Spirited Away

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Spirited Away: Film of the Fantastic and Evolving Japanese Folk Symbols Noriko T. Reider Released in 2001, Miyazaki Hayao'sI (1941 -) animated film entitled Sen to Chihiro no kamikakushi (Spirited Away) became the highest-grossing film of all time in Japan. It won a number of awards, including a 2003 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature Film and a Golden Bear at the Berlin International Festival in 2002. Derek Elley, a reviewer, writes, "It's almost impossible to do justice in words either to the visual richness of the movie, which m6langes traditional Japanese clothes and architecture with both Victorian and modem-day artifacts, or to the character-filled storyline with human figures, harpies and grotesque creatures" (72). Many critics have compared Spirited Away with such western stories as Alice in Wonderland, The Wizard of Oz, or even Harry Potter. While the influence of western stories, art, and architecture is evident, as Miyazaki himself expressed, Spirited Away is replete with Japanese folklore, tradition, and symbolism. Indeed, the title itself, kamikakushi (hidden by kami/ deities), alludes to Japanese folk belief. Some of the film's principal characters such as Yubaba (a descendent of yamauba or mountain witch) and Kamaji (a tsuchigumo or earth spider) are reminiscent of characters found throughout Japanese folklore, their residence within the bathhouse offering a reflection of 4

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Transcript of Spirited Away

SpiritedAway:Film of theFantasticandEvolvingJapaneseFolk SymbolsNoriko T. ReiderReleased in 2001,MiyazakiHayao'sI(1941- ) animatedfilmentitledSentoChihiro nokamikakushi (Spirited Away)becamethehighest-grossingfilmof all time in Japan.It won a numberof awards,includinga 2003 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature Filmanda Golden Bearat the Berlin International Festival in 2002. Derek Elley,a reviewer,writes,"It's almost impossible to do justiceinwords eitherto the visual richnessof the movie, which m6langes traditional Japaneseclothes andarchitecturewith both Victorianand modem-dayartifacts,ortothecharacter-filledstorylinewithhumanfigures,harpiesandgrotesque creatures"(72).ManycriticshavecomparedSpiritedAwaywith such westernstories as Alice in Wonderland, The Wizard of Oz,orevenHarry Potter. Whiletheinfluenceofwesternstories,art,andarchitectureisevident, asMiyazakihimself expressed, Spirited Awayis repletewith Japanese folklore, tradition,and symbolism. Indeed, thetitleitself, kamikakushi (hiddenbykami/deities),alludesto Japanesefolkbelief. Someof the film'sprincipalcharacterssuchasYubaba(adescendent of yamauba or mountainwitch)and Kamaji(atsuchigumoor earthspider) are reminiscent of charactersfound throughoutJapanesefolklore,their residencewithinthe bathhouseofferingareflectionof4Film Criticism 29, no. 3 (2005), 4-27Japan's verticalsociety.To this point, situatingthe film as an exemplaryworkof thefantastic,I shallexaminecovertandovertJapanesefolkbeliefs,imagery, andsymbolismof the film asa text, which resonateswith voicesof Japanesepast andpresent.SpiritedAwayas a Film of the FantasticSpiritedAway is anadventure and coming-of-agefilm in whichthe maincharacter, a young girlbythe name of Chihiro,embarkson aquest to save her family from a supernatural spell.The film openswithChihiro'sfamilymoving toanewtown,leavingChihirouneasyandsulky.Ontheir waytotheir newhouse,thefamilyunwittinglyentersintoa supernaturalrealm, whereChihiro's parents are turnedinto pigs.While Chihiroisin a panic, a mysteriousboy named Hakuappearsandoffershishelp. Chihirolearnsthat the only wayto breakthe spell andre-enterthe"human-world"istofindworkatthebathhouse(of thesupernatural).There, throughvariouschallengesand pitfalls,Chihirofindsfriendship,shefindsawaytohelpherfamily,andmostimportantly,she findsherself.AccordingtoTodorov,"thefantasticisthathesitationexperienced by a person who knowsonly the laws of nature, confrontinganapparentlysupernaturalevent"(25).Asmanycriticshavenoted,Todorov's definitionof the fantasticis limited,marked by the durationof hesitationoruncertaintybythereader,andoftenthecharactersthemselves. SpiritedAway is an exemplary work of the fantasticin thatthe uncertaintyisexperienced both by the character and the audience.2For the protagonist,Chihiro, the uncertaintycomes at the beginningofthefilmintherestaurantareaof astrangetownintheotherworld.Seeingherparentsturnedintopigs beforehereyes,Chihirotalkstoherself, "What?I'm dreaming. I'm dreaming. Come on, wake up. Wakeup!It's just adream.It's just adream. Go away. Goaway.Disappear..."Chihiro then realizesthat her body isdisappearing.Panicked, she criesout,"I'm see-through!It's justa bad dream!"ClearlyChihirothinkswhatshe hasseen and what she is experiencingare againstnatural law.Luckily,Haku,theapprenticeof Yubaba,whoistheownerof thebathhouse,comesto the rescueandgives Chihiro some food from thisstrangerealmin order topreventher fromdisappearing.The motif ofconsuming food from the other world in order to stay alive in that realmmayremindthe audienceof a famousJapanesemythologicalstoryofIzanagiandIzanimi.Izanimi,thefemalecreatorof Japan,dieswhile5givingbirth toa fire deity. Izanagi,her brother and husbandas wellasmale counterpart,missesher so much that he goesto the nether land toretrieve her. But Izanamisays that she hasalready eatenthe foodfromthat realm,implying that it wouldbe difficult for her to return easily tothisone. The food producedin theother world hasthe power to makeonestayinthatworld.Chihiro'shesitationanduncertaintydoesnotlast verylong, for she has to rescueher parentsbeforeshe forgets whosheis.Sheacts,castingawayanydoubtaboutwhetherwhatsheisexperiencingisa dreamornot. Fromthispointforwardinthestory,Todorov's definition of the fantasticappearsto be applicable onlynowandthen.Oneisnotsure whetherChihirois uncertainof thestrangedeities'existence on such occasionsas whenChihiro facesoshirasama(spirit ofradish)orsimplyif sheisfearfulof them.Throughoutthefilm,however,Chihironever stopsbelievingthatherparentswillbeturnedback into humansin "thisworld."In order to rescue her parentsand returnto "thisworld,"Chihiro venturesinto the supernaturalrealmasa realentity,andshe standsfirm whenfacedwiththe challengesofthe other world.Chihiro'sfearandhesitationarefeltbytheaudience,albeitnottothesamedegreeandnotatthesameintensity. Afterall,theaudience is sitting comfortablyin the movie theateror at home, watchingthestorydevelopasthird-partybystanders.Despitethisinherentdetachment,theaudiencemarvelsatthetransformationofChihiro'sparentsintopigs.Asasuccessfulfilminvariablydoes,theaudiencequicklystartstoempathizewithChihiroandisdrawnintoChihiro'sviewpoint.Themasterfulartwork,architecture,andcinematographyrendera realisticbackdroptotheotherrealm,givingtheaudienceafeelingthat it reallyexists.Indeed,thedirectorMiyazakihassaid,"Icreateda world where Yubaba lives in pseudo-westernstyleto make itseemasif it issomethingthathasbeenseensomewhereelseandtomake it uncertain whetherit is a dream or reality"(Yu2002, 16).3Andunlike Alice in Wonderland or The Wizard of Oz,what has happenedinthe other world isnot entirelyadream.Again, MiyazakiexplainsthathedidnotwanttheaudiencetothinkthattheworldChihirohasexperienced was all dreams (Sait6,117).To blur the distinction betweendreamand actuality,the textof SpiritedAwaydropssome hintsto theaudience about the end of the film. For example, the leaves accumulatedon top of the car and the wild grass grown in front of the tunnel(entranceto the theme park) suggest a passage of time from whenChihiro enters6thetunneluntilherreturn.Chihiro'shairbandgivenbyZeniba(Yubaba'stwinsister)-itsglitteringunderscoresthe hint-providesevidence of the objective existenceof the "otherworld."It is importantto note,however,that theaudienceisnotgivenanyclearevidenceastowhetherChihirowillrememberheradventureonceshereturnsto"this world."Zeniba says to Chihiro, "Youdon't forget what happened.Youjustcan'trecallit."Thismaybereassuring.Butif nobodyremembersit, who would saythat it really happened? Equally important,evenifQhihiroremembersit,whowouldsaythattheotherworldthroughthetunnelreallyexistsotherthaninChihiro'smemoryor inher daydreamsor imagination?Thusthe audienceisnot entirelysurewhat happened to Chihiro:was she really in another realm experiencingall thisor wasshe dreamingor imaginingit all? At the end of the film,the audienceisleftguessing.SpiritedAway conformsnot only to a limitedliterarygenreofthefantasticdefinedbyTodorovbutalsotoamorepopularunderstanding of the fantasticas a form of escape.D.G. Hartwell writes,"Fantasypromisesescapefromreality.It ischaracteristicof fantasystoriesthattheytakethereadersout of therealworldof hardfacts,hardobjectsandharddecisionsintoaworldofwondersandenchantments."4 Indeed,Miyazakisaysthat"fantasyisnecessary.During childhoodwhenchildren don't have much power but feel angst,fantasy givessomekind of salvation. When childrenface difficult andcomplicatedproblems,theywill be beaten if they tackle themdirectly.Youdon'tneedtouseadubiousphraselike'escapefromreality"'(Sait6 2001,119).Miyazakifurther commentsthat, "Today, the worldhas becomeambiguous;but eventhough it is ambiguous,the worldisencroachingandtrying to consume(everything).It isthemain themeof thisfilmto describesuch a world clearlyin the form of a fantasy."5It gives assurance to children when thingsare not so black and white inthismodemworld.MiyazakiconsidersSpiritedAwayas a fairy tale,adirectdescendantof Japanesefairytales,"SuzumenoOyado"(TheSparrows'Inn)or"NezuminoGoten"(The Mouse'sCastle)(Sait6,74).6Hisstatementremindsoneof BrunoBettelheim'schildren'sfavorablereactionstothetraditionalgenreof fairytales:"Inthetraditionalfairy tale, the herois rewarded and the evil person meets hiswell-deservedfate,thussatisfyingthechild'sdeep-seededneedforjustice.Howelse cana childhopethat justicewillbedone tohim,when he feels unfairlytreated?And howelse canhe convince himself71that he must act correctly,when he is so sorely tempted to give in to theasocialproddingof his desires?"(144).SpiritedAwayalso fitswellwith SusanNapier'sdefinitionofthefantastic:"fantasyisanyconscious departurefromconsensusreality."Napier's definition ismuch broader, for she encompassestheauthor's intention in creatingthe text.Napier explains that she is "...alsoconcernedwith the motivations behindthe writer's decision towrite inthefantasticmode.Bychoosingtousethefantastic,theauthorguaranteesthatthe storywill bereceiveddifferentlyfrom onewrittenina conventionalrealisticmode"(9). Asmentionedabove,Miyazakichose the fantasy genre to give assuranceto children. Further, he believesthatcreatingfantasyisakintoopeninguptheworldofthesubconsciousnesswherepsychologicalrealityreigns.Inthatsense,fantasy is more real than realityof this world (Sait6,118-19).The filmis dedicatedto those who "wereonce tenyearsold, and thosewho aregoing to be ten years old"(Sait6,114).Clearly, the director is appealingto children as well as to the child in all of us, giving universalassurancethat justicedoesindeedprevail,even(or becauseit is)in therealmofthe fantasticand supernatural.Japanese Folk Beliefs, Imagery,and SymbolismThegenreof thefantasticisoneaspectof Spirited Awdy'sappeal.Anotherattractionistherichnessof itsJapanesefolkloreelements.MiyazakistatesthatJapanesetraditionaldesign,rites,andtales area rich source for the imagination. He believes that "it isa pooridea topushallthe traditionalthingsintoa smallfolk-cultureworld.Surroundedbyhightechnologyanditsflimsydevices,childrenaremore and more losing their roots. We must inform them of the richnessof ourtraditions"(Yu,16).Indeed, Miyazakidoesanexcellent job ofportrayingJapanesetraditionswithinthefilm.TherearenumerousreferencestotheJapanesecustomsandfolkbeliefsincludingkamikakushi (Spirited Away) and legendaryfigures. Several of the moreconspicuousexamplesof Japanesefolklegend,custom,andbeliefpresentinthe film, areexamined herein further detail.Title:Sen toChihiro no kamikakushiFirsttobediscussedisafolkbelief,kamikakushi (literally,hiddenbykami, deities),whichispartof thetitleofthefilm.Inthepast, when childrenor womensuddenlydisappearedand couldnot befoundfor alongtime,it waspresumed"theyhadmetkamikakushi."8Suddendisappearanceswere often attributed to the spirit realm, as manybelievedthat spirits tookthe person away tothe spirit world. YanagitaKunio's Ti3no monogatari(Tino Tales, 1909)includesmanyexamplesof kamikakushi. Oneof them isabouta daughter of a rich familyin thevillage.Some time after she disappears,a hunter from the samevillagemeetsher inthemountains.Shetellshim thatshewascapturedbyastrange being andforced to marryit and bear its children,only tohavethemdevouredbyherhusband.Shetellsthehunterthatshewouldremainin the mountainfor the rest of her life but that heshould returntothevillageassoonaspossible(Yanagita1978,113).7KomatsuKazuhiko,ananthropologist,writes"thetruthof kamikakushi couldhave been a runawaydislikinga villagelife,longingfor urbancity,orelopement. The veil of kamikakushi convenientlysituates a runawayinthe realmof deity....Kamikakushi hides notonly a person but also thetruthbehindtheescapee"(Komatsu2002,217).Komatsufurthercomments that Kamikakushi is a verdict of "social death"in thisworld,andcomingbacktothisworldfromKamikakushimeant"socialresurrection."Kamikakushi may be said to be a horrible experienceofthe other world, and at the same time, a time of rest as a "social being,"or enteringa life of "theotherworld"asa newsocialbeing(Komatsu2002,229).Atthe beginningof the film,Chihiroisseenasasulky-lookinggirl,movingtoanewtown.Indeed,withallthestressofrelocation,she may have felt like she neededan escape from this world.Entering the other world,she discoversher own potentialand identity.She comesbackto (or resurrectsin)thisworld asa new, morematureandresponsiblegirl.Kamikakushi, however,doesnotalwayshaveahappyending- someonewhoisabductedbyaspiritmaybefounddeadaftera while.FortunatelyinSpirited Away,Kamikakushi turnsout to bea benevolentveilfor Chihiro.Anotherfolkbelief presentinthetitlerevolvesaroundtheimportanceof one'sname.This themeis not endemicto the Japanese- it isuniversal,but shouldnonethelessbementioned,asitispart ofthefilm'stitle.Theactof deprivingapersonof one'snamehasfarmorereachingconsequencesandimplicationsthansimplyaffectinghowonepersonaddressesanother;theveryactimpliestotalcontrolover the person whose nameis being withheld.A good example of thiscan be found in the European folktale Rapunzell, and a counter exampleispresentintheJapanesestoryDaikutoOniroku (CarpenterandOniroku).In this tale, a carpenter has to build a bridge over a fast river9andisworriedastohowtogoaboutitsconstruction.Ademonthenappearsfrom theriver offeringthe carpentera deal:He willbuild thebridge for him in exchange for the carpenter's eyes. The carpenter agreesand the bridge is magicallycompleted.Having fulfilledhisside of thebargain,thedemonintendsto collecthisprize,but thecarpenter runsawayfrom him. Whilerunningin the mountains,the carpenterhearsasongthatidentifiesthedemon'snameasOniroku.Onthe followingdaythedemondemandshiseyesagainunless,he says,thecarpenterspotsthedemon'sname.Nosoonershoutsthecarpenter,"Oniroku,"and the demon disappears. In SpiritedAway, Yubabahas Chihiro signacontractand takes three-quartersof Chihiro's name, i.e.,three characters,gX'ffout ofOginoChihiro- from the signature, leavingonlySenF.Actually,theaudienceneverknowsthecontentof thecontractChihiro signs.Weonly knowthat Yubabacontrolspeople bydeprivingthemof their names.WhenHakuhasrememberedhisrealname,for example,histrue formcomesbackandhedecidestoquitbeing Yubaba'sapprentice. The importance of names, however, probablycomesfromUrsula LeGuin'stheEarthseaquartet,i.e., AWizard ofEarthsea, TheTombs of Atuan, The FarthestShore, andTehanu. TheEarthseaquartet,aseriesthat influencedMiyazakiHayaoin creatingSpiritedAway,describesawizard'squestto restorepeacein thelandbypursuingashadow-creaturethathehadunwittinglyreleased.Throughout the quartet, names are critical as "who knows a man's name,holdsthat man'slife in his keeping"(Le Guin1968, 75).Inthe secondbook,theTombsof Atuan, whena girlremembershertrue name,hermemoryasa humangraduallycomesbackandshefightsagainstthedark forces. This experienceissimilar to Haku's recalling his true name,quitting as Yubaba'sapprentice. Beliefsin the importanceof names areubiquitous anduniversal.How Chihiro goes to the other world-entering through a tunnel(an entrance building of an abandoned theme park)-is also based uponconventionalbeliefs. Thismysterious tunnelleads to astrange town inanotherrealm,alandofspirits. Thelocusofthespirits'recreationalplace,abathhouse,islocatedacrossa bridge.Conventionally,in theworld of Japanesefolklore,bridges,tunnels,andcrossroadsare oftenconsidered to be a demarcationpoint betweenthis world and the other.Regardingthelocationofthefilm,abathhouse,Miyazakistates,"Itwouldbe fun if therewere such abathhouse. It's the sameaswhenwegotohotsprings.Japanesegodsgothereto restfora fewdays,then10returnhome saying they wished they could stay for a little while longer"(Sait6,116).8Needlesstosay,aplaceof relaxation,suchasthebathhousein the film, alsoreflects the Japanese proclivityfor bathing,TheCharacter in SpiritedAwayYubabaAmong various Japanesecustoms and conventions depicted inthe film,perhapsmost noteworthyisthe emphasison characterdepth.The spirit-charactersare rich, multi-faceted entities replete with culturalmemoriesand histories. It issaid that some eightmillion deitiesresideinJapan.Someof these,notnecessarilyintheir traditionalJapaneseforms,appearinthefilmtotake abathortoworkatthebathhouse.The most interestingamong themisthe memorable Yubaba,the witchwhoownsthe bathhouse.She isanavariciousoldwitchwhoisquitestricttowardher workers. Many criticshave pointedout the similaritybetweenYubabaandtheQueenof HeartsinAliceinWonderland.Indeed, And6 Masashi, the art director of the SpiritedAway,states,"Inour previous project, ...Yubaba...was drawnas a grotesquecharacter,the kind that might appear in the illustrations of Alice in Wonderland."9Yubaba'sappearanceanddemeanor,the verywayshecommandsherminionworkforce,isreminiscentof LewisCarroll'sQueenof Heartscharacter.But Yubaba,whoisalsoseenexcessivelypamperinghergiganticspoiled baby-boynamed B6, strikesme most asa descendentof a yamauba, Japanesemountainwitch.TomanycontemporaryJapanese,a yamaubaconjuresup theimage of a mountain-dwellinghagwho devours unsuspectinghumanswhohappenuponher path. Inmanyways,shecanbeconsideredtheJapanesecounterpartof the witchin Hansel and Gretel of the GrimmBrothersas well as Baba Yaga of Russian folktales.In the tale Ushikatato yamauba (Ox-Cart Puller and Mountain Witch), a ravenous yamaubaattemptstodevouranythingshecanobtain:first,shedemandsfishfromayoungmancarryingfishin hisox-cart. After consumingallofthe fishin his cart,she demandsthe ox andafter devouringthe ox,shesetshersightsoneatingtheman.Hefleesfrom herandsooncomesuponalonehouseinthewoodsthatturnsouttobetheyamauba'sdwelling.Eventually, he vanquishesher with the help of another maidenwhoisliving withyamauba(Seki1956,155-161).Yamauba are almost always endowed with supernaturalpowers.In the MedievalNohtextentitledYamamba, the protagonist yamauba11useshersupernaturalpowertodarkentheskysothatthecourtesan/entertainerwhoisreputedtobegoodatyamambadancewouldbeforcedto spenda night ather lodging.In SpiritedAway,Yubabais anoldwomanwithwhitehair whocontrolsheremployeesthroughthepowerof languageandmagic.She canfreelytransformhumansintoanimalsandeatthem,whichisentirelyreminiscentofyamauba'scannibalism.Yamaubais regularlyportrayedin anunflatteringmanner, butone of yamauba'slesser-knowntraitsis her nurturingcharacter,oftenassociated with motherhood.'0 HorIchiro writes, "In the popular beliefof rural areas, the mountaindeity is believedto be a goddess who givesbirth to twelve children everyyear. She is therefore called Mrs. Twelve(Juni-sama),and her twelvechildrensymbolizethetwelve monthsoftheyear"(Hori1968,167).Thedichotomyof the Yamaubapersona,that sheis onthe one handviciouslycannibalisticwhile onthe other anurturingmother, seems virtuallyirreconcilable.However, as YoshidaAtsuhikoasserts,therootsoftheyamaubacanbefoundinvariousfemaledeitiesin Japanesemyth,i.e., her real identityisa dichotomousprimordialgoddess -theGreat Mother-whobrings fertility and wealthas well as death(Yoshida 1992, iii)."Kawai Hayaowrites thatin Japan,Kannon, whoacceptseverything,isthepositiveGreatMother,andyamauba,who appearsin fairy tales as an all-devouringmountainwitch,isthe negative image.12Oneexampleof yamauba'smotherhoodappearsin legendsofyamauba being the mother of Kintar6. The legend goes that a mountainyamauba gave birth to and raised a son possessing Herculean-strength,by the name of Kintar6.Kintar6 was then discovered by a great warrior,MinamotonoRaik6(orYorimitsu,948-1021),changedhisnametoSakata no Kintoki, and became one of Raik6's shitennd (four guardians/lieutenants).EventuallyRaik6andtheshitenn& eliminatedsuchsupernatural beings as Shuten d6ji(Drunken Demon)at MountOe andtsuchigumo, the earth spider. The oldest extant story of Yamauba beingthe mother of Kintar6is found in the oldj5ruri(Puppet Theater) text ofthemiddleoftheseventeenthcentury.13 Giventhewidelyheldperceptionthatyamaubawasthemotherof manychildrenor super-childreninthemedievalperiod,it isnot surprisingtofindherasthemother of a strong warriorwho conquers demons.Kintar6is portrayedasfullof energyandpresentlyoftenidentifiedwithhis redharakake(bib/apron)on whichthe character,kin (from Kintar6)is printed.12Yamauba's motherlyaspect toward her sonis further enunciated througha series of yamauba-buyb or yamaubadancesin Kabuki; whichappearinthelateeighteenth-earlynineteenthcentury.Inthedancepieces,yamauba'sdotingmotherhood isamplifiedas shespeaksof him, "it'sbeensevenyearssince...Dayand night, mypleasure ismyonlyson,Kaid6maru[i.e.,Kintar6]"(Tsuruya1975,61).In SpiritedAway, Yubabais the mother of super-baby, B6. Justlike Kintar5,B5wearsa redharakakeonwhicha bigcharacter-(B6) iswritten.Similar to Kintar6, B6 has prowessin accordance withhisgiganticsize- hecaneasilybreakSen'sarmif hesowishes.Incontrasttoher strictnesstoheremployees,YubabadotesonB6andprotectshimalmost toexcess,confining him ina germ-freeplayroomfull of germ-freetoys.Inthis detail,the director maybe hintingat anaspectof present-dayJapanese parenting:the tendencyto spoil/shelterchildrenwhiledeprivingthemof negativeexperiences,somefeel,depriveschildrenofdevelopingtheirfullpotential.Perhapsmoststrikingly,thissameimageofover-protectingone'soffspringisportrayedbyyamauba inKabuki's dancepieces.Thevisualjuxtapositionof awhite-hairedelderlymotherbearingababyboymayappearratherstrange.Indeed,beitKabukidancepiecesorfamousukiyo-eseriesofYamaubaandKintar5,yamaubaisportrayedasanalluringmaturebeauty.'4 Yet,thepredominantimage of yamauba asanoldhag remains,and thereareanumberof precedentsinwhichawhite-hairedelderlyyamaubaisportrayedwithKintar6.OnenotableexampleisavotivepaintingofYamaubaand Kintari createdbyNagasawaRosetsu(1754-1799),atreasureof ItsukushimaShrineinMiyajima.InRosetsu'spainting,yamauba looks likea distrustfuloldwoman- what Robert Moescalls"a caricature of geriatric non-beauty."Moes,however, also comments,"thereisasympathetichumor in thewaythemythicaloldhagstaresoutsuspiciouslyatthe beholder"(Moes1973,28).15Yubabadoes,onoccasion,have a humorous look embeddedinto her suspicious character.Indeed,YubabaandB5maybelookedatasa pumped-up,well-fedversion of NagasawaRoan'sYamauba andKintard. Further similarityis found in the absence of Yubaba's male partner. Yamauba first appearedasthemotherofKintokiintheseventeenthcenturytext,thoughyamauba's partner was never mentioned. Likewise, Yubaba'shusbandisnon-existentin thefilm.Moreover,while Yubabaisavariciousandstricttowardher13workforce, she also has the ability to observediligencein her workers.Whenthe Stink Spirit (okusare-sama)visits the bathhouse,for example,after checkinghowhard Senworks,Yubaba decidestogiveher handto Sen.Similarly, Yamaubaalso helpshumansthatare helpfulto her.The yamauba in Hanayo no hime (Flower Princess,ca. late Muromachiperiod to the early Edo period),for instance, brings wealth to the princesswhohelped killcoiling wormsin her hair (Yokoyamaand Matsumoto1982, 531).16From the spatial pointof view, too,there is a parallel betweenYamaubaand Yubaba. KomatsuKazuhiko writes that "ft]heconcept ofmountains,as a mountainousrealm where oni[demon/ogre]and y5kai[strangesupernaturalcreatures]reside,isbetterunderstoodasthe"spatialother world"(Komatsu1991,58).11Indeed, the mountainsareoftentheentry-pointtotherealm wheretheoni andy6kailivealongwith other mountaindeities and deceasedancestors.Yamauba is also aresidentof themountains.Likewise,theenvironmentof Yubaba'sbathhouse is a locus of the other world where all the supernaturalbeingscometorelaxandunwind.Pertinenttothespatialaspect,a furtherparallelisseeninthealtitudewhereyamaubaandYubabalive. Themountainwhereyamaubalivesishigherthanordinaryflatland.Likewise, Yubaba liveson the top floorof the bathhouse - higher thananyone else,acommandcenterwhere Yubaba controlsheroperationandgivesorderstoheremployees.Thisarchitecturalstructureisreflectiveof vertical,hierarchicalJapanesesociety. AsdelineatedbyNakaneChie,Japanis a societywhererelationssuchassenior-juniorrankingsarestrongandstrictlyprescribed,peopleinthelowersocialranks workforandobey theordersof those in the higher echelons.Inreturn,the seniormembersadvise and take care of the junior members(Nakane1970).Junior-rankingmembers may be assigned monotonousand basic work,but the work is vital to the promotionof teamwork.Ofcourse,therelationshipbetweenbossesandjuniormembersisnotwithouttension.Thecharacterwholivesontheoppositeendofthisvertical relationship-steadfastlyresistingYubaba,but still providingvitalworktothe bathhouse-isKamaji;oneof Yubaba'semployees,he livesinthe basement of the bathhouse.KamajiKamajiisanoldmanwhocontrolsa boilerroom.He hassix'longarmsand twoordinarylength-legs.At firstsighthe looksscary,14butinrealityheis akindandunderstandingman(Uekusa 2001,10).From allangles- the wayhe sitsandmanipulateshisunusuallylonglimbs- Kamajiresemblesaspider(orspiritof aspider).'8 Onthesymbolicsignificanceof the spider, Merrily Bairdwrites,"...withtheimportation of Chinese traditions,the Japaneseadopted the view of thespiderasanemblemof industryandability"(Baird 2001,120).Asevident inthe film,Kamajiis a diligentworker whomakes fulluseofall his extra limbsand his helpers,sootballs(susuwatari).A spiderhasanominousaspect,too.Itiscommonlyacceptedamongscholarstoconsiderthattsuchigtmo referstoless-cultivatedindigenouspeoplewho had livedbeforethe Heavenlydescendentsclaimedhis authority.Specificallytermed anearthspider, tsuchigumo is an appellationusedderogatorilyin ancient Japanese literature for those who defied imperial(central)authority.19 For example, inKojiki (Ancient Matters,712) onhis eastward expeditionto claim his heavenlyauthority, Emperor Jimmuand hismen smitea greatnumberof resistingindigenouspit dwellingtribe-mendescribedastsuchigumo (Kuranoand Takeda1958,157).20Anoverwhelmingmajorityoftsuchigumohadfoughtandbeeneliminatedinbloodybattles;onlyafewsurvivedbyapologizingprofuselyand escapingcapitalpunishment.21 Regardingthe originofthe term, ltsubun Settsu Fudoki (a missing writing from the Topographyof Settu Province, knownfromotherliterarysources)notesthat,"inthe reignof Emperor Jimmu, therewas a villaincalledtsuchigumo - hewas given of the disdainful name tsuchigumo because this person alwaysdwelled in a pit"(Uegaki, 437).An attribute of pit dwelling is stronglyassociatedwith tsuchigumo. Thisalso appliesto Kamaji,wholives inthe basementof the bathhouse- a form of pit dwelling.'In SpiritedAway, Yubabaisparalleledtothe centralauthorityruling the bathhousefrom the top of the building,and Kamajiislikenedtotsuchigumo wholiveinthepitdwelling,orbottomfloor.WhileKamajidoesnotopenlybattlewithYubaba,hedoesnotalwaysgoalongwith her either;sometimes,he outrightresists Yubaba'swishes.ThemostevidentexampleofthisoccurswhenKamajiprotectsnotonlyChihirobut alsoHaku,abandonedandleftfor deadbyYubaba.And yet, Kamajiworks for Yubaba, assome tsuchigumo did.Kamajiisawarmbeingwhounderstandshumanfeelings.However,thedescriptionsintheancientchronicleshardlyexpressanythingthatencouragesthereadersto empathizewithtsuchigumo.After all,from a viewpointof theeditorsof Nihongi,tsuchigumo isa15certifiedenemyofthecentralgovernment.Interestingly,though,thesympatheticdescriptionsoftsuchigumo appearinthelatertext,specificallyinthe Nohtext entitledTsuchigumo (ca.lateMuromachiPeriod).2"Accordingto-theNoh'stsuchigumo,themightyimperialwarrior,MinamotonoRaik6(orYorimitsu)isattackedbya strangeillness. One night, a strange priest appearsat Raik6's bedside and beginscastingsilken threadsacross Raik6.Surprised, Raik6 strikes the creaturewithhis renownedsword andthe beingdisappears,dripping itsbloodbehind.ItturnsoutthatRaik6'sillnesswascausedbythisstrangecreature,whoserealidentityisthespiritof thespiderwhohadbeenkilledbytheemperor'sarmyatMountKatsuragi.ARaik6'svassalfollows the blood trail and kills the spirit of the spider. The tsuchigumocriesat themomentof his death,"I amthe spiritof tsuchigumo, who,long agolivedat MountKatsuragi.At this presenttime,too,I wishedto harm the Imperial land and approached Raik6[who protectsthe land].Butto the contrary, youare going to killme."(Sanari1931,2065)AsBabaAkikonotes,thisstatementdoesshedasympatheticlightontsuchigumo asa victimof the centralgovernment(175-178).Perhapshehadlivedpeacefullybeforetheadvanceof theheavenlyimperialarmytohisdistrict.Fromtsuchigumo's pointofview,theImperialarmynot only disturbedtheirwayof living, they eliminatedtheir tribewithoutlegitimate reason.Tsuchigumo's statementis just afewlines,but it revealstsuchigumo's pent-upemotions.Likewise,in Spirted AwayKamajiisamanof fewwordsandhelps those whom Yubaba is no longer interested in. In this sense, Kamajiisreminiscentofthetsuchigumo narrativesofthepastKamajihascherishedtraintickets for forty-years,implying thathe has a desiretobeawayfromthebathhousesomeday.Yet,hegivesthem uptohelpChihirosaveHaku.Kamaji,aspiritthatunderstandsthemeaningof"love" andan important pillar of the film, becomescomplexwhenoneconsiderstherelationshipbetweenhimandHaku,theYubaba'sapprentice.HakuThroughout the film, Haku helps Chihiro, and in return, Chihirosaveshislifeandalsohelpshimrecallhisidentityasariverdeitynamed Nigihayami kohakunushi. As his name Haku(literallymeaning"white")reveals, he is a whitedragon, and whenhe takeshuman shape,hewearswhiteclothes(withwater-colorbluepants).Inspiteof the16symbolism of "white"being "pure,"he possesses a somewhat dubiousaspect.Whilehegivesa helpinghandtoChihiro,heisworkingforYubaba to learn Yubaba's magic.23 He further stealsZeniba's (Yubaba'stwinsister)preciousseal.Haku"isathief,"accordingtoZeniba.TachibanaTakashi,acritic,surmisesasourceofHakuNigihayamikohakunushiinNigihayahi,aheavenlydeityinJapaneseancientchronicles.Tachibanasays,Nigihayahiisan importantnameinancient Japanesehistory....DuringtheEmperorJimmu'seasternexpedition,theemperormeetstheresistanceofNagasunehiko[lit.a manwith longlegs],a chief of apowerfulnativeclan.NigihayahihadmarriedtoNagasunehiko'ssister who borehima son;therefore,heissupposedtobeonNagasunehiko'sside.ButNigihayahi abandonsNagasunehikoand comes to theemperor'sside.Withthedefeatof Nagasunehiko,Yamatoregionispacified.....HakuisYubaba'sapprentice,but[Nigihayahi'sactofdeceivingNagasunehiko]is similar to Haku'sbetraying Yubaba.... Probably Haku'sname isbased uponthis narrative[of Nigihayahi](Uekusa,30).24Tsudanotesthat Nagasunehiko,a manwithlonglegs,probablywasconsideredtsuchigumo aswell(Tsuda,191).Indeed,intheworldofNihongi, Nihihayahisuddenlyshowed upone dayto Nagasunehiko'sregion, just asHakudid in theland of the bathhouse. However, if theact of Nigihayami's betrayalis applied to the Yubaba-Kamajiparadigm,HakubetraysKamajitoberichlyrewardedbyYubaba.Inthefilm,however, there is little to suggest Haku's intentional betrayalof Kamaji.Miyazakideparts fromthe Nigihayahisourceon thisparticularpoint,probablybecause of Chihiro's intervention.Hakucould-have betrayedKamaji's innocent trust. But then,Chihiro came from nowhere,"enteringa life of 'theother world'asa newsocial being"throughkamikakushi.Byentering"theotherworld,"ChihirohassavedHaku'slife,andimportantlythroughChihiro'slove for Haku, Haku'strue naturecameback. With a positive chain of reactions, Chihiro ends up saving Kamaji'slife,too.That Haku's river has been reclaimed and he does not have a hometoreturnto leadsto Miyazaki'sfamiliar environmentaltheme:Modemtechnologycontinues to encroach upon nature, destroyingnatural habitats.17Spirits Arriveatthe BathHouse (PHOTOFEST)Chihiro andNo-Face (PHOTOFEST)18The world of spirits on Japanese land is getting smaller and less friendly.Yet,MiyazakigiveshopethatHakuwillfinda placeandHakuandChihirowillmeetsomewhere- thoughthereisnoguaranteethat"somewhere" is inthisworld.No-FaceWithout doubt,the characterof No-Face(Kaonashi)isa mostbaffling creature, worthyof note heresimply because he isso peculiar.No-Face first appearson the bridge that connectsto the bathhouse.Heisamysteriousman,who,"likeChihiro,cametotheworldofthebathhousefroma differentrealm.He isa patheticcreaturewhodoesnothaveself,andhecanonlycommunicatethroughthevoiceofsomeonehe hasswallowed"(Sait6,59).No-Facemay be interpretedasa lonelyyoungJapanesepersonwhodoesnotknowhowto makefriends.Apparently,atthebeginningof theproduction,No-Facewasjust a characterstandingona bridge, but becauseof the need to finishthe film on time Miyazaki assigned No-Face a major role of "somethinglikea stalker"(Uekusa,106).And5 Masashiwritesthat,"No-faceisbasicallyexpressionless,butIendedupaddingjustatinybitofexpression.It might have been better to make his mask more Noh-likewithoutanyexpressionatall,conveyinghisexpressionsthroughlighting.No-Faceswallowsthebathhouseworkers,andIthoughtitmight have been interesting if he acquired their personalities and abilityto reason.This way he might becomemore humanand appealing"(Yu,109).Born entirely of Miyazaki'simagination,No-Face does not readilycorrespond to any conventionalfolk image. As fansof Miyazaki'sfilmknowwell, thecreaturesof Miyazaki Landalso tendtoappearinhisotherfilms.A notableexampleissusuwatari, whichappearesinMyNeighbor Totoro (Tonarino Totoro, 1988)and also shows up in SpiritedAwayasKamaji's helpers.Likewise, No-Faceseems to carryan imageof Tatarigami(curse spirit), which appears in Miyazaki's previous film,PrincessMononoke(Mononoke-hime, 1997).Atthe beginningof thefilm, Tatarigamiis shot by Ashitaka, the hero, and TatarigamifuriouslychasesAshitaka,tryingtokillhim.Tatarigami'sfastandviolentmovementisrepeatedinSpiritedAway,whenafter eatingfoodgivenbyChihiro, No-Facelividlychasesher, withthe intent of seizingandthenswallowing her whole. In both cases, the chased are the protagonistsof thefilm,andthechasersputmisguidedangeragainstthechased,19whoaretryingtodogoodforothers.BothChihiroandAshitakanarrowlyescapetheir fatal assaults.Thoughbyfarnot aconventionalfolkimage,No-Facedoesresembleseveral other literary/folk sources.One suchsource is manga(graphic novel)and/or anime.Authorsinfluence each other.It may bejust a coincidence,but No-Face-likecreatures appear in the enormouslypopular manga titled Inuyasha (Dog-demon),which hasbeen runningsince 1996. In one of Inuyasha'searlyepisodes, "Gendai ni yomigaerunoroinoN6men"(RevivedCursedNohMask),awomanhasanominousoldNohmaskwhich"onceoneputsiton,itcanneverberemoved..,exceptindeath"(Takahashi1997,89).25The ownertriestogetridof themask,butbecomespossessed byit.Theneckof themaskedwoman stretcheslike No-Face's neck. After a while, themaskcracksopenverticallyinthemiddle,andthecracktransformsintoahugemouthwithsharpteeth.SimilartoNo-Face,whoswallowsupfrogsatthebathhouse,theNohmask-monsterofInuyasha hasavoraciousappetite.Simultaneously,the Nohmask-monstergetsfatterasit consumeshumans.The monster'sappearanceisexactlylike thatof No-Face.Further, the way the Nohmask-monster chases the heroinebearsagreatresemblancetothesceneinwhich No-FaceischasingSen.Again, it may be just a coincidence,but it is interesting to see thatfrighteningchasing scenesand imagescontinue toturn up in modem-,day Japaneseanimation.It should alsobe notedthat inboth cases,Nohmasksplayanimportantrole.Inthe caseof SpiritedAway,asquotedearlier,aNohmaskwasconsideredforthefaceof No-Face(ahigherdeity,riverspirit, has a face similar to Noh's okina [old man]mask).As attested tobyAndb'scomment,thereisanexpressioninJapanesethatgoes,"someoneislikeaNohmask"meaning"someoneisinscrutable."Regardingtheroleofthemaskitself,DorisBargenwrites,"Symbolically,maskingcanhideor disguisetheself;it canalsobeaform of self-disclosureor revelation.Sometimesmasking is associatedwithtwinninginthatthedoubledfacehastheeffectofblurringorconfusingidentities.Maskingalso hasthe potentialfor makinga facebothmoreelusiveandmoreexpressive.Nomatterwhattheinterpretation,the'effectof thisdoubleexposureiscentraltotheaestheticsof Noh'.Itcanalsocreatetheimpressionof immutability,therebyclaiming universality"(Bargen 1991,149). Using a Nohmaskcreatesanotherworldlyambience.EmaTsutomu,anotedfolklorist20andaKyotoscholar,recountsanexampleofamysteriousoldmasktransformingintoamysteriouswoman.Emanotesthatanoldmasktransforming into something/someoneis called menreki (mask monster);thishas beena conventionalphenomenonsince oldendays(Ema 1923,40).A masked, trouble-makingspirit isa conventional,even sometimescommonfolk belief. No-Faceisa lonelyfigure. But it isreassuring thatNo-Facedoes find a place at the end by becomingZeniba's helper.Thisdevelopmentis perhaps,again, explained byChihiro'sintervention justas shedidfor Haku.So what isthe significanceof all the symbolism and folk beliefsintertwined in SpiritedAway? It is often said that in Japan high technologyand traditionalcustoms live side by side. They exist in fact not only side-by-side,butareinseparable,symbiotic. Theanimation,SpiritedAway,provides a good example of how, within the modem and the technological,folk beliefs and customsstillthrive. As quotedearlier, Miyazakiwrites,"It isa poor idea to push all the traditional things into a small folk-cultureworld.Surrounded byhigh technologyand its flimsydevices,childrenare more and more losing their roots.We must inform them of the richnessof our traditions." Miyazaki is very successfulin informingchildren (andadults)aboutthe richnessof Japanesetraditionsthroughthehigh-techworldofanimation.Justasinoldendayswhereastorytellerwouldentertainthe audience by fireside with interesting stories(with some moraledification),Miyazaki'sstory is entertainingand hopeful. It appearsthatthe folk beliefs and imagescometo surface inartifactsregardlessof themedia form. The phenomenonof Kamikakushi gives an unstable youth aperiodof rest from this world(socialdeath)while s/he has disappeared.If and whens/he comesbackto thisworld,s/he isreadyto starta newlife. During the time of disappearance,s/he mayhave saved the livesofsomecreaturesin the other world, much asChihiro did. Thatworld maybeinhabitedbysupernaturalbeingswhohavelosttheirplaceinthisworld. Those beingswho have lost their physical place in this world-beit by modem technology and/or belief in materialism-have reclaimeditin the very modemtechnology suchas animationand computer games.Inthescreenof virtualreality,folkcharactersincludingyamauba,tsuchigumo, and millions of spirits appear abundantly with some modem-dayadditivesto theoriginalimages.Atthesametime,the"original"imagesareevolutionaryratherthansetinstone.Theyarealiveandcontinuetostayalive,morphingwiththe timesandtheyremainbothimportant anddear tothe Japanese.21Notes'Tobeconsistentwith Japanesenameorder, familyname comesfirstin this paper.2 Itshould benotedthatneithercharactersnoraudienceexperienceany uncertaintyin Harry Potter.3The originaltextisfound inSait6 2001,74.4D.G. Harwell,NewYorkTimes Book Review(1990),p.1, quotedinNapier1996,6.1 Translationfoundinhttp://www.nausicaa.net/miyazaki/sen/proposal.html.The originaltext isfoundin Sait6,74.6In"SuzumenoOyado,"a sparrowthat a kindgrandpahascaredfordisappearsafter hiswicked wife cut its tongue. With muchtroubleandhardship, the grandpa finds the sparrow'shouse.There he is entertainedwithgood foodand dances.Thesparrowgiveshim asouvenir, whichturnsouttobe greattreasures.His wifefollowshis suitandvisitsthesparrows'house,too.Disregardingthesparrows'entertainment,shepicksa largesouvenir,which turnsouttobe fullof snakes,bugs, andmonsters."NezuminoGoten,"popularlyknownas"Nezumijado"(The Mice Paradise) or "Omusubikororin"(The RollingRice-ball)isa similar storyto "Suzumeno Oyado."Onedaya grandpagoesto themountains tocutwood.Whenhe eatshis lunch,oneof hisrice-balls(or dumplings)fallsandrolls intoa holeintheground.Thegrandpatried to reach it, but the earth giveswayand he tumblesdownthe hole,too.Followingthe rice-ball,he reachesthe mice'smansion. Therehe'isentertainedwithgoodfoodandsongs.Asanappreciationofthegrandpa'srice-ball, the mice give him treasures.A neighboringwickedold manhears the grandpa'sstory and attemptsto do the samething asthe grandpadid.But the neighbormakesa mistakein the process,andinsteadof gettingtreasures,he is punishedbythe mice.7For examplesof Kamikakushi from Yanagita Kunio's T6no monogatariinEnglish,seeSadler1987,217-226.KomatsuKazuhikonotesthatmanystoriesand legendsof Kamikakushi are handeddowninvariousregionsof Japan and that the typicalexample of its story is Shutend6ji.Komatsu1991,62.8Thetranslationistakenfromhttp://www.nausicaa.net/miyazaki-interviews/sen.html.9 Quotedin Yu,104.22"10AsOshimaTakehikowrites,therearemanylegendsandsites thattell the stories of yamauba givingbirth to a child (children)and raisinghim(them). SeeOshima1979,51."TheGreatMotherwhoencompassesboththelightanddarksidescan be seen in many mytho-religious figures such as the EgyptianmotherGoddess,Isis, andthe Hindu'sKali.Franz1974,195.12See Kawai'sThe JapanesePsyche, particularlychapters2 and3.B3Regardingthebirthof Kintar6andhischangingimages,seeTorii2002.11Themostfamousukiyo-eartistof yamaubaisKitagawaUtamaro(1753-1806),whoproducedaboutfortyworksonthethemeof"Yamaubaand Kintar6."Shimizu1990,231. For the Utamaro'sprints,seeShimizu1990.15For the Rosetsu'spaintings,seeRosetsu2000.16Oneof the workswhich influencedMiyazakiin creatingthe film isKashiwaba Sachiko'sKiri no muk5 nofushigina machi (A MysteriousTownbeyond the Mist). Aunt Picot, a major characterof Kiri no muk5no fushigina machi, isanelderlyownerof anapartment-house.Hermottois"those whodon't workshould not eat,"and like Yubaba,sheappreciatesand rewardsa goodworker."AccordingtoKomatsuKazuhiko,ananthropologist,theterm"theother world"canbe understoodfromtwo levels:oneis tolook at theworld from temporary point of view - time axis - and the other is spatialviewpoint- spaceaxis.Thetemporaryviewconsiderstheworldoftime from birthto death as"thisworld," and the time prior to birth andafterdeathas"theotherworld."Fromspatialviewpoint,thespacewhereeverydaylifeexistsisregardedas"thisworld"andthespaceoutsideof everydaylife- meta-everydayliferealm - isregardedas"theotherworld."...heaven,ocean,river, underground,andstrangelandare understoodas"theotherworld"fromspatialpointof view.The "skatialother world"cannot visit easily, but unlike the "temporaryother world,"if the conditions are met, one can gowithout undergoingdeath.Komatsu1991,57-58."11 SugiiGisabur6,ananimationdirector, writes,"I wonderwhetheraspider is Kamaji's model.Miyazakilikes (a creature with)many hands."Uekusa,51."9Tsuda S6kichi, an eminent scholar of Asian history, notes that the term23tsuchigumo is appliedto anindividual,not to a group. Tsuda1963,188.20 For English translation,see Philippi1969,174-75.Also see Nihongi(AncientMatters,720).Sakamoto,et.al.1967,210.ItsEnglishtranslationisfound in Aston1956,129-130.21Forexample,onetsuchigumo namedOrmimiinthedistrictofMatsuuraof HizenProvincepromisedtogivefoodtothe emperoratribute(Uegaki335-336),anothertsuchigumo calledUtsuhiomaroinSonokidistrict of the same province even saved an imperial ship (Uegagi345).22The Nohtextof Tsuchigumo is basedon thetsuchigumo narrativeof Nihongi (the sectionquoted earlierin thispaper),thatof Yashiro-versionof Heikemonogatari (the Taleof Heike,the 1 41hcentury),and the picture scroll entitledTsuchigumo sishi (Storyof Tsuchigumo,early14thcentury).23Thisissimilarto Gedleaving his Master Wizardat GontIslandtoentertheWizardSchoolatRoketolearnmagicfaster.SeeLeGuin1968,p.36.24SeeKurano,161,Philippi,177,Kojima,et al.,227and Aston,128.25For the Englishtranslation,see Takahashi2003, 91.Works CitedAston, W. G.tr. 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