Special Contribution

Local Governance in an Age of Technological Transformation

and Global Uncertainty

AlexB.BrillantesJrProfessor

University of the Philippines National College ofPublic Administration and Governance

Philippines

KarlEmmanuelRuiz1

LibrarianUniversity of the Philippines National College of

Public Administration and GovernancePhilippines

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IntroductionWe live inanenvironmentofuncertainty.Globalwarming, international tradeandtradewars, internationalsecurityandthecontinuingthreatof terrorism, the internetrevolutionandtechnologicaltransformationhavealltransformedtheworldmarkedbyvolatility,uncertainty,complexityandambiguousness,orwhatsomehavereferredtoasaVUCAworld.Widespreaddevelopmentsandchangesduetoglobalizationhave im-pactedallsectorsofsocietyattheglobalandlocallevels.

Localgovernmentsarethefront liners inthe longchainofgovernance.Formanycitizens,localgovernmentsarethegovernment.Localgovernmentsplayakeyroleasthe transmissionbeltsbetween thenationalgovernmentandthepeople.Essentially,they“customize”manyoftheprogramsandprojectsofthenationalgovernment,appro-priatelyplacingsuchinalocalcontextinordertomakethemresponsivetothespecificneedsofthepeoplewhomattermostingovernance.Localgovernmentsoperationalize

Special ContributionLocal Governance in an Age of Technological

Transformation and Global Uncertainty

Abstract Localgovernmentsare inthefrontlinesofthe longchainofgovernance.Formanycitizens,localgovernmentsarethegovernment.Itisthereforecriticalthattheyarecon-nectedtothecitizens.Theyplayakeyroleastransmissionbeltsbetweenthenationalgovernmentandthepeople.They“localize”manyoftheprogramsandprojectsofthenationalgovernment,appropriatelyplacingsuch ina“local”context inordertomakethemresponsivetothespecificneedsofthepeoplewhomattermostingovernance.Lo-calgovernmentsoperationalizegoodgovernancebybeingthemainenablersofpeopleparticipationandcitizenengagement,whicharecentraltoanydemocracy.Informationdisseminationiscentraltothegoodgovernancediscourse.Governmenthastocommuni-cateanddisseminatetothepeople informationpertainingto itspolicies,programsandprojects.Itiswithinthiscontextthatelectronicgovernancehasbecomeverycriticalinthecontemporarydiscourseongoodgovernance.Apartfromengagingthecitizenswhoaretheultimatebeneficiariesingoodgovernance,electronicgovernancehashadotherusages.Theserange fromsimple informationdissemination, toenablingdialoguewiththepeople,toserviceandfinancialtransactionsandverticalandhorizontalintegrationofprogramsandprojects(Moon,2002).Drawingfromtheexperiencesofothercountriesintheregion, thispaperdiscusseshowlocalgovernmentshaveplayedtheserolesgiventherapidchangesbroughtaboutby technological transformation inwhathasbeencalledaVUCA (volatile,uncertain,complexambiguous)dominatedworld. Itendsbysuggestingthate-governance,asatoolcancontributetothe5EsandanA,i.e.,economy,efficiency,effectiveness,equity,ethicsandaccountability,ofpublicadministration.

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goodgovernancebybeingthemainenablersofpeopleparticipationandcitizenengage-ment,whichiscentral inanydemocracy.It isthereforecriticalthattheyaredirectlyconnectedtothecitizens.

Thepreviousyearshavewitnesseddevelopments in localgovernanceallovertheworld.Ratherthanfocusingmerelyimplementingbureaucraticcontrolsandprocesses,localgovernmentshavebecomemoreorientedon facilitatingconsultationstoensurerepresentationofcitizens’views,professionalizationofpublicserviceandachievingre-sults(DeVriesandNemec2013),therebyenhancingcitizens’trustingovernment.

Localgovernmentsmustnot losetouchwithrealityhencemustcontinuouslycon-nectwiththeirconstituents.Thisenhancestheirlegitimacyandacceptancebythepeo-ple.Legitimacycomes fromboththenationaland localpolitical leaderships’commit-menttopublicgoodandearntheconfidenceofitsthecitizens.Häikiö(2012)notedthatgovernancepracticesemphasize the fact that legitimacy isconstructedbywayofaprocess.Insofaraslocalgovernancenetworksexercisepower,authorityandinfluence,thegrounds for legitimate authority and activity arenegotiated and interpretedthroughlocalpractices.

Therearemanyreasonswhy localgovernmentsarevitalas theyare involved inmanyfacetsofoursocieties.InthewordsofShayKelleher(2012,p. 217),“theconcentra-tionoffinance,innovation,knowledge,economicactivityandpeopleincitiesprovidesadenseandnucleatedmanifestationofhumanactivityinanumberofurbansectors.”Lo-calgovernmentscancreatethenecessaryenablingconditionsforbetterurbanplanningandmanagement.Localgovernmentshavedirectcontroloverbusiness licensing, in-spectionprocessesandpermitauthorization.BerggruenandGardels(2013)statedthatthepowerofcitiesandtheirimmediateregionshasgrowntosuchadegreethatmay-orscanwieldasmuchcloutastheleadersofanentirecountry.

Localgovernmentsoftenserveasintermediariesbetweenpolicydesignandimple-mentation.Theysharethedesirewiththenationalgovernmenttoquickly implementprogramsthatwillcreatejobsintheircommunitiesfortheyaremaderesponsibleforrespondingtocitizens’needsandhavethefreedomtoplan,implementandadaptpolicyprocessesandacquirenecessaryresources fordevelopment (TermanandFeiocky,2014).Localgovernmentsserveasplatforms fordeveloping future leaders.Theyalsoeasetheadministrativeburdenofthecentralgovernment.(Weedchayanon,2015).

Thereisgrowingemphasisonhowlocaleconomicdevelopmentcanbeleveragedtoimproveaccess toeconomicopportunities for residents,particularly incitieswherethere isgrowing income inequalityanda lackofeconomicmobility.Hence, inclusiveeconomicdevelopmentdefinedas “community-basedstrategies thataimto improveeconomicopportunity forall,witha focusondisadvantagedresidents” (RobbinsandMcFarland,2017,p. 16)hasbecomearesponsibilityoflocalgovernments.

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Ⅰ. Local Governments and E-GovernanceThegovernmentsandgovernancesystemsofthevariouscountrieshavenotbeenex-empted fromuncertaintiesof theVUCAenvironment. It iswithin thiscontext thate-governmenthasemergednotonlyasamanagementtool to improveadministrationandmake itmoreefficient tocopewiththedemandsofarapidlychangingenviron-ment,butmoreimportantly,asagovernancetooltoallowindividualstoparticipateingovernment,andenhance transparencyandaccountability ingovernance.E-govern-mentpertainstotheutilizationofnewgadgets,processes,andtechnologiestofacilitateavailabilityandexpeditetheprovisionofpublicgoodsforthepeople,commercesectorandprofessionalsindifferentindustries.(Silcook,2001,pp. 88).Howtechnologicalrevolu-tionhastransformedthenatureofgovernanceatthelocallevelhasbeenvariouslyre-ferredtoaselectronicgovernance,e-government,anddigitalgovernance,amongotherthings.

Risingpeople’sexpectations, increasedtechnologicalsophistication,andcompetitionfromother localgovernmentsprovide the impetus for continuous improvementofe-governmentandwebsiteupgrading.Internetutilizationatthelocallevelhasalsobe-comeincreasinglyvisible.Similargrowthpatternshavecharacterizedthedevelopmentofe-governmentinamongvariouscountriesintheworld.Theearlystageisdescribedtohaveanofficialgovernmentdigitalfootprintbyhavingseveralonlinesites.Itisfol-lowedbyanextendedpresencethatoffersmoredynamicandspecificallytailoredinfor-mationviadownloadableformsacrossawiderrangeofgovernmentwebsites.Aslocalgovernmentunitsenlargee-governmentpresence, theybegin to incorporaterelatedtransactionalonlineservicesandformslinkedtohigherlevelsystemswithinandacrossdifferentlevelsofgovernment.(WohlersandBernier,2016).

Anadvancedstageofe-governancecanfulfil itsroleinenhancingthegoodgover-nanceandthedemocraticprocess.AsLee-GeillerandLee(2019)putit,thisrangefromsimplymaking informationaccessibletothecitizens, toprovidingmechanismforcon-sultationsandparticipationindecision-makingprocesses.

Indeed,theuseoftheinternethasmadelocalgovernmentsnotonlyarichmineofrelevantandusefulinformationrangingfromtourism,toelectionresultsandjobpost-ings,butalsohasbecomeanenablerofcivicengagement intermsofpoliticaldiscus-sionsandindividuals’involvementinlocalgroups.(WohlersandBernier,2016).Kimetal.(2011,p. 9)haveassertedthatthe“internetishelpfulforbecomingmoreinvolvedinlocalissuesofinterest”andtofeelmoreconnectedwithothers.Thus,e-governmentini-tiativescanaugmentpeople’sparticipationandreinforceconnection to localgovern-ments,whichservesasafoundationofdemocracy

Itiswithinthecurrentsituationdepictedabovethatthefollowingsectionmakesanindicativesurveyoftheexperiencesofsomecountriesintheregionanddiscussesinabroadmannerhowlocalgovernmentshaveharnessede-governancetoadvancetheide-

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alsoftransparency,accountabilityandparticipationinanincreasinglycomplex,uncer-tainworldoflimitedresources,nowthattherapidandunpredictablechangesbroughtaboutbytechnologicaltransformationarebecominginevitable.

Ⅱ. Experiences of Some Asian Countries in E-government:Digitalgovernancebecamepredominant inAsiancontinent in theearly twenty-firstcenturydespitethecollossaloverhaulofvariousgovernmentsandeconomiesinthere-gion inordertokeepupandstaycompetitive inthenewera’smultifariousdevelop-ments.Thecourseofdevelopmentwas influencedby theclamor formodernizationamongthesegovernments.These includedchanges inmanagementpractices,stream-liningtheagencies, liberalization,privatizationofseveralstate-ownedenterprises,andtheeasingregulationstoamongotherthings,addresschronicproblemssuchasexces-siveredtapeandcorruption.(Warf,2014).Itwaswithinthiscontextthatvariousgov-ernmentspursuede-governmentprogramstorespondtodemandsforgreateraccount-ability,transparency,andbetterresults.

China ThefirststageofChina’se-governmentfocusedonautomationofofficework.Build-inguponthefirstphase,theGoldenProjectwaslaunchedthatincludedthreedifferentprograms: theGoldenBridge, theGoldenCustoms,andtheGoldenCard.Thesepro-gramselectronicallyconnectedallofcentralandprovincialgovernmentsandestab-lishedapostaldatanetworkandadatabasetoprocessnationalandinternationaltradeinformation.Italsostartedacentralizedonlinebankingsystem.(YangandXu,2010).In1999,tounleashthepotentialoftheInternet,theChinesegovernmentlaunchedtheOn-lineGovernmentProjectaimedatestablishingwebsitesforallgovernmentagencies,in-cluding localgovernments for thepurposesofcoordinationandpeoplemobilization(Cooley,2017)

GovernmentOnlinewas followedbyEnterpriseOnline,whichconcentratedone-commerce. In1998,China’s firstgovernment-to-businesse-commercewebsitewasbuiltinXiamen,whichenabledgovernmentpurchasestobetrackedonline.In2001,theStateCouncil, theCommunistParty’sagencythatundertakessuchtasks, issuedtheChinaE-GovernmentApplicationModelProject (Warf, 2017).Chinamaderapidad-vancements ine-health, includingonlinemedicalrecords (Gaoetal., 2013).Theseen-deavorswerebolsteredbyabroaderstratagemtochangethenatureofthestatefromdirectsupervisiontomacroeconomicmanagement,gaincontrolovercorruption,unifytechnologystandards,enhanceresponsiveness,increaseproductivity,andincreasetradeandindustrialcompetitivenessundertheNationalInformationplan.(Warf,2017).

Localgovernmentswerethusleftwithroomforinnovationastheyadaptedcontentand functionstosuit localconditions. (SchlaegerandStepan,2017).Atthe local level,widevariationsexistinthedegreetowhiche-governmentinitiativeshavebeenadopt-ed inChinesecities (FanandLuo2013).Localgovernmentsaregrantedconsiderableautonomyinthedegreetowhichtheymayimplementsuchmeasures,withwidevaria-

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tionsinthequalityofwebsitesandservices(Shi,2007).

NotsurprisinglyBeijing,Shanghai,Nanjing,andShenzenhavetakentheleadinon-linecompanyregistrations, taxcollections,andcommunity informationservices (Tan,2013).Shanghaimetropolis,amajorcommercialcenter,isthebest-connectedcityinthecountryandithasbecomeChina’smostsuccessfulexampleofmunicipale-government.ManyChinesecitieshavealsoturnedtosocialmediatodisseminateinformation;forex-ample,manylocalpolicedepartmentsuseTwitterandmicroblogs(Ma,2013).

China’shighlycentralizedpoliticalsystempresentschallengestoimplementationofe-government initiatives, includingcontradictinggoals,poor interagencycoordination,andofficeswithbloatedstaffnumbers.Nevertheless,accordingtoBell(2015),China,inmanyrespects, is able todeliver thepublicgoods thatmattermost to itspeople’shearts-economicgrowth,goodinfrastructure,nationalprestige,andswiftresponsestotheirconcerns.

Chinaexhibitshowe-governmentcansuccessfullyaffecta largenumberofpeoplewhenitispoweredbyastrongpoliticalleadershipsuchasthemultipleGoldenprojectsandGovernmentOnline.(Warf,2017).China’sprogramsaredesignedtoencouragema-terialprosperity.ItisalsoasourceofpopularsupportfortherulingParty.AchallengethatChinashouldfaceisthedigitaldividethatispredominantinthemoreremotere-gions.(YangandXu,2010).

Japan Japanisrenownedforitsdeeppocketsandhightechnologywithasophisticatedin-formationandcommunications technology infrastructure. Itsplans fore-governmentoriginallylaggedbehindotherOECD(OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDe-velopment)nations(Koga,2003).Today,however,ithasestablishedanimpressiveden-shi seifu (e-government)anddenshi jichitai (e-localgovernment)system.Internetcon-nection isubiquitous, atprices likely the lowest in theworldandwithconnectionspeeds16timesfasterthanintheUnitedStates.However,asinmostnationswithcon-servativecultures,e-governmentintitiativesinJapanhavemetresistance, largelyduetoarigid,overlycautiousbureaucracyandlackofpoliticalwilltochange.(Warf,2017).

Firststeps towarde-government includeda “MasterPlan forPromotingGovern-ment-WideUseofInformationTechnology” in1994 (Warf,2017,p. 20).TheBasicLawontheFormationofanAdvancedInformationandTelecommunicationsNetworkSoci-etywaspassedbytheNationalDiet(Legislature)in2000.Inforcesince2001,thislawpresumed thepresence of a high-information communicationnetworked society.(WohlersandBernier,2016).Thehighlysuccessfulandthehighlypraisede-JapanStrat-egyIin2001becamethebasisforallsubsequente-governmentprograms(Warf,2017,p. 20).

Itssuccessor,e-JapanStrategyIIin2003,offeredambitiousgoalsthatreliedonboth

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publicandprivateefforts.(Yonemaru,2004).Theprogrameliminatedmanyregulatoryobstaclesto internetuseandacceleratedpenetrationratesconsiderably. In2006, thiswas followedbytheu-Japanprogram (u forubiquitous,universal,user-oriented,andunique). In2009, the i-Japan2015Strategypromoteddigital inclusionand innovationthroughnetworkedsmartdevices,emphasizinge-government,healthcare,andeduca-tion;italsorecommendedanationale-postofficeboxordigitallocationsforthestorageof individualpublicrecords (e.g., social security).These initiativesare typicalof thetop-bottomdirectivesthathavelongcharacterizedJapanesepolitics.(Warf,2017).

Withtheworld’smostrapidlygrayingsociety,andvastnumbersofpeopleoverage65, Japan facesapeculiarchallengebringinge-governmentservices to theelderly,manyofwhomarenotcomfortablewithdigitaltechnologies.(Warf,2017).

Locale-governmentisomnipresentthroughoutJapan;nearlyeveryprefecturehasacounciltoexamineandadoptplansforthephenomenon(Arai,2007;KuboandShimada,2007).TheLocalGovernmentsWideAreaNetwork,whichwasfinishedin2003,linksallcityandprovincialadministrationswitheachotherandthecentralgovernment.Undertheoversightofthetopleadership,Japanesecitieshaveimplementede-governmentinawiderangeofmodesandlevelsofsophistication(Tanakaetal.,2005),rangingfromal-most little involvementamongsomevillagesto intergovernment localareanetworks.(Warf,2017).

Japanisawealthyandsophisticatedsocietywithenormouspotentialtousee-gov-ernment tomaximumeffectiveness.Unfortunately, apersistentdigitaldivideandaverytraditionalpoliticalculturediscourages innovationandrisk-takingandhasham-peredprogress.Thereis,however,anextensivevarietyofe-governmentprojects,withmixedresults,at themunicipalandprefectural levels.Someof itsgreatestsuccesseshavebeeninservingtheelderlyandintermsofdisasterpreparedness.Overall,prog-ress inthee-governmentcaneasilychangeshouldthepoliticalclimatebecomemoreopen.(Warf,2017).

South Korea With51millionpeople,SouthKoreaenteredtheinformation-basedeconomyandasaresurgentsociety.Starting in the1990s, itdevelopedaworldclass telecommunica-tionsinfrastructure.Alongseriesofpolicydirectivespavedthewayforthecountry’ssuccess.In1987,thegovernmentlauncheditsProjectforaNationwideCommunicationsNetwork,whichplannedtoconstructbasicdatabasesofthegovernment’sdocuments.In1993,stepsweretakentoforgeanationwidefiberopticsnetwork,andin1995thegovernmentpassedtheFrameworkonInformatizationPromotionAct.(Warf,2017).LimandTang(2008,p. 110)noted,“theKoreangovernmentlaunchedtheG4C(GovernmentforCitizens)portalforpublicservicetransactionsin2002and,in2006,acitizenpartici-pationportalthatenablesthepopulacetoengageinpolicydiscoursesandpresenttheirideastopublicpolicymakersonline.”In2011,theSmartEgovPlanwasadoptedaimedatintegratinggovernmentonlineservices.(Warf,2017).

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Asanewlyindustrializedcountry,Koreausesitse-governmentsystemtocatertoitsbusinesscommunity.TheKoreaOnlineE-procurementSystem(KONEPS)hasdras-ticallyreducedcorruptionintheallocationofpubliccontracts.TheElectronicCustomsClearingService streamlined import andexportbusinessesbyproviding logisticsthroughaone-stophub.Alltaxactivitiesandpatentapplicationsareprocessedonline.Korea’se-governmentisalsowell-knownforthehighqualityofitsservices.West(2007),inananalysisofe-governmentwebsitestheworldover,ratedSouthKoreaashavingthebestofsuchkind.In2003,theUnitedNationsrankedSeoul’sofficialwebsiteastheworld’sbestmunicipaldigitalportal(Warf,2017).

As inanycountrydeployinge-government, thedigitaldivide inKoreahasbeenaconcern. Internetaccess falls intothreecategories:Seoul,othercities,andruralareas(Hwang,2004).Thecapital’sresidents tendtoshowthehighestratesofusagewithe-servicessuchasbanking.Developmentsofthedigitalgovernmentwereaccompaniedbyasustainedpublicawarenesscampaign topromote Internetuse, includingsubsi-dizedaccess.Despitethesesuccesses,e-governmentinKoreasometimeshasbeentherecipientofhostilepublicresponses,asinJapan.Inpartsuchprotestsreflectdistrustofthestateandthelackofformalprivacyprotectionlaws.(Jho,2005)

ThemassivesuccessesKoreaexperiencesatthestatelevelarereplicatedatthelo-calscale.Asinmanynations,politicalpowerinKoreahasbeendecentralizedtothelo-callevel.AccordingtoLimandTang(2008),thequalityofe-governmentwebsitesdif-fersamongmunicipalities,withthemosteffectiveonesbeingrunbyadeterminedlocaladministrativeunit.Seoul isatthepinnacleof theworld’smost interconnectedsmartcities,withawell-developed,networked infrastructure. (Leeetal.,2014). In2011, thegovernmentannouncedthe“SmartSeoul2015”programtosustaintheKoreancapital’sstatusasaparagonofe-government.(Warf,2017,p. 32).

SouthKoreahasoneofthebeste-governmentsystemsnotonlyinAsiabutintheentireworld.Nobetterexampleofcitizen-centrice-governmentcanbe found,andnoothercountrydisplaysthebreadthanddepthofKoreane-governmentprograms. ItssuccessstoriesisaresultofdeterminedleadershiptoharnesstheInternettopropelitseconomyandsociety.WithitssuperbICT(informationandcommunicationstechnology)infrastructure,hightechnologicalexpertiseandanengagedcivilsocietyhavemadeathrivingdigitalandinformationsocietyinKoreaverypossible.(Warf,2017).

Taiwan Taiwan’se-governmenthasbeenconsideredamongthemoresuccessfulonesintheworld today.ThenationalgovernmenthasstaunchlypursuedacapitalistpathwithAmericansupportsince1949.With23.5millionpeople,itsexport-orientedeconomyin-cludes impressive industries inelectronics, industrialmachinery,andpetrochemicals.Taiwanhasboththeresourcesandthepoliticalframeworktoimplemente-governmentinademocratic fashion.TheTaiwanesesuccess in implementinge-governancestandsinsharpcontrasttoChina.(Warf,2017).Taiwan’sGovernmentServiceNetworkoffered

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Internetaccesstoallgovernmentunitsatalllevels.Ithasattainedseamlessintegration.Thisprojectbeganin1998,withabackbonestructurethatwasbuiltonfiberopticsandwaslaterenlargedtoincludethreenetworkcentersand17networknodes,encompass-ingtheentireisland.(ChenandHsieh,2009).

Theprogressof theTaiwanesee-governmentwasgiven itscurrent institutionalstructurethroughtheElectronicGovernmentProgram,fromitspolitical leadership inApril2001(Leeetal.,2005).ThestructureandorganizationofTaiwan’se-governmentreflectsasingle-servicewindowapproach.Thesmoothservicecapability isnotavail-ableatasingleministryoragencywebsite.Instead,theyareredirectedtothecentrale-governmentportal(Lau,etal...,2008).

ThebestknownexampleofTaiwanesee-governmentprogramisitsonlinetaxation.(Hungetal.,2006). Itusesblogstokeepusersuptodateaboutchanges inrulesandregulations,anduserscansharetax-filingtipsandexperiences.(Warf,2017)Otherap-plicationsincludeonlinevehicleregistration,job-matchingsites,electroniccontractsac-quisition,tariffapplications,andutilityservices.Thegovernment’sCertificationAuthor-ityisresponsibleforqualityassurance.(Warf,2017)

Citizenparticipation isessential togoode-government.Taiwanhasmadeavailableseveraldigitalavenuesforthepeopletostatetheiropinionsandcomplaints.Thee-gov-ernanceof thecentralgovernment ismore focusedontheapplicationofcertain lawswhilethedigitalgovernancepracticesoflocalgovernmentstendtorevolvearoundes-sentialeverydayinformation.(Warf,2017)

Althoughitisarelativelysmallislandnation,nonetheless,geographicdifferencesinInternetaccessandthequalityofe-governmentexist inTaiwan.Thegovernment iswellawareofthedigitaldividethereandhastakenactivestepstomitigateit(YuandWang,2004).

Philippines ThePhilippineswithapopulationofmorethan100millionpeople,stillhasadomi-nantlyagricultraleconomy.However, ithasseensomegrowth ingarmentsandelec-tronicsproduction,aswellascallcenters.Literacyratesarehighat93%.Filipinoover-seasworkers’ remittancesmakea significant contribution to theeconomyaswell.Mobilephonesarewidespread;thecountryhasbeencalledtheShortMessageCenteroftheentireplanet,with100milliontextssenteveryday,generatingahighernumberpercapitathananynation.(Warf,2017).

AttemptsmadetoincorporateITinthegovernmentwereinitiatedwiththeestab-lishmentin1971ofaNationalComputerCenter.In1994,thePhilippinestateconceivedtheNationalInformationTechnologyCouncil,whichinitiatedcourseofactiontowardstheadoptionofcomputers.ThepassageofthePublicTelecommunicationsPolicyActofthePhilippines,wasanothermilestonethatliberalizedtheindustry.TheoriginsofFili-

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pinoe-governmentmaybesaidto liewithRepublicAct8792ortheElectronicCom-merceLawof2000,whichgavelegalacknowledgementtodigitaldocuments,signaturesandtransactions.(Warf,2017).Siar’s(2005)analysisshowedthatmostwerelackingsub-stantialinformation,includingrelevantcontactinformation,whatservicestheyoffered,oronlineforms.Onlyafewofficesattemptedonlinemanagementofpropertyrecordsorbusinesspermitsandlicenses.

Intenselyawareofthischallenge,thegovernmentrespondedbyestablishingcom-munitye-centersestablishedundere-LGUprogram.Privatelyoperated,theyaremuchcheaperthanInternetcafes.Most,ifnotallpublic-fundedschoolshaveacquiredInter-netaccessviatheGearing up Internet Literacy and Access for Students (GILAS) proj-ect.(Warf,2017).OtheractionsincludefinancingforruralInternetconnections,comput-erswithInternetconnection inpublic libraries, thedistributionof free (opensource)softwaretoschools,andopenonlinecoursesinsomeremoteareas)(Sanez,nodate).ThePhilippinestatehasattainedmodestsuccesses ine-government.TheDepartmentofManagementandtheBudgetunleashedtheGovernmentElectronicProcurementSys-temastheauthorizedportalforrequestingandacceptingproposalsonpublicprojects(Lallanaetal.,2002), increasingtransparency intheprocessandreducingcorruption.Anothersuccessstoryconcernstelemedicine.In1998,theUniversityofthePhilippinesfoundedtheNationalTelemedicineCenter,whichmanagesreferralsfrom40doctorsinremoteareasaroundthecountry(Marcelo,2009).

In2002, theFilipinogovernmentcommenced theJumpstartingElectronicGover-nanceinLocalGovernmentUnits(e-LGU),toencouragethemtodevelopwebpagesanddevelopasystemof700communitye-centerstoprovideInternetaccess.In2005,virtu-allyall localgovernmentshadwebsites,althoughmanywerenotupdated frequentlyandfewofferedinteractiveservices.Thereareanumberoflocalgovernmentunitsthatspearheadede-governmentinitiativesdespitelittleassistancefromthenationalgovern-ment.(Warf,2017).

Anexample isLGUNaga’sBarangayeSkwela-BarangayLiteracyWorker (BLW)program,acomprehensiveapproachtopromoteeducation forout-of-schoolchildren,youth,andadults (OSCYAs). (Neola,2018).Another laudablecase isValenzuelaCity’sSimpleandSpeedyPublicServiceProgramor3SinPublicService,intendedtorootoutgraftandcorruption,flattentheorganizationalstructureofthecitygovernment,simpli-fybusinessprocesses,andencourage thecommunity toprovide feedbackonhowtofurtherenhancepublicservices.Thenumberoftransactionswerestreamlinedfrom11to threeand itnowtakesonly20minutes toobtainabusinesspermit (GalingPook,2012).

ThePhilippinesisabletodelivere-governmentservices,althoughtoalesserdegreethanitsmoreadvancedcontemporariesduetoinsufficientICTandtransportationinfra-structure,andapersistentdigitaldivide.ItisuniquetotheextenttowhichitreliesonSMStexting.Hinderedbycorruptionanda frequentlysluggisheconomy,thegovern-

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menthasnonethelesssuccessfullyadoptedseverale-governmentprograms,althoughthereisstillmuchprogresstobemade.(Warf,2017)

Indonesia Withmorethan250millionpeople, Indonesia is theworld’s fourth-mostpopulouscountryandthelargestMuslimnation.PrivateinitiativestocreateanInternetinIndo-nesiadatebackto1994,whenthe first ISP, IndoNet,began. (Warf,2017)Followingalong traditionofhighlycentralized leadership, Indonesiamoveddecisively tograntprovincesgreaterautonomy,startingin1999,whichmadelocale-governmentinitiativesallthemoresignificant.Tofacilitatethisprocess,theIndonesianstatein2003publishedahandbookofe-government.(Rose,2004).

Indonesia’simplementationofe-governmenthasbeenslowandhaphazard,andham-peredbyseveralobstacles.Thetelecommunications infrastructure isunderdeveloped,and itsregulatoryframeworkcouldbemuch improved.Thenecessary initiativessel-domreceiveappropriatesupport.Thegovernmenthasnot investedmuch inhumancapitalortechnicalskills.Manyregionalandprovincialauthoritiessimplyhavearatherlacklusterattitude.Furthermore,corruptionrendersthebudgetaryallotmentsshreddedandsluggish.(Wahid,2004;Rose,2004).

ThegovernmentdoesengageinmodestInternetcensorship.In2008,aLawonIn-formationandElectronicTransactionsenteredintoforce,whichgivesauthorizationtoblockand/ortakedowncontentsuchaspornography,anti-Islam,gambling,andincite-mentofhatred. (Warf,2017).TheTakalar (Sulawesi)andeastKutai (Kalimantan)dis-trictsmovedsomeservicesonlinein2000,reducingthetimeneededtoobtainpermitsandidentificationcards.KutaiTimurhadthebestof400localgovernmentwebsitesinthecountry(Rose,2004),withaone-stopportal(Warf,2017).Investmentpermitscanbeacquired inhalfanhour.Similarly,Gorontalocitytookcommendableactiontobolstertransparencywithitswebpages.Thebrightestspotinlocale-governmentinIndonesiaistheRegencyofSragen,incentralJava,whichhasbeenparticularlysuccessfulwithitsone-stopportalapproach,KantorPelayananTerpadu(KPT,One-StopServices).Theso-calledSragenCyberRegencydevelopedawirelessnetworkandawebsite that in-cludesacitizenfourm,newsservice,tourisminformation,statisticaldata,searchengine,licenses, teleconference features,complaintdesk,andcivilregistryoffice. It issues52typesoflicensesonline.IthasconductedIndonesia’sfirst,andonly,Internetelections,foravillagechief.(Warf,2017).Indonesiamaystillbebehinditsneighborsinimplement-inge-governmentduetothelackofICTinfrastructureaswellasinsufficientfinances,lackofqualifiedpersonnel,corruptionandapathy.Althoughafewnotablelocalexam-plesexist,therehasbeenlittlesystematicandcoherentstrategyforusingtheinternettoservecitizens.(Warf,2017).

Malaysia AnexceptionalmodelofaMuslimdemocracyandaneconomicpowerhouse,theMa-laysian statehasenjoyedrapidgrowth, increasing incomes, trade surpluses, anda

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growingmiddleclass.IthasalongtrackrecordofsuccessfullypursuingICTasana-tionaldevelopmentstrategy.It israretoseee-government initiativestobesoclearlyemployed intheserviceofnationalgoalsas inMalaysia. (Warf,2017).Malaysia isre-gardedtobetriumphantinutilizingtheInternettodelivercommunityservices;indeed,e-Serviceswasoneofthefirstpilotprojectswhene-governmentwasintroduced(Hus-seinetal.,2010).Theinitiativeemulatedthewidelyused“onegovernment,manyagen-cies”principletoincorporatepublicservices,includingonlinedeliveryofdrivers’licens-es, court summons, and taxandutilitybillpayments. (Warf, 2017,p. 71)TheRilekservicesprogramoffersInternetaccesstothepublicwithtouchscreensatinformationdesks,wheretheycanpayfees,penalties,andbillswithacreditcard.(Warf,2017).

Twonoteworthysuccessstoriescomefromtwodifferent fields.First, thetaxationregimeknownastheInlandRevenueBoard (IRB,or inMalay,LembagaHasilDalamNegeri) (AzmiandBee,2010),rearrangedthetax filingprocedurebyemployingICT.(Dorasamy,M.,Marimuthu,M.,Raman,M.,andKaliannan,2010). Inanattempttoen-hanceparticipation,theofficeaddedanewhighlighttothee-filingsystem,e-bayaranore-payment, inwhichtaxescanbepaidthroughbanks. (Warf,2017).Second,e-procure-mentenabledthegovernmenttotakeintoaccounttheinterestsoftheeconomicelitestoaconsiderableextent.Thisgreatachievement,callede-Perolehan,isawebsite(www.eperolehan.co.my)whichdebutedin1999atacostofRM35million($12million),andal-lowsregisteredfirmstoproposebidsforgovernmentcontracts,promotetheirproductsonline,andreceivegovernmentcompensationdigitally.(Warf,2017).

Localauthorities inMalaysiahave implementedane-governmentsystem in theirpublicservicedeliverysystem.Manypublicgoodssuchasbillpayments,licenseappli-cationandplanningsubmissionsarecontrolledonlinethrough localgovernmentweb-sites.Additionally, e-government in local authoritiesaims toprovideeffectiveandhigh-qualityadministrativeservicesonline toresidents.Theseserviceprovisionsen-hanceconvenienceandaccessibilityandenablethegovernmenttobemoreattentivetotheneedsofitscitizens.(MohamedandXavier,2016).

Despitetheevolutionofe-governmentatthelocallevel,conventionalpublicserviceapparatusstillholdsa larger influence.Warf (2017) stated that localauthorities faceevengreaterchallengesthandoesthenationallevel.MosthaveinsufficientfundingandtheIT(informationtechnology)skillsarelacking,andsomehaveavailedoftheserviceofunreliablesoftwareproviders.As inmanyothercountries, there isareluctancetosharedataandbestpracticesindifferentagenciesandoffices.Giventhenotablediffer-ences instandardsof livingbetweenpeninsularMalaysiaand the twoprovincesonBorneo,Sabah,andSarawak,thecountryisbeinghoundedbyaconsiderabledigitaldi-vide(GenusandNor,2007)

Tosummarize,Malaysiahasbeenperformingmuchbetter ine-governmentatthenationalrather thanthe local level (Warf,2017).Dueto itsdevelopmentstagebeingmuchmoreadvancedthanmostofitsneighbors,ithasbeenmuchbetterinusingthe

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digitalage’sadvantages.

Singapore Ahighlyadvanced,multiethniccity-stateofslightlymorethanfourmillionpeople,Singapore isoneof theworld’spremiere-governmentsuccessstories.Asoneof the“newtigers”thatfollowedtheJapaneseindustrializationmodel,ittransitionedsteadilyintohighvalue-added infieldof technologicalR&D, financialservices, steel, chemical,andheavy industries. (Warf,2017,p. 73)Ahighlytrainedandeducatedpopulacealsopavedthewayfor itse-governmentprograms,amongthebest intheworld. In2016,Singapore’s Internetpenetrationratewas81%, thirdhighest inAsia, followingSouthKoreaandJapan.(Warf,2017).

Singapore’se-governmentinitiativesstartedasearlyas1980,withtheCivilServiceComputerizationProgramandthen,in1981,withtheNationalComputerBoard.(Warf,2017). Itsevolution thenadvanced inseveralwaves, including theNational ITPlan(1986-91),theIT2000MasterPlan(1992-99),andInfocomm21,whichbeganin2000withaseriesofforumsandsurveys.Itproceededtoacceleratethemodernizationofgovern-mentwebpagesande-government,withthehopeofcreatingan“intelligentisland”(KeandWei,2004,p. 96).

AcoreemphasisofSingapore’se-governmentframeworkistheintensecognizanceofinteractionsthatexistbetweenthegovernmentandcitizens.Thee-Citizenportalof-fersaone-stophubforinformationandservices.Citizenspaypenaltiesandtaxes,applyforlicenses,acquireinformationaboutpublicfacilities,anddownloadgovernmentpubli-cationsthroughtheInternet.(Baum,Yigitcanlar,Mahizhnan,andAndiappan,2007).

Thereare,however,somechallenges.Thequestionhasbeenraised,doese-govern-mentpromotedemocracyinSingapore?Thoughaparliamentarydemocracy,Singaporehasa longhistoryofauthoritariantendencies.E-government,however,hasamplifiedtransparency ingovernmentdecisionmakingandbolsteredthepeople’s faith in thegovernment.(Warf,2017).

WhileSingaporeisaworldleaderinITande-government,itisalsoknownforbeingstrictandcensoringtheInternetregularly(Roldan,2000;Gomez,2002).However,thisallstemsfromthebeliefthateconomicdevelopment,publicsafety,andadevotiontothelong-termpublicgood isadutyof thegovernment.Fromthebeginning, itsdesignswereinclusiveandpeole-oriented(Ha,2013),amajorreasonwhythecity-stateexcelsindigitalgovernance.

Thailand In1986,ThailandcreatedtheNationalElectronicsandComputerTechnologyCen-ter,reorganizedin1991astheNationalScienceandTechnologyDevelopmentAgency.In1993,ChulalongkornUniversityinitiatedInternetconnections.Itse-governmentproj-ectsdatebackto1994,whentheSub-CommitteeofPromotionofUtilizationofInforma-

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tionTechnology inPublicOrganization implemented the computerization ofgov-ernement offices and thepromotionof ICTcapacitybuilding for employees. Soonthereafter the statepromoted theuseof electronicdata interchangeamongpublicagencies.Furthermore,Thailand’se-government initiativeshaveearnedamodicumofsuccess.Forexample,theRoyalThaigovernment’sprimarywebpagewasdesignedasaone-stop,citizen-centricportal.Otherthan linkstodifferentagencies, itoffersdailynewsapublic forum,andaplethoraofservices, includingdigital feesprocessingandprocurements.(Warf,2017,p. 68).

The countryhasnot showndecisive leadership on the issue of e-governance.City-levelprogramsarevirtuallynonexistent,andwitha fewsuccesses (e.g., schools,healthcare),ithasintroducedonlyafewprogramsoutofthepossiblerangeofapplica-tions. (Warf,2017).Thereareanumberofsignificantimpedimentsinspreadinge-gov-ernmentattheThailocaladmistrationssuchasinsufficientskillinsoftwareengineer-ing,obsoleteequipment,auditandinspectionchallenges,theadministrationofcontentanddata,andadigitaldivideamongthewell-offandstrugglingcitizens.(Sagarik,Chan-sukree,Cho,andBerman,2018).

Despitetheadvantagesofmorefrequente-governmentusage inthefieldsof localgovernment,theimprovementofICTinfrastructureandtheincreaseininternetusers,Thailocale-governmentisstillattheinitialstagesofe-governmentprogress.Thisim-pliesthatthecurrentstateoftheThaie-governmenthasconcentratedmoreonbroad-eningtheutilizationofe-governmentandhaspaid lessattentiontoadvancingtothenextstageofe-governmentdevelopment.Additionally,certainproblemsinICTuseex-ist,suchasthelowcompetencyofofficersinsoftwareapplications,themanageementofinformationandstructuresofmonitoringsystems. (Jareonsubphayanonta,andNarotb,2016).

Thailandmayhavestartedearlyinimplementinge-governmentinitiatives.Thailandhashadmodestachievements indigitalgovernance.However, thegovernment’scom-mitmentthorughthee-government4.0,shownthroughthesupportfromtheexecutivedepartmentisnoteworthy.WiththerightreformsandtheconstructionofnewICTin-frastructure,itcaneasilyholditsownagainstothercountriesine-government.(Sagarik,Chansukree,Cho,andBerman,2018).

Vietnam MobilephoneuseinVietnamisveryregularandconstitutesoneoftheprimaryout-lets foraccessingtheInternet. It isalsooneof theworld’sstrictest Internetcensors.(Warf,2017).Vietnamgotavery latestart in implementinge-government,anddidsopreciselyasreformersbeganthegradualshift toamoremarket-basedsociety.ThefirstiniativewerewelcomedbytheFrenchauthorities(ThaoandTrong,2015).Itwasnotuntil the1998high-profilemeetingamongASEANcountries inHanoi that then-PrimeMinisterPhanVanKhaiprofessedVietnam’sintentiontobuildane-government.Twoyears later, thegovernmentsignedthee-ASEANFrameworkwhichsignalleda

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pledgetodigitalizethepublicsector.(Linh,2018)

Atthesimplest levelofe-governmen —websitesthatoffer information—Vietnamhasmadeseveralgains.Allprovinceshavedevelopedtheirownwebsitestovariousde-greesofusability.VirtuallyallpublicofficesareconnectedtotheVietnamWideAreaNetwork(CPNet),built in1997.Vietnam’slackofsuccessine-governmentisreflectedin,amongotherthings,thecountry’srelativelylowrateofInternetsaturation;formanypeopleinruralareas,theICTissimplyunaffordable(Warf,2017).NguyenandShauder(2007)note thedigitaldividechallenge inVietnam.Manysegmentsof thepopulationarenotyetreadytousetheInterneteffectively.(ObiandHai,2010).

Vietnam’sgreatestedgeliesinlocaldemand,asintheinstancesofIndonesia,SouthKorea,andThailand.The legalsystem isVietnam’sAchillesheel.Thisagaindemon-stratestheVietnamesegovernment’sreluctancetofullywelcomethepotentialofe-gov-ernmenttopromotedemocraticpracticesintheirterritory.Thee-governmentprocessforVietnamesepublicservicesismostsimilartotheChineseexperience,eventhoughthe latterstartedthewholeprocessmuchearlier.Forbothcountries,effortsarecon-centratedonapplyingICTto internalgovernmentprocessesto improvemanagementcapacity,providingcommunitygoods throughdigitalgovernmentapplications. (Linh,2018).

InVietnam,websiteshavebeencreatedinallprovincesandcitiesandcontentman-agementsystemshavebeenemployedtomaintain them.Althoughthedataofeachprovincialandmunicipalwebsitehavebeenmodifiedandchanged frequently. (Linh,2018).RequestsforonlinecontentarestrongonlyinsmallnumbersofmajorcitiessuchasHo-Chi-MinhCity,HanoiCity(thecapital),andDa-NangCity.Themostsoughtaftere-governmentwebsitecontentandservices includegovernmental information,onlineregistrationandlicensing,customs,informationandthemeansbywhichbusinessesandcitizenscanvoicetheirthoughtstoinfluencegovernmentpoliciesandtheperformancesoflocalgovernmentdepartments. (Tsai,Purbokusumo,Cheng,andTuan,2009).Sofar,inthesemajorcities,theprovisionofcurrentwebsitecontentande-governmentappli-cationshavenotcapturedsignificantinterestfromlocalcitizensandthebusinesssector(VuandJones, 2005). Ingeneral,moredevelopedVietnameseprovincesandcities,whereIT infrastructure isrelativelywelldesigned,deliverbetteronline information,andtheire-governmentperformancesfarewell.(Tsai,Purbokusumo,Cheng,andTuan,2009).

Vietnammayhavebeganlatebutitisgraduallymakingprogressine-government.AlthoughtheactualimplementationofVietnam’se-governmentstartedinasrecentas2009, it is initsnascentphase.Thegovernmentutilizee-governancetobolsteraccessandprovisionofservicesto itspeople,buttherearechallenges,especiallythe inade-quateICTinfrastructureandawarenessamongitscitizens.Withoutarobustpoliticalwillandanauthenticdedicationtoenhancetransparency in itspublicaffairs,suchacostlyproject likedigitalgovernment,Vietnam’seffortsmaybecomecaseofafought

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fornaughtlikeinmostAfricannations.(Linh,2018).

Brunei BruneiDarussalam isasmallcountrywithapopulation420,000,but isaveryre-sourcesrichsultanateinnorthernBorneo.Itsenormousoilresourcesgivesitrevenuesthatareconsideredtobeoneofthehighestpercapitaincomesintheworld.Bruneihastakenaction toward implementinge-government initiatives (KifleandCheng,2009).However,theinitialstagesofe-governmentinthecountryhavebeenseento lackdi-rection, slowanduncertain. It tooktheministries threeyears tostarte-governmentduetothepressureto implement,noclearobjectives, inadequateICTskills,andthelackofadecisiveleadershipwithenoughauthority.(KifleandCheng,2009).

In2007,apackageofprogramswereunderwaytobiometricallyscanpassportstospeedupmovementsthroughairportsandborders.TheE-governmentNationalCentrewasfounded,andin2009,afive-yearE-governmentStrategicPlanstartedwiththegoalto furtherprofessionalizeandequipthecivilservicewithnewtechnolgiesandmakethestatemoreuser-friendly.The“Internet forSchools”projectattainedInternetcon-nectionsinallofthecountry’spublicschools,includingreligiousones.(Warf,2017,p. 82).TheDigitalGovernmentStrategy2015intendedtoleaddigitalmodernizationandmakegovernmentservicesmorefriendly,fasterandmoreaccessibletosupportgreatereffi-ciencyandcollaboration,andtodevelopallstakeholders’experiences,governmentpro-ceduresandprogramsthatrequiretransformationandconstantenhancement.(UNPAN,2016).ThissmallcountrywasabletoreachmostplaceswithITisduetoitssizeandfi-nancialcapability(Warf,2017).

Throughtheyears,thegovernmenthaslearnedfromitsmistakesasitcraftsnewplans.WithitsattemptstospreadICTusage,itistheirhopethatcitizenswillgraduallybecomeacclimatedtoe-governanceandbuilduptheirskills intheprocess, leadingtohigheracceptanceandparticipationrates.(KifleandCheng,2009).

Cambodia Asmallcountryof14millionpeopledevastatedbywar,includingtheAmericanin-vasioninthe1970sandtheKhmerRougegenocide,Cambodiahasstruggledtofindaplaceintheglobaleconomy.Predominantlyruralandagricultural,ithasnascentindus-triesingarmentsandbackoffices(Warf,2017).Theliteracyrateisonlyat69%.In2016,itsInternetpresencewasonlyat25%,wellbelowtheworldandAsianaverageusages.However,94%ofCambodianssay theyhavemobilephones,39%havesmartphones(PhongandSola,2015).Itisintheearlieststagesofe-government.In2000,theICTDe-velopmentAuthoritywasfounded,authorizedtocreateandmaintain informationnet-works.Thegovernmenthas since issueda setofprograms toencourage ICTuse,thoughwithmodestsuccess.Thecountry’smostsignificantinitiativeintoe-governmentwastheGovernmentAdministrationInformationSystem(GAIS),whichbegan in2000andwasdevisedtoincludeanelectronicdocumentexchangesystemaswellasregis-trationsystemsforrealestate,trackingjobs,schoolattendance,andtaxpayments,ve-

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hiclelicenses,andsafetyinspections(Sangetal.,2009,2010).TheNewNationalICTPol-icyof2015 includedcalls topromote ICTskills, expandwomen’sparticipation, andalleviate thedigitaldivideThiswas followedby theapprovalof theCambodia ICTMasterPlan2020,whichaimed toadvance the ICT industryandhumanresourcesmanagement, internetconnectivity,cybersecurity,andgovernmente-services. (Kev-reaksmeyetal.20l5).

Whiletherehasbeenmodestpresenceofe-governmentinthenationallevel,itisal-mostnon-existentatthelocalone.Mostnationalandlocalpoliticalandeconomiclead-ers,arenoteducatedenoughtoemploytechnology inorder todeliverpublicgoods.(Vannarith,2016). Inordertobeabletoofferdecente-governmentservice,sufficientknowledgeandskill, robustequipmentand trainedmanpowerareprimerequisites.Craftingandrealizinge-governmentservicesfordifferentlocalconditionsisimperativeandthegovernmentmust,atleastconsiderably,investinconstructinginformationandcommunicationtechnology(ICT)infrastrucureeveninthemostremoteregions.Howev-er,therearesomelimitedgainsintheareasofrealestateregistration,residentregis-trationandvehicleregistration.Thesystemsserveaseffectivetoolsforlocalauthoritiestocombatanddetercrimesrelatedtoproperties.Overtheyears,properregistrationofrealestate,residentsandvehicleshaveincreasedgovernmentrevenue.(Phu,nodate).

Cambodia’s leadershaverealized thedigital age’sgrowing importanceas in thewordsofZimeta(2018),ourtopleadershipiseconomicallyliberalandmindfulofthena-tion’s imageinaneverincreasingly-interconnectedSoutheastAsia.WithgoodICTin-frastructure,betterpolicies,andcontinuousICTskilldevelopment, itwillhavemovedin thedirectionofeventually launchinge-governmentservices forresponsivegover-nance.

Laos Laoshasamodestpopulaceof6million.Astatewithnomaritimeterritory, thatholds“thetitleofbeingthemost-bombedcountryinhumanhistory.”Warf(2017,p. 66).HenotedthatitisoneoftheleastdevelopedAsiancountriesandishighlyrelianton“subsistenceagriculture.”Warf(2017,p. 66).Itremainsastaunchcommunistnation.TheInternet isadministeredbytheNational InternetCommitteeunderthePrimeMinis-ter’soffice,yetcensorshipisinsignificant.Mostofthetelecommunicationsoperatorsarestate-owned,buttherearetwoprivateISPs(InternetServiceProviders).Aswithmanyhighlyundevelopedstates,mostpeopleliveinruralzoneswherethereisalmosttoIn-ternetaccess,andICTskillsarerare.ITequipmentisunusualandInternetserviceisverycostly.ItdoesnothaveaclearITstrategy.Laos,inasimilarsituationwithCam-bodiansandtheBurmese(Myanmar),itsimprintone-governmentissominisculethatisconsiderednonexistent.(Warf,2017).

However,Warf(2017,p. 66)states,“TheLaoE-governmentActionPlanin2006im-plementedtheLaoNationalE-GovernmentProject.”FiberopticswasinstalledinVienti-anne,itscenterofpower.AccordingtoKim(2018,p. 43),“Theshortageofthe2006’sna-

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tionalplanistheweaknessonestablishmentofthecontrollingagencydesignationandthecooperationmechanismwithinthelineministries.”Plus,thereisin-fightingamongtherelevantgovernmentoffices.Vientianebuiltanationale-governmentservicecentertosynchonizedigitalcommunicationsamongagencies,andfounded16provinciale-gov-ernmentservicecentersthroughoutthenation.(Warf,2017).Then,“itlauncheditsownsatellite,LaoSat-1,inNovember2015.”(Warf,2017,p. 66).

Warf(2017)furtherpointedoutthattheNationalBankofLaosisgraduallyshiftingtoonlinebanking.TheNationalUniversityofLaosbegandistance-learningcoursesforlearnersinthefar-flungareas.TheMinistryofPublicSecurityimplementedanationalelectroniccitizenIDsystem.TheLaoDecideInfoprojecthasaseriesofdatabasesforcensus,housing,agriculture,miningandhydropower. Itproactively takesaction tobuildandmaintain interactivewebsites,although itscapability isstill inadequate. In2013,itacceptedonlineregistrationoftradeandoperationslicensesandhasfoundedaComputerEmergencyResponseTeam,anagency focusedoncombatting Internetcrimes. Ithasalsoentered intocooperativeagreementswithChina,SouthKoreaandVietnamtobolsteritsICTcapacity.

IntheLaocapitalofVientiane,thereissomeformofe-government.Butinitsprov-inces, lackofhumanresourcesandICTinfrastructurewithin itsmountainousterrainandlandlockedterritoryarechallenges.Thereareplentyofoperationalwebsitesoper-atedbyitspublicagencies,buttherearealsohiddenproblemssuchasbrokenSSL(Se-curitySocketLayer)certificates, sluggishupdates, incorrect translations, redirectionmalfunctions,databaseswithoutcontentwithin,etc.whichfurtherhampertheprogressofdigitalgovernancenotjustatthenationallevel,butespeciallyatthelocalone.(Kim,2018,p. 21).

Laosislearningthatwhatmakesdigitalgovernanceinitiativeslesssuccessfulstemsfromthelackofcordinationamongagenciesandstakeholders,andinsufficientICTin-frastructureandskills.Thelatepassageofarelated“digitaldocumentlaw,”furtherhin-ders itsnationalplansto implementadecente-government. (Kim,2018,p. 95).“Chinasufferedthedelayof itsdevelopmentduetothesameproblem.” (Kim,2018,p. 95). Itsdecisiontoenterintocollaborativearrangementswithitsneighborsiswise.Warf(2017)recommends thatLaoauthoritieshavehad tominimize internal jostlingamong itsagencice, thencraft and implementanational e-government framework.Acentralagencyhastotaskedwithcoordinationandgiventhecorrespondingauthoritytomakebindingdecisions.

Myanmar Myanmar(formerlyBurma)isoneSoutheastAsia’spoorestandmostisolatedcoun-tries,chieflyruledbyanauthoritarianmilitaryadministration.E-governmenthastakenrootinMyanmarinspiteofthischallenges(OoandThan,2008).In1996,theMyanmarComputerScienceDevelopmentLawwasenacted.Withthestateundermilitaryjuntaadministration,andwith littleInternetaccessorICTexperience,programmersdevel-

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opedafontsothattheycouldcommunicateintheirlanguage.TheMinistryofScienceandTechnologydevelopedand implementedseveralICTnationalstrategies.By2003,someagencieshadbuilttheirownwebsites,andoverthenextdecadealmostall32haddone so.The countrypassed theElectronicTransactionsLaw in 2004 to lay thepolitcal-legal framework for thedigitizationofgovernmentprograms, includingelec-tronicrecordsandsignaturesaswellaspunishmentofInternetcrimes(Blythe,2010).

Whenthemilitarygovernmentfellfrompowerin2011,changesbecamemoreprom-inent.Thegovernmentsetupane-NationalTaskForceandpassedcyberlawswhileseekingtoaugmentthenumberofICTprofessionals.ItteamedupwiththeAsianDe-velopmentBankin2013todraftasystematicplanfore-governance.(Warf,2017).Thestateinitiatedane-procurementsystem(Xinhuanet,2004),andthegovernmentnowac-ceptsonlineapplicationsforvisas.(Warf,2017).ThegovernmenthasalsousesITinse-lectedpartsoftheeducationsector.(Mar,2004).

Manymunicipalitieshavedeveloped theirownwebpages.Myanmars.net, aBur-mese-basedwebsitecompany,createdandmaintainsmostgovernmentwebsites.Likeotherdevelopingstates, theyalsohaveconsiderablemobilephoneusage. (Warf,2017).Thant (2015,p. 9)stated, thattheTamutownship inMyanmar,asmall localityattheMyanmar-Indiaborder,hasbeenprosperingduetoa tradeagreementwithIndia in1994.Thant(2015,p. 71)addedthattheareaisaremoteregionintheBurmesestatesothereisaseverelackofelectricity,slowInternetconnection, littletonoawarenessofICT,andscarceITskills,whichpresentbarriers toe-governmentadoption inMyan-mar.

ThecaseofMyanmarisverysimilartotheotherlessdevelopedstatesinSoutheastAsiawherethereisalackofgoodICTinfrastructure,adearthofITskills,andlittletonoawarenessofthepeoplestowardtechnologies.Itstraditionalculturefavorsconformi-tyanddiscouragesrisk-takinganddisruption.However, thestate isplayingcatch-upwithitscontemporaries,learningbestpracticesandsharingknowledgewithitsneigh-bors.Harmonizingtheprogramsofitsnativelanguage’swritingsystemwiththeinter-nationalcommunitywillenable it to interactwithothernationalsandto improvetheeaseofdoingbusiness(Warf,2017),therebyimprovingitsimagetoinvestors.Buildingthecitizenry’sICTknowledgeandacceptanceofitistherightsteptowardsmoderniza-tion.

SummaryTheemergenceofelectronicgovernanceamong localgovernments inSoutheastAsiahaslargelybeenaresultofmanyfactorsandimperatives.

Fromabroadperspective,e-governancecancontributetotheoveralldemocratiza-tionofacountry.Itprovidestheenablingframeworkforcitizenparticipationingover-nance,whichisattheheartofdemocracy.Itenablesthecitizenstoarticulatetheirde-mands. It is can be amechanism for citizens tomonitor the implementation of

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governmentprogramsandprojectsandprovidemuchneededfeedbacktoimprovethedeliveryofbasicservices.Asourvariouscountryexperienceshaveshown,govern-mentsareabletoprovideinformationtothecitizensthroughthewebsitestoenableac-cesswithinthecontextoftransparencyandopenness.Seenfromaframeworkofgoodgovernance,itisallabouttransparency,accountabilityandparticipation.

Fromanadministrativeandmanagementstandpoint,e-governanceisamechanismthat,simplyput,improvesadministrationtoimprovethemanagementfunctionsofthelocalgovernmentsincludingrecordsandfilesstorageandpayrolladministrationamongotherthings;toenablecitizenparticipationintheprocessofgovernancebyimprovingaccesstoinformationthroughpublicationofcriticalinformationaboutbasicservicesofthegovernmentavailabletothem.Inaddition,stillwithinthecontextaccess,andagainasthecountryreportshaveshown,e-governanceenablesthepeopletoobtainbasicser-vicesfromthegovernmentsuchasfilingapplicationsforbusinesslicenses,permits,etc.E-governancealso facilitatescommunicationanddialoguewith thepeople. Itenablesthegovernmenttoobtainfeedbackrangingfromevaluatingthegeneralperformanceofgovernmenttoasmicroasreportingbrokenstreetlampsandstreetpotholes,suchassimplysendingapicturesofsuchthroughtheirsmartphonestotherelevantauthori-ties forthemtoactupon.Seenfromamanagement framework, it isaboutefficiencyandeffectiveness.

ThecasesinSoutheastAsiahaveshownthatanumberoffactorsshouldbeconsid-eredinassessinganddeterminingthedirectionsandstrategiesforasuccessfule-gover-nanceprogramorprojectatthelocal level.Thesealsohavetobeappreciatedwithinthepropercontext.Theseincludethefollowing:

•Therehastobeabroadpolicyandenablingframework―alaw―thatwouldpro-videthebasisfore-governance.Thisshouldbeaccompaniedbyanimplementingframework,whichissomekindofaroadmap,forimplementation.InthecaseofJapan,itwascalledamasterplanthatwoulddetailtheimplementationactivities.Bruneihadafive-yearE-governmentmasterplan.ThePhilippineshaditsE-gov-ernmentmasterplanaswellasPublicTelecommunicationsPolicy.

•Leadershipandpoliticalwillmatters.E-governancepoliciesareonlygood if im-plementedproperly.Thisiswhereadeterminedleadership,characterizedbypo-liticalwillasdemonstratedbythecaseofChina,isverycritical.

•Continuouscapacitybuilding is important.Capacitybuildinghere includesre-cruitmentandtrainingofappropriatequalifiedstafftoworkinthelocalgovern-ments.Theymaycomestraightfromtheuniversitiesortechnicalschoolsormaybetransferred fromotheragencies, includingthenationalgovernmentwiththeintentofbuildinglocalcapacities.

•E-governmentprogramsatthelocallevelshouldbeaccompaniedbyappropriatefundingsupport.Therapiddevelopmentinthefieldofinformationtechnologyac-companiedbytheimperativestocontinuouslyupgradeequipment,hardwareandsoftwaremustbeprovidedbudgetarysupportby the localgovernments.This

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couldbe incorporatedas regular items in the localgovernmentsbudgetandshouldremainforpriorityfunding.

Theadoptionofe-governancebygovernmentsingeneralandlocalgovernmentsinparticularhasnotbeenwithoutchallenges.Asthecountrystudieshaveshowntheseincludethefollowing:

•Capacities.Inrelationtotheimperativesforsuccessfule-governance,manylocalgovernment, especially those inresourcechallengedcountriessimply lacknotonlytheappropriateandtechnicallyqualifiedstaff,butalsolackadequatebudget-arysupport fore-governance.This iswherecontinuouscapacitybuildingpro-gramsare important.But thishas tobealignedwith thenationalpolicyandstrategyone-governance,asinequononforsuccessfule-governance.

•Censorship.Withinthecontextofopengovernmentnecessaryforademocracy,therehavebeenfearsofcensorship.Thisistruemostlyforauthoritarian,orau-thoritarian-prone,countrieswheredatathatrevealtheweaknessesofthegovern-ment,saystatisticsthatrevealgovernment’sinabilitytoaddresspovertyinspiteof themuchtoutedanti-povertyprograms,arenotmadeavailable,andhenceseenascensorship.

•Digitaldivide.Theso-called “digital-divide”hasalsobeenseenasachallengeamongmanycountries includingtheir localgovernments.Thedividehasbeenseenattheinternational,nationalandindividuallevels,betweentherichandthepoorcountries,betweenthenationalandlocalgovernments,betweenthericherandthepoorerpeopleandalsobetweenthedigital literateanddigitalnon-liter-ate.Itisthereforeimportanttobridgehedivide.Butparadoxically,aseffortsarebeingmadetobridge thedivide, thedangerofactuallywidening thegaphashappened.

Attheleveloftheoryandideology,E-governancehasbeenseenasapowerfultoolforcitizensto,amongotherthings,participateintheprocessofgovernance,toarticu-latetheirneedsandconcerns,toaccessinformation,toprovidefeedbacktothegovern-ment.Theseallcouldbeseenasinstrumentsenabledbyademocraticframework.Theultimategoal-andperhapstest-forgoode-governanceshouldbeitscontributiontotheprocessofdemocratizationandstrengtheningofdemocracy.

Inthenameofimprovingtheadministrationofprocessesembeddedingovernment,e-governanceessentiallymakesdoingbusinesswithgovernmenteasierandsimpler.Asthecountrystudieshaveshown,theserangefromtheapplicationforpermitstoopenabusiness,licenses,birthcertificates,passports,etc.,tothepaymentoftaxes,landregis-tration,buildingandconstructionpermits,etc.

Insum,e-governancemaybelocatedwithintheframeworkofwhatmaybecalled5EsandanA.ClassicpublicadministrationandmanagementhavealwaysembeddedtheprinciplesofEconomy,EfficiencyandEffectiveness.Aswehaveseen,e-governance

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asanadministrativetoolcancontributetotheclassic3E’sofmanagement.However,publicadministrationshouldnotbe limitedtothese3Es.Being“public,” itshouldalsoaddress the2EswhichasEquityandEthicsandAccountability.E-governancecanthereforecontribute toequitybypromotingdemocratizationtargetingthedisadvan-tagedinthedigitaldivide,andalsoethicsandaccountabilitybypromotingtransparentandaccountablegovernance.

Note

 1 Dr.BrillantesisProfessorandformerDeanoftheUniversityofthePhilippinesNationalCol-legeofPublicAdministrationandGovernance(UPNCPAG).Hewassecondedtwicetoworkfull time in thePhilippineGovernment:asExecutiveDirectorof theLocalGovernmentAcademyoftheDepartmentofInteriorandLocalGovernmentandasCommissioneroftheCommissiononHigherEducation.Mr.KarlEmmanuelVRuiz isaLibrarianat theUPNCPAG.WearegratefultoMs.AinnaSharizComiaofthePhilippineSocietyforPublicAd-ministrationandtoLuluBrillantesfortheirkindeditorialassistance.

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