Sparse Coding and Dictionary Learning for Image...

Sparse Coding and Dictionary Learningfor Image Analysis

Julien Mairal

INRIA Visual Recognition and Machine Learning Summer School,27th July 2010

Julien Mairal Sparse Coding and Dictionary Learning 1/137

What this lecture is about?

Why sparsity, what for and how?

Signal and image processing: Restoration, reconstruction.

Machine learning: Selecting relevant features.

Computer vision: Modelling the local appearance of imagepatches.

Computer vision: Recent (and intriguing) results in bags ofwords models.

Optimization: Solving challenging problems.


The Image Denoising Problem

y︸︷︷︸

measurements

= xorig︸︷︷︸

original image

+ w︸︷︷︸noise


Sparse representations for image restoration

y︸︷︷︸

measurements

= xorig︸︷︷︸

original image

+ w︸︷︷︸

noise

Energy minimization problem - MAP estimation

E (x) =1

2‖y − x‖22

︸︷︷︸

relation to measurements

+ Pr(x)︸︷︷︸

image model (-log prior)

Some classical priors

Smoothness λ‖Lx‖22Total variation λ‖∇x‖21MRF priors

. . .


What is a Sparse Linear Model?

Let x in Rm be a signal.

Let D = [d1, . . . ,dp] ∈ Rm×p be a set of

normalized “basis vectors”.We call it dictionary.

D is “adapted” to x if it can represent it with a few basis vectors—thatis, there exists a sparse vector α in R

p such that x ≈ Dα. We call αthe sparse code.

x

︸︷︷︸

x∈Rm

≈

d1 d2 · · · dp

︸︷︷︸

D∈Rm×p

α[1]α[2]...

α[p]

︸︷︷︸

α∈Rp,sparse


First Important Idea

Why Sparsity?

A dictionary can be good for representing a class ofsignals, but not for representing white Gaussian noise.


The Sparse Decomposition Problem

minα∈Rp

1

2‖x−Dα‖22

︸︷︷︸

data fitting term

+ λψ(α)︸︷︷︸

sparsity-inducingregularization

ψ induces sparsity in α. It can be

the ℓ0 “pseudo-norm”. ‖α‖0△

= #{i s.t. α[i ] 6= 0} (NP-hard)

the ℓ1 norm. ‖α‖1△

=∑p

i=1 |α[i ]| (convex),

. . .

This is a selection problem. When ψ is the ℓ1-norm, the problem iscalled Lasso [Tibshirani, 1996] or basis pursuit [Chen et al., 1999]



Designed dictionaries

[Haar, 1910], [Zweig, Morlet, Grossman ∼70s], [Meyer, Mallat,Daubechies, Coifman, Donoho, Candes ∼80s-today]. . . (see [Mallat,1999])Wavelets, Curvelets, Wedgelets, Bandlets, . . . lets

Learned dictionaries of patches

[Olshausen and Field, 1997], [Engan et al., 1999], [Lewicki andSejnowski, 2000], [Aharon et al., 2006] , [Roth and Black, 2005], [Leeet al., 2007]

minαi ,D∈C

∑

i

1

2‖xi −Dαi‖

22

︸︷︷︸

reconstruction

+λψ(αi )︸︷︷︸

sparsity

ψ(α) = ‖α‖0 (“ℓ0 pseudo-norm”)

ψ(α) = ‖α‖1 (ℓ1 norm)



Solving the denoising problem

[Elad and Aharon, 2006]

Extract all overlapping 8× 8 patches xi .

Solve a matrix factorization problem:

minαi ,D∈C

n∑

i=1

1

2‖xi −Dαi‖

22

︸︷︷︸

reconstruction

+λψ(αi)︸︷︷︸

sparsity

,

with n > 100, 000

Average the reconstruction of each patch.


Sparse representations for image restorationK-SVD: [Elad and Aharon, 2006]

Figure: Dictionary trained on a noisy version of the imageboat.



Inpainting, Demosaicking

minD∈C,α

∑

i

1

2‖βi ⊗ (xi −Dαi )‖

22 + λiψ(αi )

RAW Image Processing

Whitebalance.Black

substraction.

Denoising

Demosaicking

Conversionto sRGB.Gamma

correction.


Sparse representations for image restoration[Mairal, Bach, Ponce, Sapiro, and Zisserman, 2009b]


Sparse representations for image restoration[Mairal, Sapiro, and Elad, 2008d]


Sparse representations for image restorationInpainting, [Mairal, Elad, and Sapiro, 2008b]


Sparse representations for video restoration

Key ideas for video processing

[Protter and Elad, 2009]

Using a 3D dictionary.

Processing of many frames at the same time.

Dictionary propagation.


Sparse representations for image restorationInpainting, [Mairal, Sapiro, and Elad, 2008d]

Figure: Inpainting results.


Sparse representations for image restorationColor video denoising, [Mairal, Sapiro, and Elad, 2008d]

Figure: Denoising results. σ = 25


Digital ZoomingCouzinie-Devy, 2010, Original


Digital ZoomingCouzinie-Devy, 2010, Bicubic


Digital ZoomingCouzinie-Devy, 2010, Proposed method


Digital ZoomingCouzinie-Devy, 2010, Original


Digital ZoomingCouzinie-Devy, 2010, Bicubic


Digital ZoomingCouzinie-Devy, 2010, Proposed approach


Inverse half-toningOriginal


Inverse half-toningReconstructed image


One short slide on compressed sensing

Important message

Sparse coding is not “compressed sensing”.

Compressed sensing is a theory [see Candes, 2006] saying that a sparsesignal can be recovered with high probability from a few linearmeasurements under some conditions.

Signal Acquisition: W⊤x, where W ∈ Rm×s is a “sensing” matrix

with s ≪ m.

Signal Decoding: minα∈Rp ‖α‖1 s.t. W⊤x = W⊤Dα.

with extensions to approximately sparse signals, noisy measurements.

Remark

The dictionaries we are using in this lecture do not satisfy the recoveryassumptions of compressed sensing.


Important messages

Patch-based approaches are achieving state-of-the-art results formany image processing task.

Dictionary Learning adapts to the data you want to restore.

Dictionary Learning is well adapted to data that admit sparserepresentation. Sparsity is for sparse data only.


Next topics

Why does the ℓ1-norm induce sparsity?

Some properties of the Lasso.

Beyond sparsity: Group-sparsity.

The simplest algorithm for learning dictionaries.

Links between dictionary learning and matrix factorizationtechniques.


Why does the ℓ1-norm induce sparsity?Exemple: quadratic problem in 1D

minα∈R

1

2(x − α)2 + λ|α|

Piecewise quadratic function with a kink at zero.

Derivative at 0+: g+ = −x + λ and 0−: g− = −x − λ.

Optimality conditions. α is optimal iff:

|α| > 0 and (x − α) + λ sign(α) = 0

α = 0 and g+ ≥ 0 and g− ≤ 0

The solution is a soft-thresholding:

α⋆ = sign(x)(|x | − λ)+.


Why does the ℓ1-norm induce sparsity?

x

α⋆

(a) soft-thresholding operator

x

α⋆

(b) hard-thresholding operator


Why does the ℓ1-norm induce sparsity?Analysis of the norms in 1D

ψ(α) = α2

ψ′(α) = 2α

ψ(α) = |α|

ψ′−(α) = −1, ψ′

+(α) = 1

The gradient of the ℓ2-norm vanishes when α get close to 0. On itsdifferentiable part, the norm of the gradient of the ℓ1-norm is constant.


Why does the ℓ1-norm induce sparsity?Geometric explanation

x

y

x

y

minα∈Rp

1

2‖x−Dα‖22 + λ‖α‖1

minα∈Rp

‖x−Dα‖22 s.t. ‖α‖1 ≤ T .


Important property of the LassoPiecewise linearity of the regularization path

0 1 2 3 4−0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

λ

co

eff

icie

nt

va

lue

s

α1

α2

α3

α4

α5

Figure: Regularization path of the Lasso

min1‖x−Dα‖2 + λ‖α‖ .


Sparsity-Inducing Norms (1/2)

minα∈Rp

data fitting term︷︸︸︷

f (α) + λ ψ(α)︸︷︷︸

sparsity-inducing norm

Standard approach to enforce sparsity in learning procedures:

Regularizing by a sparsity-inducing norm ψ.

The effect of ψ is to set some αj ’s to zero, depending on theregularization parameter λ ≥ 0.

The most popular choice for ψ:

The ℓ1 norm, ‖α‖1 =∑p

j=1 |αj |.

For the square loss, Lasso [Tibshirani, 1996].

However, the ℓ1 norm encodes poor information, just cardinality!


Sparsity-Inducing Norms (2/2)

Another popular choice for ψ:

The ℓ1-ℓ2 norm,

∑

G∈G

‖αG‖2 =∑

G∈G

(∑

j∈G

α2j

)1/2, with G a partition of {1, . . . , p}.

The ℓ1-ℓ2 norm sets to zero groups of non-overlapping variables

(as opposed to single variables for the ℓ1 norm).

For the square loss, group Lasso [Yuan and Lin, 2006].

However, the ℓ1-ℓ2 norm encodes fixed/static prior information,requires to know in advance how to group the variables !

Applications:

Selecting groups of features instead of individual variables.

Multi-task learning.


Optimization for Dictionary Learning

minα∈Rp×n

D∈C

n∑

i=1

1

2‖xi −Dαi‖

22 + λ‖αi‖1

C△

= {D ∈ Rm×p s.t. ∀j = 1, . . . , p, ‖dj‖2 ≤ 1}.

Classical optimization alternates between D and α.

Good results, but slow!

Instead use online learning [Mairal et al., 2009a]


Optimization for Dictionary LearningInpainting a 12-Mpixel photograph


Matrix Factorization Problems and Dictionary Learning

minα∈Rp×n

D∈C

n∑

i=1

1

2‖xi −Dαi‖

22 + λ‖αi‖1

can be rewritten

minα∈Rp×n

D∈C

1

2‖X−Dα‖2F + λ‖α‖1,

where X = [x1, . . . , xn] and α = [α1, . . . ,αn].


Matrix Factorization Problems and Dictionary LearningPCA

minα∈Rp×n

D∈Rm×p

‖X−Dα‖2F ,

with the additional constraints that D is orthonormal and α⊤ isorthogonal.

D = [d1, . . . ,dp] are the principal components.


Matrix Factorization Problems and Dictionary LearningHard clustering

minα∈Rp×n

D∈Rm×p

‖X−Dα‖2F ,

with the additional constraints that α is binary and its columns sum toone.


Matrix Factorization Problems and Dictionary LearningSoft clustering

minα∈Rp×n

D∈Rm×p

‖X−Dα‖2F ,

with the additional constraints that the columns of α sum to one.


Matrix Factorization Problems and Dictionary LearningNon-negative matrix factorization [Lee and Seung, 2001]

minα∈Rp×n

D∈Rm×p

‖X−Dα‖2F ,

with the additional constraints that the entries of D and α arenon-negative.


Matrix Factorization Problems and Dictionary LearningNMF+sparsity?

minα∈Rp×n

D∈Rm×p

‖X−Dα‖2F + λ‖α‖1

with the additional constraints that the entries of D and α arenon-negative.

Most of these formulations can be addressed the same types of

algorithms.


Matrix Factorization Problems and Dictionary LearningNatural Patches

(a) PCA (b) NNMF (c) DL


Matrix Factorization Problems and Dictionary LearningFaces

(d) PCA (e) NNMF (f) DL


Important messages

The ℓ1-norm induces sparsity and shrinks the coefficients(soft-thresholding)

The regularization path of the Lasso is piecewise linear.

Sparsity can be induced at the group level.

Learning the dictionary is simple, fast and scalable.

Dictionary learning is related to several matrix factorizationproblems.

Software SPAMS is available for all of this:

www.di.ens.fr/willow/SPAMS/.


www.di.ens.fr/willow/SPAMS/

Next topics: Computer Vision

Intriguing results on the use of dictionary learning for bags of words.

Modelling the local appearance of image patches.


Learning Codebooks for Image Classification

Idea

Replacing Vector Quantization by Learned Dictionaries!

unsupervised: [Yang et al., 2009]

supervised: [Boureau et al., 2010, Yang et al., 2010]


Learning Codebooks for Image Classification

Let an image be represented by a set of low-level descriptors xi at Nlocations identified with their indices i = 1, . . . ,N.

hard-quantization:

xi ≈ Dαi , αi ∈ {0, 1}p and

p∑

j=1

αi [j ] = 1

soft-quantization:

αi [j ] =e−β‖xi−dj‖

22

∑pk=1 e

−β‖xi−dk‖22

sparse coding:

xi ≈ Dαi , αi = argminα

1

2‖xi −Dα‖22 + λ‖α‖1


Learning Codebooks for Image ClassificationTable from Boureau et al. [2010]

Yang et al. [2009] have won the PASCAL VOC’09 challenge using thiskind of techniques.


Learning dictionaries with a discriminative cost function

Idea:

Let us consider 2 sets S−, S+ of signals representing 2 different classes.Each set should admit a dictionary best adapted to its reconstruction.

Classification procedure for a signal x ∈ Rn:

min(R⋆(x,D−),R⋆(x,D+))

whereR⋆(x,D) = min

α∈Rp‖x−Dα‖22 s.t. ‖α‖0 ≤ L.

“Reconstructive” training{

minD−

∑

i∈S−R⋆(xi ,D−)

minD+

∑

i∈S+R⋆(xi ,D+)

[Grosse et al., 2007], [Huang and Aviyente, 2006],[Sprechmann et al., 2010] for unsupervised clustering (CVPR ’10)


Learning dictionaries with a discriminative cost function

“Discriminative” training

[Mairal, Bach, Ponce, Sapiro, and Zisserman, 2008a]

minD−,D+

∑

i

C(

λzi(R⋆(xi ,D−)− R⋆(xi ,D+)

))

,

where zi ∈ {−1,+1} is the label of xi .

Logistic regression function


Learning dictionaries with a discriminative cost functionExamples of dictionaries

Top: reconstructive, Bottom: discriminative, Left: Bicycle, Right:Background.


Learning dictionaries with a discriminative cost functionTexture segmentation


Learning dictionaries with a discriminative cost functionPixelwise classification


Learning dictionaries with a discriminative cost functionweakly-supervised pixel classification


Application to edge detection and classification[Mairal, Leordeanu, Bach, Hebert, and Ponce, 2008c]

Good edges Bad edges


Application to edge detection and classificationBerkeley segmentation benchmark

Raw edge detection on the right



Raw edge detection on the right


Application to edge detection and classificationContour-based classifier: [Leordeanu, Hebert, and Sukthankar, 2007]

Is there a bike, a motorbike, a car or a person on thisimage?


Application to edge detection and classification


Application to edge detection and classificationPerformance gain due to the prefiltering

Ours + [Leordeanu ’07] [Leordeanu ’07] [Winn ’05]

96.8% 89.4% 76.9%

Recognition rates for the same experiment as [Winn et al., 2005] onVOC 2005.

Category Ours+[Leordeanu ’07] [Leordeanu ’07]Aeroplane 71.9% 61.9%

Boat 67.1% 56.4%Cat 82.6% 53.4%Cow 68.7% 59.2%Horse 76.0% 67%

Motorbike 80.6% 73.6%Sheep 72.9% 58.4%

Tvmonitor 87.7% 83.8%

Average 75.9% 64.2 %

Recognition performance at equal error rate for 8 classes on a subset ofimages from Pascal 07.


Digital Art AuthentificationData Courtesy of Hugues, Graham, and Rockmore [2009]

Authentic Fake



Authentic Fake

Fake



Authentic Fake

Authentic


Important messages

Learned dictionaries are well adapted to model the localappearance of images and edges.

They can be used to learn dictionaries of SIFT features.


Next topics

Optimization for solving sparse decomposition problems

Optimization for dictionary learning


Recall: The Sparse Decomposition Problem

minα∈Rp

1

2‖x−Dα‖22

︸︷︷︸

data fitting term

+ λψ(α)︸︷︷︸

sparsity-inducingregularization

ψ induces sparsity in α. It can be

the ℓ0 “pseudo-norm”. ‖α‖0△

= #{i s.t. α[i ] 6= 0} (NP-hard)

the ℓ1 norm. ‖α‖1△

=∑p

i=1 |α[i ]| (convex)

. . .

This is a selection problem.


Finding your way in the sparse coding literature. . .

. . . is not easy. The literature is vast, redundant, sometimesconfusing and many papers are claiming victory. . .

The main class of methods are

greedy procedures [Mallat and Zhang, 1993], [Weisberg, 1980]

homotopy [Osborne et al., 2000], [Efron et al., 2004],[Markowitz, 1956]

soft-thresholding based methods [Fu, 1998], [Daubechies et al.,2004], [Friedman et al., 2007], [Nesterov, 2007], [Beck andTeboulle, 2009], . . .

reweighted-ℓ2 methods [Daubechies et al., 2009],. . .

active-set methods [Roth and Fischer, 2008].

. . .


Matching Pursuit α = (0, 0, 0)

d1

d2

d3

rz

x

y



z

x

y

d1

d2

d3

r

< r,d3 > d3



z

x

y

d1

d2

d3

rr− < r,d3 > d3


Matching Pursuit α = (0, 0, 0.75)

d1

d2

d3

rz

x

y



z

x

y

d1

d2

d3

r


Matching Pursuit α = (0, 0.24, 0.75)

d1

d2

d3r

z

x

y



z

x

y

d1

d2

d3r



d1

d2

d3r

z

x

y


Matching Pursuit

minα∈Rp

‖ x−Dα︸︷︷︸

r

‖22 s.t. ‖α‖0 ≤ L

1: α← 02: r← x (residual).3: while ‖α‖0 < L do

4: Select the atom with maximum correlation with the residual

ı← argmaxi=1,...,p

|dTi r|

5: Update the residual and the coefficients

α[ı] ← α[ı] + dTı r

r ← r − (dTı r)dı

6: end while


Orthogonal Matching Pursuitα = (0, 0, 0)

Γ = ∅

d1

d2

d3

xz

x

y


Orthogonal Matching Pursuit α = (0, 0, 0.75)Γ = {3}

z

x

y

d1

d2

d3

xr

π1

π2

π3


Orthogonal Matching Pursuit α = (0, 0.29, 0.63)Γ = {3, 2}

z

x

y

d1

d2

d3

xr

π31

π32


Orthogonal Matching Pursuit

minα∈Rp

‖x−Dα‖22 s.t. ‖α‖0 ≤ L

1: Γ = ∅.2: for iter = 1, . . . , L do

3: Select the atom which most reduces the objective

ı← argmini∈ΓC

{

minα

′

‖x−DΓ∪{i}α′‖22

}

4: Update the active set: Γ← Γ ∪ {ı}.5: Update the residual (orthogonal projection)

r← (I−DΓ(DTΓ DΓ)

−1DTΓ )x.

6: Update the coefficients

αΓ ← (DTΓ DΓ)

−1DTΓ x.

7: end for


Orthogonal Matching Pursuit

Contrary to MP, an atom can only be selected one time with OMP. It is,however, more difficult to implement efficiently. The keys for a goodimplementation in the case of a large number of signals are

Precompute the Gram matrix G = DTD once in for all,

Maintain the computation of DT r for each signal,

Maintain a Cholesky decomposition of (DTΓ DΓ)

−1 for each signal.

The total complexity for decomposing n L-sparse signals of size m with adictionary of size p is

O(p2m)︸︷︷︸

Gram matrix

+O(nL3)︸︷︷︸

Cholesky

+O(n(pm + pL2))︸︷︷︸

DT r

= O(np(m + L2))

It is also possible to use the matrix inversion lemma instead of aCholesky decomposition (same complexity, but less numerical stability)


Example with the software SPAMS

Software available at http://www.di.ens.fr/willow/SPAMS/

>> I=double(imread(’data/lena.eps’))/255;

>> %extract all patches of I

>> X=im2col(I,[8 8],’sliding’);

>> %load a dictionary of size 64 x 256

>> D=load(’dict.mat’);

>>

>> %set the sparsity parameter L to 10

>> param.L=10;

>> alpha=mexOMP(X,D,param);

On a 8-cores 2.83Ghz machine: 230000 signals processed per second!


http://www.di.ens.fr/willow/SPAMS/

Optimality conditions of the LassoNonsmooth optimization

Directional derivatives and subgradients are useful tools for studyingℓ1-decomposition problems:

minα∈Rp

1

2‖x−Dα‖22 + λ‖α‖1

In this tutorial, we use the directional derivatives to derive simpleoptimality conditions of the Lasso.

For more information on convex analysis and nonsmooth optimization,see the following books: [Boyd and Vandenberghe, 2004], [Nocedal andWright, 2006], [Borwein and Lewis, 2006], [Bonnans et al., 2006],[Bertsekas, 1999].


Optimality conditions of the LassoDirectional derivatives

Directional derivative in the direction u at α:

∇f (α,u) = limt→0+

f (α+ tu)− f (α)

t

Main idea: in non smooth situations, one may need to look at alldirections u and not simply p independent ones!

Proposition 1: if f is differentiable in α, ∇f (α,u) = ∇f (α)Tu.

Proposition 2: α is optimal iff for all u in Rp, ∇f (α,u) ≥ 0.


Optimality conditions of the Lasso

minα∈Rp

1

2‖x−Dα‖22 + λ‖α‖1

α⋆ is optimal iff for all u in Rp, ∇f (α,u) ≥ 0—that is,

−uTDT (x−Dα⋆) + λ∑

i ,α⋆[i ] 6=0

sign(α⋆[i ])u[i ] + λ∑

i ,α⋆[i ]=0

|ui | ≥ 0,

which is equivalent to the following conditions:

∀i = 1, . . . , p,

{|dTi (x−Dα⋆)| ≤ λ if α⋆[i ] = 0dTi (x−Dα⋆) = λ sign(α⋆[i ]) if α⋆[i ] 6= 0


Homotopy

A homotopy method provides a set of solutions indexed by aparameter.

The regularization path (λ,α⋆(λ)) for instance!!

It can be useful when the path has some “nice” properties(piecewise linear, piecewise quadratic).

LARS [Efron et al., 2004] starts from a trivial solution, and followsthe regularization path of the Lasso, which is is piecewise linear.


Homotopy, LARS[Osborne et al., 2000], [Efron et al., 2004]

∀i = 1, . . . , p,

{|dTi (x−Dα⋆)| ≤ λ if α⋆[i ] = 0dTi (x−Dα⋆) = λ sign(α⋆[i ]) if α⋆[i ] 6= 0

(1)The regularization path is piecewise linear:

DTΓ (x−DΓα

⋆Γ) = λ sign(α⋆

Γ)

α⋆Γ(λ) = (DT

Γ DΓ)−1(DT

Γ x− λ sign(α⋆Γ)) = A+ λB

A simple interpretation of LARS

Start from the trivial solution (λ = ‖DTx‖∞,α⋆(λ) = 0).

Maintain the computations of |dTi (x−Dα⋆(λ))| for all i .

Maintain the computation of the current direction B.

Follow the path by reducing λ until the next kink.


Example with the software SPAMShttp://www.di.ens.fr/willow/SPAMS/



>> X=normalize(im2col(I,[8 8],’sliding’));



>>

>> %set the sparsity parameter lambda to 0.15

>> param.lambda=0.15;

>> alpha=mexLasso(X,D,param);


Note that it can also solve constrained version of the problem. Thecomplexity is more or less the same as OMP and uses the same tricks(Cholesky decomposition).



Coordinate Descent

Coordinate descent + nonsmooth objective: WARNING: not

convergent in general

Here, the problem is equivalent to a convex smooth optimizationproblem with separable constraints

minα+,α−

1

2‖x−D+α++D−α−‖

22+λα

T+1+λα

T−1 s.t. α−,α+ ≥ 0.

For this specific problem, coordinate descent is convergent.

Supposing ‖di‖2 = 1, updating the coordinate i :

α[i ]← argminβ

1

2‖ x−

∑

j 6=i

α[j ]dj

︸︷︷︸

r

−βdi‖22 + λ|β|

← sign(dTi r)(|dTi r| − λ)

+

⇒ soft-thresholding!


Example with the software SPAMShttp://www.di.ens.fr/willow/SPAMS/



>> X=normalize(im2col(I,[8 8],’sliding’));



>>

>> %set the sparsity parameter lambda to 0.15

>> param.lambda=0.15;

>> param.tol=1e-2;

>> param.itermax=200;

>> alpha=mexCD(X,D,param);




first-order/proximal methods

minα∈Rp

f (α) + λψ(α)

f is strictly convex and continuously differentiable with a Lipshitzgradient.

Generalize the idea of gradient descent

αk+1←argminα∈R

f (αk)+∇f (αk)T (α−αk)+

L

2‖α−αk‖

22+λψ(α)

← argminα∈R

1

2‖α− (αk −

1

L∇f (αk))‖

22 +

λ

Lψ(α)

When λ = 0, this is equivalent to a classical gradient descent step.


first-order/proximal methods

They require solving efficiently the proximal operator

minα∈Rp

1

2‖u−α‖22 + λψ(α)

For the ℓ1-norm, this amounts to a soft-thresholding:

α⋆[i ] = sign(u[i ])(u[i ]− λ)+.

There exists accelerated versions based on Nesterov optimalfirst-order method (gradient method with “extrapolation”) [Beckand Teboulle, 2009, Nesterov, 2007, 1983]

suited for large-scale experiments.


Optimization for Grouped Sparsity

The formulation:

minα∈Rp

1

2‖x−Dα‖22

︸︷︷︸

data fitting term

+ λ∑

g∈G

‖αg‖q

︸︷︷︸

group-sparsity-inducingregularization

The main class of algorithms for solving grouped-sparsity problems are

Greedy approaches

Block-coordinate descent

Proximal methods


Optimization for Grouped Sparsity

The proximal operator:

minα∈Rp

1

2‖u−α‖22 + λ

∑

g∈G

‖αg‖q

For q = 2,

α⋆g =

ug

‖ug‖2(‖ug‖2 − λ)

+, ∀g ∈ G

For q =∞,α⋆

g = ug − Π‖.‖1≤λ[ug ], ∀g ∈ G

These formula generalize soft-thrsholding to groups of variables. Theyare used in block-coordinate descent and proximal algorithms.


Reweighted ℓ2

Let us start from something simple

a2 − 2ab + b2 ≥ 0.

Then

a ≤1

2

(a2

b+ b

)

with equality iff a = b

and

‖α‖1 = minηj≥0

1

2

p∑

j=1

α[j ]2

ηj+ ηj .

The formulation becomes

minα,ηj≥ε

1

2‖x−Dα‖22 +

λ

2

p∑

j=1

α[j ]2

ηj+ ηj .


Important messages

Greedy methods directly address the NP-hard ℓ0-decompositionproblem.

Homotopy methods can be extremely efficient for small ormedium-sized problems, or when the solution is very sparse.

Coordinate descent provides in general quickly a solution with asmall/medium precision, but gets slower when there is a lot ofcorrelation in the dictionary.

First order methods are very attractive in the large scale setting.

Other good alternatives exists, active-set, reweighted ℓ2 methods,stochastic variants, variants of OMP,. . .



minα∈Rp×n

D∈C

n∑

i=1

1

2‖xi −Dαi‖

22 + λ‖αi‖1

C△

= {D ∈ Rm×p s.t. ∀j = 1, . . . , p, ‖dj‖2 ≤ 1}.

Classical optimization alternates between D and α.

Good results, but very slow!


Optimization for Dictionary Learning[Mairal, Bach, Ponce, and Sapiro, 2009a]

Classical formulation of dictionary learning

minD∈C

fn(D) = minD∈C

1

n

n∑

i=1

l(xi ,D),

where

l(x,D)△

= minα∈Rp

1

2‖x−Dα‖22 + λ‖α‖1.

Which formulation are we interested in?

minD∈C

{

f (D) = Ex [l(x,D)] ≈ limn→+∞

1

n

n∑

i=1

l(xi ,D)}

[Bottou and Bousquet, 2008]: Online learning can

handle potentially infinite or dynamic datasets,

be dramatically faster than batch algorithms.Julien Mairal Sparse Coding and Dictionary Learning 126/137


Require: D0 ∈ Rm×p (initial dictionary); λ ∈ R

1: A0 = 0, B0 = 0.2: for t=1,. . . ,T do

3: Draw xt4: Sparse Coding

αt ← argminα∈Rp

1

2‖xt −Dt−1α‖

22 + λ‖α‖1,

5: Aggregate sufficient statisticsAt ← At−1 +αtα

Tt , Bt ← Bt−1 + xtα

Tt

6: Dictionary Update (block-coordinate descent)

Dt ← argminD∈C

1

t

t∑

i=1

(1

2‖xi −Dαi‖

22 + λ‖αi‖1

)

.

7: end for



Which guarantees do we have?

Under a few reasonable assumptions,

we build a surrogate function ft of the expected cost f verifying

limt→+∞

ft(Dt)− f (Dt) = 0,

Dt is asymptotically close to a stationary point.

Extensions (all implemented in SPAMS)

non-negative matrix decompositions.

sparse PCA (sparse dictionaries).

fused-lasso regularizations (piecewise constant dictionaries)


Optimization for Dictionary LearningExperimental results, batch vs online

m = 8× 8, p = 256Julien Mairal Sparse Coding and Dictionary Learning 129/137

Optimization for Dictionary LearningExperimental results, batch vs online

m = 12× 12× 3, p = 512Julien Mairal Sparse Coding and Dictionary Learning 130/137

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