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Transcript of SPC
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Basics• SPC, Control, Process• SPC Tools e.g. histogram, Pareto charts,
control charts• Variations (Long Term vs Short Term,
Common Cause vs Special Cause)Details• Sampling, Normal Distribution, Central Limit
Theorem• Mean & Range Charts, Process Stability, i-
charts/ Run Charts, Zone Control, Pre Control, Mean & Range Charts, Short Term SPC
Going Practical• Process Maturity vs effort, Protection
layers concept, Amplitude 1.1• CPU, Wafers, Steam P, TDS, % oxygen,
Fuel gas flow, Steam flow, Flow Process Values
To be followed by conclusion and bibliography
CONTENTS
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The theme of SPC is the Process: Everything we do in any
type of organization is a process, which:
Requires UNDERSTANDING
has VARIATION
must be properly CONTROLLED
has a CAPABILITY
needs IMPROVEMENT
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Control: What & Why
To maintain desired conditions in a system by adjusting the values of
some physical parameters for:
Suppressing the effect of external disturbances
Ensuring the stability of the process
Optimization of performance
7Taken from Presentation: How to Streamline, Integrate and Synergize Project Management and Six Sigma Techniques for Optimal Results, by Candace G. Medina, CGM Associates, LLC, 2006
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Taken from Six Sigma Certification Training Program Course Material
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SPC is not really about statistics or control, it is about
competitiveness. Organizations, whatever their nature, compete on
three issues:
Quality
Delivery
price
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What is quality?
The word ‘quality’ is often used to signify ‘excellence’ of a product or
service. In some manufacturing companies, quality may be used to
indicate that a product conforms to certain physical characteristics
set down with a particularly ‘tight’ specification. But in general:
Quality is defined simply as meeting the requirements of the
customer.
11Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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Some basic SPC tools are: process flowcharting (what is done); check
sheets/tally charts (how often it is done); histograms (pictures of
variation); graphs (pictures of variation with time); Pareto analysis
(prioritizing); cause and effect analysis (what causes the problems);
scatter diagrams (exploring relationships); control charts (monitoring
variation over time). An understanding of the tools and how to use
them requires no prior knowledge of statistics.
13Taken from Six Sigma for Dummies , by Craig Gygi At All, Wiley Publishers, 2005
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Taken from Six Sigma Certification Training Program Course Material
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Taken from Six Sigma Certification Training Program Course Material
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Histogram Purpose
A histogram is used to graphically summarize and display the distribution of a process data set.
What questions does it answer?- What is the systems most common response?- What distribution (center, variation & shape) does the data have?- Does the data look symmetric or is it skewed to the left or right?- Does the data contain outliers?
Taken from Six Sigma Certification Training Program Course Material
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Pareto Chart: (80:20 rule)It’s a vertical bar chart that relates non-
numerical or qualitative categories to their respective frequency or cost.
It charts the causes in descending order of frequency or cost from left to right.
A Pareto chart is used to graphically summarize and display the relative importance of the differences between groups of data.
Land Owners In Pakistan
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Series2 55 25 9 6 4 1
Series1 55 80 89 95 99 100
FeudalsArmed Forces /
Government
Private Industrial Sector
Business Tycoons Employed Labour
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Cause & Effect Diagram
Measurements Material Personnel
Environment Methods Machines
Safety Related
Incidents
Taken from Six Sigma Certification Training Program Course Material
20Taken from Six Sigma for Dummies , by Craig Gygi At All, Wiley Publishers, 2005
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And of course:
1. Bar Charts2. Graphs
Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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Control charts are simply run charts or plot of data in real time.
This plot enables us to see wood rather than tree which is not the
case in most of the other data recording and measuring methods.
23Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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This is rather like a set of traffic lights which signal: ‘stop’, ‘caution’ or ‘go’.
Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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The control chart has 3 zones and the action required depends on the
zone in which the results fall. The possibilities are:
1 Carry on (stable zone – common causes of variation only).
2 Be careful and seek more information, since the process may be
showing special causes of variation (warning zone).
3 Take action, investigate or, where appropriate, adjust the process
(action zone – special causes of variation present).
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Questions to be asked
1 ‘Is the process stable, or in-control?’ In other words, are there
present any special causes of variation, or is the process variability
due to common causes only?
2 ‘What is the extent of the process variability?’ or what is the
natural capability of the process when only common causes of
variation are present?
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This approach may be applied to both variables
and attribute data, and provides a systematic
methodology for process examination, control and
investigation.
29Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
30Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
31Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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The run chart becomes a control chart if decision lines are added
and this and helps to distinguish between:
common cause variation – inherent in the process
special cause variation – due to real changes.
Good organizations do not blame people but examine processes
to identify the causes of variation.
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Some variation is just natural and cannot be eliminated. The natural forces of nature naturally work to mix up things for us because human created processes are nature manipulation. For example heads and tails variation in coin toss is natural. If the mail man arrival is 11:30 am daily. But he comes (5 days of week) at 11:30:21, 11:29:45, 11:31:00, 11:30:10 and 11:29:59 am. This is perfectly natural. But he some day comes at 12:30 pm or 10:30 it is special cause variation. It may be due to schedule change or flat tire.
We can act to reduce common cause variation but cannot eliminate it but we can eliminate special cause variation.
Effort spent on identifying common and special cause variation certainly repays later.
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Long Term Variation (Shift)
Taken from Six Sigma for Dummies , by Craig Gygi At All, Wiley Publishers, 2005
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Short Term Variation
Taken from Six Sigma for Dummies , by Craig Gygi At All, Wiley Publishers, 2005
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Taken from Six Sigma for Dummies , by Craig Gygi At All, Wiley Publishers, 2005
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About Sampling:
You typically can't check every single member of the target
population. There is no time or money to do that. The best you can
do is select a sample (a subset of individuals from the population)
and get the information. Because this sample of individuals is your
only link to the entire target population, you want that sample to be
really good.
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A good sample represents the target population. The sample doesn't
systematically favor certain groups within the target population, and
it doesn't systematically exclude certain groups, either. That is get a
sampling frame and select a sample from it. The sample is to be
randomly selected from the target population. Randomly means
that every member of the target population has an equal chance of
being included in the sample. In other words, the process you use
for selecting your sample can't be biased. Also, sampling should be
appropriate and well timed.
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"Less good information is better than more bad information, but
more good information is better."
If you have a large sample size, and the sample is representative of
the target population (meaning randomly selected), you can count
on that information to be pretty accurate. How accurate depends on
the sample size, but the bigger the sample size, the more accurate
the information will be. Selecting a smaller initial sample and
following up later is better than selecting a bigger sample. It is
known to reduce bias.
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A quick and dirty formula to calculate the accuracy of a survey is to
divide by the square root of the sample size. For example, a survey
of 1,000 (randomly selected) people is accurate to within, 1/(sq
root of 1000) which is 0.032 or 3.2%. This percentage is called the
margin of error.
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Normal Distribution Curve
Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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The Central Limit Theorem
If we draw samples of size n from a population with a mean μ and a
SD, then as n increases in size, distribution of sample means
approaches a normal distribution with a mean μ and standard error
so even if individual values are not normally distributed, distribution
of means will tend to have a normal distribution. Larger the sample
size, the greater will be this tendency. Also, Grand or Process Mean
will be very good estimate of true mean of the population μ.
44Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
46Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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Steps in assessing process stability
1 Select a series of random samples of size n (greater than 4 but less
than 12) to give a total number of individual results between 50 and
100.
2 Measure the variable x for each individual item.
3 Calculate X (sample mean) & R( sample range) for each sample.
4 Calculate the Process Mean X – the average value of X and the Mean
Range R – the average value of R
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5 Plot all the values of X and R and examine the charts for any
possible miscalculations.
6 Calculate the values for the action and warning lines for the
mean and range charts
7 Draw the limits on the mean and range charts.
8 Examine charts again – is the process in statistical control?
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Some Terms
Mean and Range
Grand Mean
Precision and Accuracy
Deviation, Variance , SD & bias corrected/estimated SD
Shewhart Charts, Hartley’s Constant
State of Control
Process Capability
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Total number of readings should be at least 50 and:
NO Mean or Range values which lie outside the Action LimitsNO more than about 1 in 40 values between the Warning and Action Limits (Zone 2)NO incidence of two consecutive Mean or Range values which lie outside the same Warning Limit on either the mean or the range chart (Zone 2) NO runs of more than six sample Means which lie either above or below the Grand Mean (Zone 1)NO trends of more than six values of the sample Means which are either rising or falling (Zone 1)
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Charts for individuals or run charts
The individuals or run chart is often used with one-at-a-time data
and the individual values, not means of samples, are plotted. The
centerline is usually placed at: the centre of the specification, or
the mean of past performance, or some other, suitable – perhaps
target value. The action lines (UAL and LAL) or control limits (UCL
and LCL) are placed 3 standard deviations from the centerline.
Warning lines (upper and lower) may be placed at two standard
deviations from the centerline.
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When plotting the individual results on the i-chart, the rules for out
of control situations are:
1. any points outside the 3 SD limits;
2. two out of three successive points outside the 2 SD limits;
3. eight points in a run on one side of the mean.
Owing to the relative insensitivity of i-charts, horizontal lines at ±1
either side of the mean are usually drawn, and action taken if four
out of five points plot outside these limits.
54Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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The zone control chart
The so-called ‘zone control chart’ is simply an adaptation of
the individuals chart, or the mean chart. In addition to the
action and warning lines, two lines are placed at one standard
error from the mean. Each point is given a score of 1, 2, 4 or
8, depending on which band it falls into. It is concluded that
the process has changed if the cumulative score exceeds 7.
The cumulative score is reset to zero whenever the plot
crosses the centerline.
56Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
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Taken from Statistical Process Control, 5th Ed by John S. Oakland
Pre-control
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Other Control Charts
Median & Mode(Constant)
Median & Mode (Moving)
Techniques for Short Term SPC
Difference Charts
Z Charts
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Going Practical
60Taken from Statistical Methods for Industrial Process Control by David Drain, CRC Press
61Taken from Modern Control Engineering, 2003, Lecture Notes
62Taken from Modern Control Engineering, 2003, Lecture Notes
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65Taken from Statistical Methods for Industrial Process Control by David Drain, CRC Press
66Taken from Statistical Methods for Industrial Process Control by David Drain, CRC Press
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All following figures, tables and graphs are based on Practical industrial data. Either reproduced or copied as such from industrial presentations.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29568
570
572
574
576
578
580
582
584
586
588
Natural gas PressurePr
essu
re in
psi
g
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% oxygen in furnace flue gases
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Fuel Gas Flow in KSCFH to two cells of furnace
Pressure Variability LimitsTAG Nor
malUPPE
RLIMIT
LOWER
LIMIT
UPPER LIMIT CONTROLPHILOSPHY
LOWER LIMIT CONTROL
PHILOSPHY
PRC-101
505# 595# 490% On low load or other plant tripping to control battery limit press. According to load
To control load
PRC-102
589# 650/650 550 To avoid design limits of vessel D-2503 A/B
PRC-103
479# 488/490 - To avoid design limit of vessel D-2510
PRC-104
459# 460/465 - To avoid design limit of vessel D-2513
PRC-131
418# 420/430 - To avoid damage of internals of C-2519
PRC-132
On high pressure P-2503 may trip on O/L amps.
Anti surge of K-2502 may open
PRC-319
94# 100# 60# May damage burners, coil temp increase May burners Extinguish.
PRC-306
240# 250# 160# May pop PSV - 929 Process air reduce.KGT rpm may decrease
Six Sigma and (continued)
Case Study – 3
Reduction in efficiency of Thermo-compressor
Before PI
Thermo-compressor would have been sent to workshop for its opening for internals’ inspection. Activity would have taken a minimum of two days, resulting in low-pressure steam venting.
After PI
Motive steam flow trends from PI showed that the drop in efficiency happened over a period of two months, contributed by scaling on the motive steam path. This was confirmed by boroscopy. Thermo-compressor was back in service after four hours of downtime required for cleaning.
“Right analysis leads to right decisions”
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SPC is a set of tools for managing processes, and
determining and monitoring the quality of the outputs of
an organization. It is also a strategy for reducing variation
in products, deliveries, processes, materials, attitudes and
equipment. The question which needs to be asked
continually is ‘Could we do the job better?’
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BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Statistical Process Control, Fifth Edition by John S. Oakland, , Published by Butterworth-
Heinemann Publishers in 2003
Statistical process control: theory and practice by G. Barrie Wetherill and Don W.
Brown, Published by Chapman and Hall in 1991
Statistical process control by Charles L. Mamzic, Published by Instrument Society of
America in 1995
Statistical Process Control by DI (FH) Andreas Leitner, Published by GRIN Verlag in 2007
Statistical process control:, a guide for implementation by Roger W. Berger, Thomas
Hart, Published by CRC Press in 1986
Modern Control Engineering, 2003, Lecture Notes
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BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Statistical process control by Leonard A. Doty, Published by Industrial Press Inc. in 1996
Statistical process control by Sven Knoth, Published by Sonder for schungsbereich in
2002
Statistical process control: a guide to the use of statistical process control techniques to
improve quality and productivity, Copyrights: Ford Motor Company, 1986
Statistical process control in manufacturing practice by Fred W. Kear, Published by CRC
Press in 1998
Statistical methods for industrial process control by David Drain, Published by CRC
Press in 1997
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BIBLIOGRAPHY:Statistical Methods for Industrial Process Control by David Drain, , Published by CRC
Press
Six Sigma Certification Training Program Course Material( Orientation & yellow belt)
Six Sigma for Dummies, by Craig Gygi, Neil De Carlo and Bruce Williams Published by
Wiley Publishers in 2005
Statistical engineering: an algorithm for reducing variation in manufacturing
processes by Stefan H. Steiner, R. Jock MacKay, Published by American Society for
Quality in 2005
Statistics for Dummies by Deborah Rumsey, Published by John Wiley & Sons in 2003
79
Thank You