greek

philosophy, Islamic and Jewish tenets, citations in the works of

Leibniz and Spinoza, Kantian transcendental idealism, Wittgenstein

and the phenomenological tradition. Confucianism enmeshed with

other South East Asian indigenous traditions also contain references

and positions. In the Indic context, tenets within Indic philosophical

schools, Jainism and Buddhism, Bhakti and Sufi mysticism contain

adequate representations. Subsequent developments of nature

philosophers and new faith traditions in the global context and

acculturative socio-religious reform traditions containing newer

epistemes of transcendence in the Indian context, also add crucial

dimensions to the construct.

• Hence, in the discursive and epistemic component of the curriculum,

this churning of meanings and conceptualisations becomes

imperative. Further, this needs to be adequately juxtaposed with the

critical injunctions on spirituality so as to build the epistemological

credence of the curriculum — devoid of which discourse on

spirituality would remain conjectures. The question that remains

herein is that amidst the brouhaha of conceptualisations, would it be

possible to adhere to any one such strand? The answer may not be of

decisive nature and aligning to multiple and syncretic constructions

would in all probability be desiderate.

• Apart from the critical injunctions, the other epistemological

dilemma that arises in the realm of spirituality is its umbilical

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

108 Samta P. Pandya

connections with metaphysics, pure philosophy and theism.

Consequently the syntactic and linguistic leanings of spirituality are

towards the same with core terms such as ‘being’, ‘becoming’ and

‘Absolute Being’ as having philosophical connotations. To retain the

virgin understanding of the terms and simultaneously making the

rendezvous with social sciences and social work syntax remains a

perpetual question.

• In the practical and praxis oriented dimension of the curriculum,

twofold considerations could be looked at. At the first level, the

connections with the realms of social sciences could be examined, so

as to discern initial connections with the larger universe of

knowledge of the subject matter. As observed through literature,

extant connections have been examined in the arenas of health

research, ageing research, positive psychology and counselling.

Macro linkages with peace studies and environmental ethics may also

be discerned along with the frame of connections – functionalist,

linear positivist, phenomenological, humanistic psychosocial and

constructivist.

• At the second level (which is also the core of deliberations) the

intertwining with social work in terms of the conceptual models of

spirituality within transpersonal practice genus is the commencing

point of the repertoire. Linkages of spirituality postulates with the

ethical coterie of social work and empirical considerations from

extant domains of interventions (such as counselling on health,

bereavement, addiction and disaster related issues, criminology

practice sites and locales and peace and environmental

considerations) could form the next level of reflections and

internalisations.

• As praxis would be the core of this component of the curriculum,

renditions of various aspects of spiritually inclined social work

practice require spaces. This would include features such as spiritual

assessment and concepts and techniques of spiritual interventions

geared towards building on and developing the ‘spiritual self’ of

individuals.

• Being within the reference systems of self, spirituality’s core

endeavour is to address the sense of ‘being and becoming’. Hence,

apart from the epistemic and praxis content of the curriculum

focussing on the academic treatment and application aspects, the

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011


curriculum may also incorporate components of developing personal

meanings of spirituality building on spiritual beliefs, practices and

experiences through experiential exercises.

• Lastly, given the construct complexities, critical injunctions, issues

of ruptured identities and notions of selfhood and the inherent and

acute subjectivity element embedded in spirituality discourses,

certain challenges remain perpetual. These include the issues of

syntactic consensus, issues of congruence between the language of

spirituality and the social theory world and the gradual recognition of

difference in issues of identity and selfhood.

NOTES

1. Some parameters or indicators of spiritual practices have been outlined by Frey,

Daaleman and Peyton (2005) They have proposed that altruistic/generous notions in

dealing with self and others, a global view of self (self as a miniscule entity in the vast

world), empathetic conceptions of others and a sense of positive coping with life’s

stressors and the world by attributing stress as an inevitable phenomena and hence a

part of life which amalgamate to subjective well-being; are the manifestations of

spirituality in practice.

2. Walker (1978) draws this term from Kantian thought wherein cosmological arguments

are presented for the contingent existence of the world dependent on the existence of

God. As everything in the world is contingent, there must be a supreme being that

exists necessarily.

3. Pre-sentient knowing (term coined by Hart, Nelson and Puhakka, 2000) involves an

immediate encounter between subject and object of comprehension.

4. Aquinas’ notions of God is an efficient causality antecedent to all finite forms bearing

upon the whole of the finite world and extending to the production of both matter and

form through a creative act (Krutzman and Stump, 1995).

5. Further arguments for the existence of God in the Kantian scheme of things include the

cosmological argument that because everything in the world is contingent, there must

be a supreme being which exists necessarily.

6. The concept of ‘li’ as ceremonial stays central to the Confucian thinking about human

interactions, the virtue of ‘ren’ or human heartedness remains pivotal in ethics, the contrast

of ti and yong — substance and function all remain central to Confucian debates.

7. For more details see Potter, K. (Ed) (2001–2008) Encyclopaedia of Indian

Philosophies. Volumes 1–14. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.

8. The Vedanta school has many further variations — Advaita (Non-Dualism), Dvaita

(Dualism), Dvaitadvaita (Dual Non- Dualism) and Vishistadvaita (Qualified

Non-Dualism).

9. There are Upanishadic references on Bhakti as well as writings of philosophers such as

Sankara, Ramanuja, Vallabhacharya, Nimbarka, Madhvacharya and Sri Chaitanya.

IJSW, 72(1), 91–116, January 2011

110 Samta P. Pandya

10. The aspects presented herein are a coagulation of intervention processes explained by

different authors and do not owe their allegiance to any one scheme of thought in

particular.

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