South Korea and the Arctic region - Arctic Summer...

South Korea and the Arctic region

Martin Kossa

13.08.2015

Introduction

Being surrounded by sea and in the north cut off from the Eurasian land mass by

North Korea, the Republic of Korea has been effectively transformed into an ''island nation''

since the end of the Korean war in 1953. Because of its geographical circumstances plus its

severe lack of natural resources, an enormously high percentage of energy imports and a huge

dependency on trade, South Korea has managed to build over the years a world class shipping

and shipbuilding industry. Moreover, the 2008 global financial turmoil has left its mark on

the South Korean economy which was in need of new stimuli and growth. The opening of the

Arctic region at that time came as a much needed opportunity to help kick-start the South

Korean economy. The country has had a research station in the Arctic since 2002, but it was

in 2008 when the Arctic region made it on the list of South Korea`s national priorities. Its

activities culminated in May 2013 when it became an observer to the Arctic Council.

This essay seeks to examine South Koreas activities, interests and roles in the Arctic

region. First, it looks, very briefly, at the country`s historical engagement with the polar

regions. Second, it portrays the evolution of South Korea`s Arctic policies up until present.

Third, it introduces Korea`s domestic actors with stakes in the Arctic region. Fourth, it

provides and overview of Korea`s polar infrastructure. Fifth, it is discussing South Korea`s

economic and scientific interests in the region. Then, it analyzes the Arctic region`s place in

South Korean foreign policy. Finally, it describes Arctic governance and South Korea`s

bilateral relations with Arctic states followed by some concluding remarks.

Brief history of South Korean polar activities

Korea`s involvement with the polar regions began in the late 1970s in waters around

Antarctica with ''exploratory krill fishing and oceanographic observation.''1 It acceded to the

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) in 1985

1 ''Plenary session 19: The Republic of Korea in the Arctic,'' 2013 Arctic Circle, October 12-14, 2013,

Reykjavik, Iceland, presentation given by Ahn Chong-Ghee, Deputy Minister for Economic Affairs, Ministry of

Foreign Affairs, Republic of Korea, available at https://vimeo.com/82151436.

and the Antarctic Treaty in 1986.2 Later on, in 1988, the Republic of Korea (ROK)

established a Korean scientific research station called the King Sejong Research Station on

Antarctica’s King George Island and attained membership in the Antarctic Treaty

Consultative Party on October 18, 1989.3 In 1990, ROK became a member of the Scientific

Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and held the Second International Antarctic

Symposium.4

As for the Arctic region itself, Korea began exploring it in the early 1990s. In 1991,

the Korean AURORA exploration team reached the North Pole, becoming the 11th nation

and 18th team to do so.5 The expedition was aired live on TV via a satellite link and

according to Kim, ''Reaching the North Pole by the AURORA team created a deep

impression on the Korean people regarding the future potential of the Arctic.''6 In 1999, South

Korea conducted Arctic related research with the Geological Survey of Japan, and later that

year, its researchers were aboard China`s icebreaker Xue Long to explore the Bering and

Chukchi seas.7 In 2000, in accordance with the Korean Ministry of Oceans and Fishery's

research plan, ''a joint marine investigation was conducted in the Barents Sea and Kara sea

with Russia`s Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI).''8

However, South Korean independent Arctic research began in 2001. The Korea Arctic

Scientific Committee was founded in October of the same year and in April 2002, ROK

joined the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC).9 A month later, the DASAN

Arctic Research Station in Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard was established and Korean scientists

began conducting research ''on climate change and biodiversity and observe the changes in

the Arctic.''10

Another significant milestone in South Korea`s Arctic research was the

2 ''The Antarctic Treaty System,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Korea, accessed August 7, 2015,

http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/policy/treaties/antarctic/index.jsp?menu=m_20_30_30. 3 Ibid.

4 Seungryeol Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' (Master`s thesis, University of Canterbury,

2011), 5. 5 Jong Deog Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' in The Arctic in World Affairs: A North Pacific Dialogue on

International Cooperation in a Changing Arctic, ed. Oran R. Young, Jong Deog Kim and Yoon Hyung Kim

(Seoul and Honolulu: Korea Maritime Institute and East-West Center, 2014), 209. 6 Ibid.

7 Young Kil Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' East Asia-Arctic Relations:

Boundary, Security and International Politics Paper No. 3 (Waterloo, Ontario: The Centre for International

Governance Innovation, 2013): 2. 8 Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 210.

9 Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' 2.

10 Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 210.

formation of the Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI) in 2004.11

The process of

acquisition of fully independent Arctic research capabilities was finalized in 2009 when

South Korea commissioned its home-built icebreaker Araon. The importance of Araon to

South Korean Arctic research, capabilities and international status was underlined by Jin Suk

Kim, a specialist at KOPRI, by saying that "Before it was built, we kind of tried to ask for

countries with a longer history in Arctic research to have us as a partner for a joint research

… But after the launch of Araon, world-class polar institutes and researchers came to us

voluntarily and asked us to consider them as partners."12

The evolution of South Korean Arctic policy

Given South Korea`s geographical location outside of the Arctic region and its harsh

security environment, it is obvious that the Arctic is not South Korea`s foreign policy

priority. Nevertheless, it does not mean that the Arctic region, together with its opportunities

and challenges, did not ''hit'' the South Korean political mainstream. After achieving

independence in its Arctic scientific research, South Korea started to be active in the Arctic

governance structure by actively engaging the Arctic Council and Arctic states as well as by

producing policies at a domestic level. In this respect, the administration of President Lee

Myung-bak (February 2008 - February 2013) played an important role in South Korea`s

Arctic engagement.

The then President Lee first announced his Arctic approach in his Liberation day

speech in 2008 where he declared that ''Exploration and research in the Arctic Ocean and

Antarctic, which are thought to be a treasure trove of natural resources, will be actively

conducted. By doing so, we will show the world that a spirit of adventure and creativity in

pioneering uncharted territory runs in the Korean blood.''13

The same year, South Korea

applied for observer status at the Arctic Council.14

In 2012, Lee made historical visits to

Norway and Greenland. In Norway, the key agenda was the establishment of new shipping

11

''History,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 7, 2015,

http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_1300000/view.cms. 12

Hyun-Kyung Kang, ''Melting Arctic ice thrills port cities,'' The Korea Times, October 6, 2014,

http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2014/10/180_165802.html. 13

Myung-bak Lee, ''A great people with new dreams,'' Korea.net, accessed August 7, 2015,

http://www.korea.net/Government/Briefing-Room/Presidential-Speeches/view?articleId=91000&pageIndex=17. 14

Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' 4.

routes over the Arctic and cooperation on climate change and green growth.15

In Greenland

''The two sides signed four MOUs calling for cooperation in resources development,

geological surveys, and Arctic science and technology.''16

According to Bennett, these visits

''marked an important step in his [Lee`s] country`s search for acceptance among Arctic

Council member states as an actor with valid, multifaceted interests in the region.''17

Korea

also acceded to the Treaty of Spitsbergen the same year.18

Moreover, at the same time, Korea

made attempts to create some sort of a comprehensive Arctic strategy when it announced the

Arctic Policy Advancement Direction in 2012.19

After the new administration of President Park Geun-hye took office in February

2013, the Arctic and Arctic cooperation still remained on the president`s national agenda.20

In

May 2013, South Korea was granted the observer status at the Arctic Council and president

Park ''hailed the status as a big achievement.''21

At the same time, the Yonhap News Agency

reported that ''Park said related government agencies should draw up a comprehensive

blueprint for overall Arctic policies while making sure to give balanced consideration to

environmental protection and sustainable development of the region as well as climate

change.''22

Consequently, in December 2013, the Korean government approved of its 1st Pan-

Government Arctic Policy Master Plan.23

South Korea thus became the first Asian observer

to the Arctic Council to publish an integrated policy document towards the Arctic region.

15

''Lee calls for close cooperation with Norway on Arctic shipping routes,'' The Korea Times, September 12,

2012, http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2012/09/116_119713.html. 16

Jae-soon Chang, ''Lee secures foothold for S. Korea`s Arctic initiative,'' Yonhap News Agency, accessed

August 7, 2015,

http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/national/2012/09/13/26/0301000000AEN20120913010200315F.HTML. 17

Mia M. Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' Strategic

Analysis 38, no. 6 (2014): 898. 18

Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 210. 19

Jong Deog Kim, ''Comments on Chapter 3: Korean perspective,'' in The Arctic in World Affairs: A North

Pacific Dialogue on the Future of the Arctic, ed. Oran R. Young, Jong Deog Kim and Yoon Hyung Kim (Seoul

and Honolulu: Korea Maritime Institute and East-West Center, 2013), 152. 20

Linda Jakobson and Seong-Hyon Lee, "The North East Asian States’ Interests in the Arctic and Possible

Cooperation with the Kingdom of Denmark," (Stockholm: Stockholm Peace Research Institute, 2013), 32 and


''Park calls for comprehensive blueprint for Arctic policies,'' Yonhap News Agency, accessed August 7, 2015,


Ibid. 23

Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 214. It is my understanding that this Master Plan is an outcome of a document

the Korean government published in July 2013, named the Comprehensive Arctic Policy Framework Plan.

According to his document`s schedule, a national policy tentatively named the Arctic Policy Master Plan should

have been published by the end of 2013. See Kim, ''Comments on Chapter 3: Korean perspective,'' 152.

Seven ministries and a number of research institutions were involved in the

development of Korea`s Pan-Government Arctic Policy Master Plan.24

The Master Plan itself

consists of a vision statement, three policy aims and four major programs.25

The vision of the

Master Plan is ''to promote a sustainable future for the Arctic region through global, regional

and local cooperation,'' while the three policy aims are ''(1) establishing an Arctic partnership,

(2) strengthening scientific research capacity, and (3) seeking new business opportunities.''26

The four major programs were identified as: ''1.Strengthening international cooperation with

the Arctic region; 2. Encouraging scientific and technological research capability; 3. Pursuing

Arctic business opportunities; and 4. Securing a domestic institutional foundation.''27

Moreover, in April 2015, the Korean Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries has published

the 2015 Arctic Policy Action Plan in which it states its goals for the immediate future - to

intensify Korea`s bilateral cooperation with Arctic states, support Arctic shipping routes (the

NSR), participate in the development of the Russian Far East ports and expand its Arctic

research infrastructure.28

To further underline the importance of the Arctic region to South

Korea, the country has appointed, in June 2015, Chan-woo Kim to serve as Korea`s

Ambassador for Arctic Affairs.29

In addition, in July, the South Korean Ministry of Affairs

commemorated Korea`s 2nd anniversary of its obtainment of the Observer status at the Arctic

Council by inviting Ambassadors from Arctic Council member and observer states for dinner

and a tour of its icebreaker Araon (South Korean Minister of Foreign Affairs Yun Byung-se

was also present).30

South Korea`s Arctic actors

24

Ministries involved: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Science, ICT

and Future Planning, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy, Ministry of Land,

Infrastructure and Transport and the Korea Meteorological Administration; as for the research institutions

involved: Korea Maritime Institute, Korea Polar Research Institute, Korea Research Institute of Ships and

Ocean Engineering, Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and

Technology etc., see Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 214. 25

Young Kil Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' Asia Policy 18, no. 1 (2014): 63. 26


Ibid., 214-215. 28

''2015 Arctic Policy Action Plan,'' Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, accessed August 7, 2015,

http://www.mof.go.kr/article/view.do?menuKey=376&boardKey=10&articleKey=7513, (in Korean). 29

''Norway and South Korea successfully holds bilateral dialogue on Arctic issues,'' The Royal Norwegian

Embassy in Seoul, accessed August 7, 2015, http://www.norway.or.kr/News_and_events/Current-

affairs/News/Norway-and-South-Korea-successfully-holds-bilateral-dialogue-on-Arctic-

issues/#.VcTDovntmko. 30

Hyun-kyung Kang, ''Envoys explore icebreaker Araon,'' The Korea Times, July 12, 2015,

http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2015/07/176_182625.html.

South Korea as an advanced industrial nation with a high level of economic and

societal development has several stakeholders with potential interests in the Arctic region. At

the governmental level, since its reinstatement in 2013, the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries

(MOF) took the lead in forming South Korea`s Arctic policies.31

One of the Ministry`s major

policies is ''Reinforcing Korea`s maritime presence across the globe,'' and as stated in this

policy, one of the ways how to achieve this goal is ''Advancing into the Antarctic and Arctic

regions - territories of infinite possibilities.''32

Other ministries are involved as well. The

Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) represents South Korea at Arctic regional forums, like

the Arctic Council, but ''also promotes the country`s bilateral strategic cooperation with other

nations in polar scientific research and resource development.''33

The main task of the

Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE) is to help ''to transform South Korea into a

dynamic and economic powerhouse'' while at the same time ''providing a foundation for

economic growth by combining its efforts to fulfill its wide range of responsibilities in the

areas of commerce, investment, industry, and energy.''34

All this makes MOTIE an important

actor in the resource and energy development potential of the Arctic. As a matter of fact,

according to Jakobson and Lee, it was MOTIE that was ''the South Korean signatory to an

MOU with Greenland on joint geological surveys, resource exploration and technological

cooperation''35

when ex-president Lee Myung-bak was there on state visit in 2012 (at that

time MOTIE was called the Ministry of Knowledge Economy). Kim is also mentioning the

Ministry of Environment (ME), the Ministry of Science, ICT and future Planning (MSIP) and

the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) as major ministries influencing

the Arctic agenda.36

South Korean actors with stakes in the Arctic region can also be found at the

provincial and municipal level. The Gangwon Province seems to be one of the most active in

this manner. The province wants to establish itself as a hub for Northeast Asia and ''as an

31

Park, ''Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective,'' 5. 32

''Reinforcing Korea`s maritime presence across the globe,'' Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, accessed August

9, 2015, http://www.mof.go.kr/eng/content/view.do?menuKey=492&contentKey=40. 33

Jakobson and Lee, "The North East Asian States’ Interests in the Arctic and Possible Cooperation with the

Kingdom of Denmark," 30. 34

''Introduction,'' Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy, accessed August 9, 2015,

http://english.motie.go.kr/?cat=52. 35



Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 220.

origin for the emerging Arctic air route.''37

It also has lobbied the MOF to consider its ports as

hubs for new shipping lanes.38

Gangwon Province is also a member of the Northern Forum

which is a non-profit international organization composed of sub-national or regional

governments and it was ''established to improve the quality of life of Northern peoples by

providing Northern regional leaders a means to share their knowledge and experience in

addressing common challenges and to support sustainable development and

the implementation of cooperative socio-economic initiatives among Northern regions and

through international fora.''39 Other members include regions from Russia and Iceland.40

At

the municipal level, it seems that the city of Busan has a very strong position to become a hub

for the NSR.41

However, recently, besides Gangwon Province and the city of Busan, places

like the city of Ulsan or the Gyeongsangbuk Province have also voiced their desire to be

considered as potential shipping hubs.42

South Korea also operates a number of research institutes that conduct Arctic related

research. The leading body in this respect is the Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI).

Some of its main tasks include the ''scientific research, survey and long term observations

addressing key issues of global or fundamental importance that require access to the

Arctic/Antarctic,'' and ''To sustain for the Korea an active and influential regional presence

and a leadership role in the polar affairs,'' or ''To provide reliable and independent advice to

the Korean government and other stakeholders.''43

KOPRI also operates South Korea`s

Antarctic stations (King Sejong Station and Jang Bogo Station), the icebreaker Araon and the

Arctic Dasan Station.44

Another important research institution, which KOPRI is affiliated to, is the Korea

Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST). It was established in July 2012 as a

successor to the Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute which itself was opened in

37

''Major Provincial Policies,'' Gangwon Province, accessed August 10, 2015,

http://www.provin.gangwon.kr/gw/eng/sub02_01. 38

Kang, ''Melting Arctic ice thrills port cities.'' 39

''Mission and Structure,'' The Northern Forum, accessed August 10, 2015,

http://www.northernforum.org/en/the-northern-forum/about-the-northern-forum/mission-and-structure. 40

''Member Regions,'' The Northern Forum, accessed August 10, 2015,

http://www.northernforum.org/en/members. 41


Ibid. 43

''Vision and Mission,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,


''Station and Icebreaker,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,

http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_3110000/view.cms.

1973.45

KIOST is supposed to ''seek to heighten its global competitiveness in marine science

and technology, develop outstanding research centers, and lead large-scale R&D programs

related to the oceans and polar regions.''46

It is also publishing an academic journal named

Ocean and Polar Research.47

In addition, the Korea Maritime Institute (KMI), as a policy

research institute, is ''currently focused on Arctic policy research that includes the NSR,

socioeconomic affairs of the Arctic, and cooperation with the Arctic Council.''48

The Korea

Research Institute of Ships and Ocean Engineering (KRISO) ''concentrates on engineering

research that is related to Arctic shipping and offshore plant facilities.''49

At the university

level, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, Seoul National University, Hanyang University,

Pukyong National Univeristy, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Incheon

National University or the Youngsan University all conduct Arctic related research.50

Major South Korean Arctic stakeholders can be found in the private sector, especially

in the shipbuilding and shipping industry. It is the Korean Chaebols - family owned

corporations that were transformed into transnational conglomerates - like Hyundai, Samsung

or Daewoo that are making their way into the Arctic region.51

According to Bennett, the

existing linkages between these Chaebols and the state ''facilitates an alignment of political

and commercial interests in the Arctic, allowing South Korea to readily project technological

and logistical power in the region.''52

Also, in 2005, a private organisation called the Korea

Supporters Association for Polar Research (KOSAP) was founded in order to provide a

nationwide support for Korea`s polar ambitions.53

They function as a bridge between the

general public and KOPRI, they promote South Korean polar achievements, they run a

webpage and publish a public relations magazine to inform about South Korean activities and

provide support to schools that wish to develop teaching materials on Polar Regions.54

45

Iselin Stensdal, “Asian Arctic Research 2005-2012: Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger,” FNI Report 3, (2013):

24. 46

''KIOST celebrates opening for Korea’s marine science development,'' Korea Institute of Ocean Science and

Technology, accessed August 10, 2015,

http://eng.kiost.ac/kordi_eng/main.jsp?sub_num=360&state=view&idx=663. 47

''OPR,'' Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, accessed August 10, 2015,

http://eng.kiost.ac/kordi_eng/?sub_num=357. 48


Ibid. 50

Stensdal, “Asian Arctic Research 2005-2012: Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger,” 27. 51

Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 888. 52

Ibid. 53

Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' 12. KOSAP can be found at

http://www.kosap.or.kr/tag/%EA%B7%B9%EC%A7%80/?ckattempt=1 however, the content is all in Korean. 54

Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' 12.

South Korean polar infrastructure

South Korea operates a solid network of advanced polar infrastructure. As mentioned

before, KOPRI has a research station in Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard called the Dasan Station. It

has been established since 29 April, 2002. The station provides laboratory space with limited

equipment: glacier and boating equipment, radios, firearms, computers, telephone and fax.55

Arctic specific research that is being conducted at the Dasan station includes biology, marine

geology, upper atmospheric science, micrometeorological research and geothermal

measurements.56

Besides its Arctic station, KOPRI also operates two Antarctic research stations. The

King Sejong Station located at Barton Peninsula, King George Island was established in 1988

as a permanent research station for KARP (Korea Antarctic Research Program).57

At present

the research station complex comprises of 10 buildings and two observatories.58

Research

conducted here ranges from geophysical and meteorological observations to biology and

oceanography.59

In 2014, South Korea opened its 2nd research base, the Jang Bogo Station in

Terra Nova Bay making it the 10th country to run more than one year-round station in

Antarctica.60

It comprises of 16 buildings and 24 observatory facilities and it can

accommodate up to 60 people.61

This station hosts a number of scientific activities:

reconstruction of paleo-climate and environment, research on Antarctic neotectonics, upper

atmospheric observation, long-term oceanographic monitoring and research on Antarctic

meteorites.62

However, the most valuable South Korean polar asset is its icebreaker Araon.

Commissioned in 2009, Araon measures 110 meters in length, 219 meters in width, weighs 7

55

''Dasan Station,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,


''Arctic Research at Dasan Station,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,


''King Sejong Station,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,


Ibid. 59

Ibid. 60

Whan-woo Yi, ''Jang Bogo Station opens in Antarctica,'' The Korea Times, accessed August 10, 2015,

http://www.koreatimesus.com/jang-bogo-station-opens-in-antarctica/. 61

Ibid. 62

''Scientific Activities,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,

http://eng.kopri.re.kr/home_e/contents/e_3320000/view.cms.

487 tons and it can sail at three knots through one-meter-thick ice while carrying a crew of 85

(60 scientists and 25 crew) for 70 days.63

It is loaded with such scientific equipment as

''undersea topographic and geological detectors, underwater environment observation

devices, and atmosphere substance analyzers. It even houses a laboratory for various

experiments and tests. The Araon is not just a ship, but a floating research center.''64

Araon is

used for Arctic expeditions from October to April and for Arctic cruises from July to

August.65

Araon is a compound word consisting of the old Korean word ''Ara'' meaning 'sea'

and the Korean word ''On'' meaning 'all' and ''is named for a wish to cruise all the sea in the

world.''66

KOPRI has been actively participating in Arctic related international scientific

projects like the Svalbard Integrated Arctic Earth Observing System, the NEEM project in

Greenland or terrestrial and atmospheric field research in Canada, to mention a few.67

South

Korea has also held a number of international conferences on Arctic affairs - KOPRI hosts

the International Symposium on Polar Sciences (ISPS) which is an annual event organized

since 1988 for the purpose ''to bring polar scientists together to provide an international

forum to exchanging and sharing their cutting-edge ideas and research results.''68

In March

2011, South Korea hosted the Arctic Science Summit Week and since 2012, KMI and the US

East-West Center established the North Pacific Arctic Conference with participants from

Canada, China, Japan, Korea, Norway, Russia and the US to discuss the emerging Arctic

issues.69

Korea also participates in a variety of Arctic related scientific organizations:

International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), Arctic Ocean Science Board (AOSB), The

Ny-Ålesund Science Managers Committee (NySMAC), The Pacific Arctic Group (PAG) and

Forum of Arctic Research Operators (FARO).70

KOPRI is also a member of the Asian Forum

for Polar Sciences (AFoPS) which ''is a non-governmental organization established in 2004

63

''Korean Research Icebreaker,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015,


''Korea`s first icebreaker, the Araon, which is preparing for the nation`s Antarctic expedition,'' KBS World

Radio, accessed August 10, 2015,

http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_economyplus_detail.htm?No=2085. 65

''Korean Research Icebreaker,'' Korea Polar Research Institute. 66

Ibid. 67

''Arctic Ice - Global Climate - Scientific Cooperation,'' 2014 Arctic Circle, October 31 - November 2, 2015,

Reykjavik, Iceland, presentation given by Seung Woo Han of the Korea Polar Research Institute, available at

https://vimeo.com/112310951. 68

''21st International Symposium on Polar Sciences,'' Korea Polar Research Institute, accessed August 10, 2015.

https://symposium.kopri.re.kr/symp_info.html. 69

Stensdal, “Asian Arctic Research 2005-2012: Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger,” 27-28. 70

''Arctic Ice - Global Climate - Scientific Cooperation,'' 2014 Arctic Circle.

to encourage and facilitate cooperation for the advance of polar sciences among countries

in the Asian region.''71

Currently Dr. Yeadong Kim, President of KOPRI, serves as the Chair

of AFoPS for 2014-2016.72

South Korea`s interests in the Arctic region

Most of South Korea`s activities in the Arctic region were limited to scientific

research, however, since South Korea became an observer to the Arctic Council in 2013,

hopes have been high that this could provide a boost for the South Korean economy.73

For

this reason, South Korean actors, when asked about their country`s interests in the Arctic

were primarily naming ''environmental and economic aspects and opportunities.''74

Military

and security interests and concerns are referred to only in terms of global security since

''Korea is concerned with Arctic security in the same way that Norway is concerned with East

Asian security.''75

Also, South Korea is well aware of the severity of the environmental

challenges the Arctic region is facing and it is being quiet vocal about them, but at the same

time, it is quick to recognize that these challenges may well be transformed into economic

opportunities. The words of South Korea`s Foreign Minister, Yun Byung-se, exemplify this

rhetoric: ''…the changes … observed in the Arctic are real and serious, from rising sea levels

to disrupted ecosystems. At the same time, we should also be innovative and creative in

turning the challenges into new opportunities. The opening up of Arctic sea routes will

inevitably generate some opportunities in economic terms.''76

The author will now discuss

South Korea`s interests in the Arctic region from an economic perspective and then form a

scientific point of view.

1. Economic Interests

71

''About AFoPS,'' Asian Forum for Polar Science, accessed August 10, 2015, http://www.afops.org/m11.php. 72

Ibid. 73


Per Erik Solli, Elana Wilson Rowe and Wrenn Yennie Lindgren, ''Coming into the cold: Asia`s Arctic

interests,'' Polar Geography 36, no. 4 (2013): 258. 75

Ibid., 259 76

''Dinner Remarks at the Commemorative Event to Mark 2nd Anniversary of ROK's Accession to Arctic

Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Korea, accessed August 11, 2015,

http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/press/speeches/minister/incumbent/index.jsp?menu=m_10_40_10&sp=/webmodul

e/htsboard/template/read/engreadboard.jsp%3FtypeID=12%26boardid=14137%26seqno=315432.

First of all, South Korean shipping industry stands to benefit greatly from the opening

of new shorter Arctic shipping lanes - especially the NSR - due to South Korea`s high

dependency on trade.77

Given the simple facts that almost 99% of Korea`s trade volume is

conducted via shipping and that Northern Europe is one of the country`s major trading

partners, one could see the potential benefits to the Korean economy.78

South Korea already

conducted its first commercial freight voyage via the NSR when in 2013 Hyundai Glovis

shipped naphtha from the Ust-Luga port of Russia to Gwangyang port of Korea.79

According

to one official from the MOF, South Korea wants ''to be the first to develop this in order to

take a leading position when the route becomes more commercially viable.''80

Only recently,

in July 2015, the CJ Korea Express company used the NSR to ship offshore terminal facilities

from the United Arab Emirate to the Yamal Peninsula in Russia.81

Second, with the opening of the new Arctic shipping lanes and natural resources

development projects like the one on Yamal in Russia, it is expected that the demand for

icebreakers, ice hardened ships and offshore platforms will grow and South Korea`s

shipbuilding industry, which is the world`s biggest, could benefit greatly.82

Companies like

Daewoo Shipping and Marine Engineering (DSME), STX Offshore and Shipbuilding

Company, Hyundai Heavy Industry and Samsung Heavy Industries (the Chaebols) ''are

among the most competitive companies in the world for production of these high-value-added

ships.''83

In 2014, DSME signed contracts with customers from Russia and Japan for the

construction of several ice class LNG carriers for the transportation of natural gas from the

gas fields in the Yamal Peninsula.84

77

Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 890-891. 78

Young Kil Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' 60. 79


Kyunghee Park, ''South Korea`s Bet on Arctic Shipping Lanes,'' Bloomberg Business, accessed August 10,

2015, http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2013-08-22/south-koreas-bet-on-arctic-shipping-lanes. 81

Ji-sook Bae, ''CJ Korea Express Launches First Arctic Operation,'' The Korea Herald, July 20, 2015,

http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20150720001051. 82



see ''DSME to Build 1st ARC7 Ice-Class Tanker for Yamal,'' World Maritime News, accessed August 11,

2015, http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/106699/dsme-to-build-1st-arc7-ice-class-tanker-for-yamal/, and

''MOL, DSME Pen Yamal LNG Carrier Deal,'' World Maritime News, accessed August 11, 2015,

http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/129860/mol-dsme-pen-yamal-lng-carriers-deal/.

Third, the melting Arctic is also fueling South Korea`s ambition to become a regional

storage and trading hub.85

As mentioned earlier, ports in Gangwoon Province are already

''battling'' with the port of Busan for which one of them will become the main hub for the

NSR.86

Meanwhile, in 2014, South Korea has ''designated two oil terminals in Yeosu and

Ulsan as free-trade zones, where duties for storing and blending imported products will be

exempted. This is aimed at boosting trade and enticing foreign investments needed to

establish the oil hub.''87

Fourth, Arctic energy resources are another area of interest for South Korea. The

country relies on imports to meet about 97% of its energy demand and it is the world`s fifth

largest importer of crude oil and second largest importer of LNG.88

With almost 87 % of its

oil imports and more than 50% of its LNG imports coming from the Middle East, the Arctic

region seems like a vital region for South Korean energy import diversification. According to

Park, the Korean Government is already providing incentives for oil imported from outside

the Middle Eastern region.89

Moreover, South Korea is well equipped to import LNG from

the Arctic since it has the technology and industrial background for such tankers.90

So far,

however, the South Korean Gas Corporation (KOGAS) has acquired a 20% stake in the

Umiak gas field in the Canadian Arctic in 2011.91

South Korea has also shown interest in

methane hydrates. In 2013, it sent its icebreaker Araon to the Beaufort sea in the Canadian

exclusive economic zone under the project called the Canada-Korea-USA Beaufort Sea

Geoscience Research Survey to ''look for subsea permafrost and methane hydrates.''92

Last, an opportunity specifically mentioned by the 2015 Arctic Policy Action plan,

that is, the possible participation of South Korea in the development of Russian ports in the

Far East. Such an activity is crucial for the overall development of the NSR and according to

Park, ''South Korea is discussing its participation in the port renovation projects with Russia`s

85

Ann Koh and Heesu Lee, ''Arctic ice Melt Seen Freeing Way for South Korean Oil Hub,'' Bloomberg

Business, accessed August 11, 2015, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-07-22/arctic-ice-melt-seen-

freeing-way-for-south-korean-oil-hub. 86


Koh and Lee, ''Arctic ice Melt Seen Freeing Way for South Korean Oil Hub.'' 88

''South Korea,'' U.S. Energy Information Administration, accessed August 11, 2015,

http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=KOR. 89



Young Kil Park, ''The Arctic - South Korea`s interests and challenges ahead,'' Baltic Rim Economies, no. 5

(2014): 22. 92

Mia Bennett, ''South Korean Icebreaker Leads Expedition to Canada`s Beaufort Sea for Methane Hydrates,''

Cryopolitics, accessed August 11, 2015, http://cryopolitics.com/2013/09/30/south-korean-icebreaker-leads-

expedition-to-canadas-beaufort-sea-for-methane-hydrates/.

federal and local governments.''93

However, Russia`s current economic recession is an

obstacle to this process.94

Despite the attractive prospects of an ice-free Arctic, South Korean Arctic players and

commentators are well aware of the challenges and limitations associated with the economic

exploitation of the Arctic region. With respect to shipping, challenges like costly icebreaking

and ice-pilot fees, lack of well-trained and experienced crew, difficulties with weather and ice

predictions or the fact that for now container shipping is not feasible for the NSR are often

being cited.95

All this has created a consensus within South Korea that ''the NSR is not

commercially viable in the short-run,'' and that ''South Korea`s maritime industries are

therefore adopting a cautious approach, with no plans to build a specialized commercial

fleet.''96

2. Scientific interests

In recent years, South Korean scientists have been actively contributing to our

scientific understanding of the changes that are taking place in the Arctic region by

conducting research in fields of climate change, Arctic ecosystem and geology.97

However,

upon closer inspection, one can easily recognize that such activism can have positive effects

on the overall competitiveness of the South Korean economy.

Traditionally, South Korea`s economy has been dependent on the manufacturing

industry, however, in recent years, South Korea has understood, that if it wants to retain its

competitive edge in today`s globalized world, it needs to transform into a knowledge based

economy with science in the center of it.98

Even KOPRI announced in April 2013 that is has

''moved into the knowledge based economy R&D.''99

According to Bennett, ''The state`s

interest in science and R&D as a route towards economic advancement is therefore a major

93

Park, ''The Arctic - South Korea`s interests and challenges ahead,'' 22. 94

Ibid. 95

Park, ''The Arctic - South Korea`s interests and challenges ahead,'' 22. 96




Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Korea. 98

Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' 38-39. 99

''History,'' Korea Polar Research Institute.

driver of the country`s northern interests.''100

In 2014, South Korea spent about 3.6% of its

GDP on research and development ranking fifth in the world.101

In February 2013, in her inaugural speech, President Park unveiled her plans for South

Korea`s economic revival by introducing the idea of a 'creative economy.' She described it as

''The convergence of science and technology with industry, the fusion of culture with industry

and the blossoming of creativity made possible by the breaking down of barriers between

industries,'' with science, technology and IT industry at the heart of it.102

However, for South

Korea to build such an economy and to stay competitive it ''requires capabilities for

pioneering and commercializing innovation.''103

In this manner, South Korea`s Chaebols with

their ''Arctic'' shipbuilding and offshore capabilities ''represent the leading edges of Korea`s

economic activities in the Arctic today.''104

Moreover, every South Korean scientific and technological achievement in the Arctic

(and Antarctic for that matter) will have a positive effect of the nation`s brand image which

will ultimately reflect in the credibility of Korea`s enterprises.105

Take the icebreaker Araon

as an example. It is South Korea`s first (and so far only) domestically built icebreaker. Ever

since its commission in 2009, the Araon has been a floating ''promotion'' not only for Korea`s

polar scientific advancements but also for its shipbuilding industry.106

In addition, by

studying and analyzing Arctic climate change, South Korea might be able to forecast new

weather patterns in the region thus contributing to industries that depend on such predictions

like tourism, fishing, shipping and maritime safety. By doing so, South Korea would

undoubtedly enhance its international status as a responsible and reliable member of the

international community. According to Bennett, ''This message typifies a view common in

South Korea that scientific research - especially if its results can be materialized, monetized

and exported - is critical to economic growth.''107

100


''2014 Global R&D Funding Forecast,'' Battelle and R&D Magazine, December 2013, page 7, available at:

http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf. 102

'' The Full text of the 18th Presidential Inauguration Speech,'' Korea.net, accessed August 11, 2015,

http://www.korea.net/Government/Briefing-Room/Presidential-Speeches/view?articleId=105853&pageIndex=5. 103

Sean Connell, ''Korea`s Creative Economy Agenda,'' Asia Pacific Bulletin, no. 6 (2013), available at:

http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/30466/APB%20no.%20229.pdf?sequence=1. 104


Kim, ''South Korea`s Strategic Interests in Antarctica,'' 48. 106

Ibid. 107

Bennett, ''The Maritime Tiger: Exploring South Korea`s Interests and Role in the Arctic,'' 895.

Arctic in South Korean foreign policy

The previous section shows how South Korean Arctic activities and interests may

contribute to the development of South Korean economy, however, if we look at some

foreign policy initiatives of the administrations of ex-President Lee Myung-bak and the

current President Park Geun-Hye, it will become apparent that these administrations were and

still are using the Arctic to attain some of their foreign policy goals. The administration of

former president Lee Myung-bak had introduced the concept of 'Global Korea' with the

ambition “to cultivate our soft power and to bring about a qualitative improvement in the

Republic of Korea’s global standing” as well as “enhancing the value of Korea’s state brand

globally.”108

One of the ways how to attain this was to tackle global warming and climate

change.109

Korea had also introduced the policy of 'Low Carbon, Green Growth' ''as the new

paradigm in response to climate change and the future development of Korea.''110

In this

respect, South Korea initiated a new platform for international cooperation. the Global Green

Growth Institute (GGGI) and was selected to host the UN Green Climate Fund.111

Keun-

Gwan Lee of Seoul National University has noted that “For Korea to grow into a genuine

global player, it is advised to combine its formidable industrial prowess with a heightened

sense of responsibility for the issues of general concern such as the environment and the

rights of indigenous peoples.”112

In the same manner, the former South Korean ambassador to

Norway had declared in his speech during the 2013 Arctic Frontiers Conference that ''the

Arctic region is a place which requires a new approach and a new model more than any other

places on Earth. Korea`s interest in the Arctic region is in line with its endeavor towards

global green growth.''113

108

Cheong Wa Dae, Global Korea: The National Security Strategy of the Republic of Korea (Seoul: Cheong Wa

Dae, 2009), 20, quoted in Heike Hermanns, ''National Role Conceptions in the ‘Global Korea’ Foreign Policy

Strategy,'' The Korean Journal of International Studies 11, no. 1 (2013): 66. 109



Byong-hyun Lee, ''Korea`s Arctic policy - A Korean route towards the Arctic frontier,'' speech at the Arctic

Frontiers Conference, Tromsø, Norway, January 21, 2013, available at

http://www.arcticfrontiers.com/downloads/arctic-frontiers-2013/conference-presentations/monday-21-january-

2013/69-10-byong-hyun-lee/file. 111



quoted in Ken Coates and Kimie Hara, ''Park the Paranoia,'' Policy Options, accessed August 12, 2015,

http://policyoptions.irpp.org/issues/arctic-visions/coates-hara/. 113

Lee, ''Korea`s Arctic policy - A Korean route towards the Arctic frontier.''

Since the new administration of President Park took office in February 2013, there

have been reports that the administration has ''ditched'' Lee`s green growth policies citing

reasons that ''they were too oriented towards economic growth.''114

However, it is safe to say

that climate change issues remained on the national agenda even after the administrations

changed. South Korea`s Foreign Minister stated in July 2015: ''We are committed to

contributing to the science of climate change, as well as to broader research on the polar

regions. That’s why over the past five years, the Araon has been sailing both Arctic and

Antarctic waters with our researchers. And that’s why our scientists spend a good part of the

year at the Dasan Arctic Research Station in Ny-Ålesund, Norway.''115

However, in that same

speech, he also pointed out that the Arctic is a part of an initiative that President Park

introduced in October 2013: ''In fact, for us the Arctic is part of the Eurasia Initiative, which

we are working on as a matter of national strategy.''116

The Eurasia Initiative ''is a cooperation initiative and a grand national strategy put

forward by the Korean government … to make Eurasia a Continent that is truly ''One'', a

Continent of Creativity and a Continent of Peace together with countries in the region for a

brighter future of Eurasia.''117

Out of these three concepts, in relation to the Arctic region, the

'Continent that is truly One' is the most significant one as ''It suggests the realization of the

Silk Road Express (SRX) and its linkage to the Northern Sea Route to build complex

logistics networks, joint energy development, and energy networks connecting different

energy infrastructures.''118

It is apparent that the development and utilization of the Arctic sea

routes plays a significant role in this South Korean cooperation initiative. To use the Foreign

Minister`s words again: ''It is my dream to see the day when East Asia and Europe are

connected both through the trans-continental railways and the Arctic waterways.''119

114

Hyon-hee Shin, '' Park ditches ‘green growth’ in environmental policy shift,'' The Korea Herald, accessed

August 12, 2015, http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20130328000986. 115


Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Korea. 116


Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 117

''Eurasia Initiative,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed August 12, 2015,

http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/image/common/title/res/0707_eurasia_bro.pdf. 118

Hoon Jeh Sung, ''Russian Far East Development and Directions for Improvement in Korean-Russian

Cooperation: Korea`s perspective,'' in International Cooperation in the Development of Russia's Far East and

Siberia, ed. Jing Huang and Alexander Korolev (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015): 153. 119


Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Arctic governance and South Korean bilateral partnerships

South Korea had been an ad hoc observer to the Arctic Council since 2008 until it

received the ''regular'' observer status in May 2013. This event received a lot of attention from

the South Korean domestic media and in many cases ''the articles noted, with enthusiasm, that

Korea will have the opportunity to participate actively and cooperate with the global society`s

response to the Arctic and gain economic benefits through access to Arctic resources and the

NSR.''120

Also, Arctic Council member states were much more forthcoming in welcoming

South Korea in ''their'' regional forum (as opposed to the misgivings they had towards

China).121

Bennett cites three main reasons as to why: (a) South Korea can provide the much

needed 'Arctic' technology like ice-class ships, (b) it can provide investments in resource

extraction and (c) the country is seen as a potential export market for many Arctic

countries.122

Moreover, only recently, in July 2015, according to Yun Byung-se (South

Korea`s Minister of Foreign Affairs), ''President Grimmson of Iceland named Korea as a

model observer member of the Arctic Council. He commended Korea’s proactive

contributions and activities in the Arctic. He also noted that Korea’s vision in the “Master

Plan for Arctic Policy” could serve as an example for other countries.''123

However, despite

such praising, Park points out that since South Korea became the observer to the Arctic

Council, its overall position within the forum has not changed and that it ''still possesses no

voting right and has very limited voice in the council.''124

Therefore, in order to ensure the potential realization of its economic and scientific

interests in the region, South Korea began strengthening its bilateral partnerships with other

Arctic Council member states.125

South Korean Minister of Oceans and Fisheries, Yoo Ki-

june, noted that "The ministry has been working hard over the past year to increase

cooperation with Arctic nations … We will continue to boost our presence in the polar region

120



Ibid. 123


Council,'' Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 124

Park, ''South Korea`s Interests in the Arctic,'' 62. 125

Pavel V. Cherkashin, ''Republic of Korea`s plans about the Arctic exploitation and perspectives of Russian-

Korean cooperation in the Region,'' Arctichub, accessed August 12, 2015,

https://www.arctichub.net/resources/239.

by jointly conducting research with members of the Arctic Council.''126

In this respect, two

countries stand out as South Korea`s main Arctic partners - Norway and Russia.

As mentioned before, former president Lee made an important visit to Norway in

2012. During this trip, the two countries signed two MOU on environment-friendly

shipbuilding and shipping in the High North, moreover, the then Norwegian Prime Minister,

Jens Stoltenberg, declared Norway`s support for South Korean bid for observer status at the

Arctic Council.127

Ever since this visit, South Korea has actively sought to improve its

bilateral relation with Norway through annual cooperation talks and seminars.128

In April

2014, KOPRI and the Norwegian Polar Institute (NPI) signed an agreement to open a joint

polar research center.129

Sigbjørn Tenfjord, the Chargé d'affaires of the Norwegian Embassy

in Seoul at this occasion noted that “Norway and South Korea have cooperated closely on

Arctic issues for quite some time, as both countries have strong interests in the field. The

KOPRI-NPI Cooperative Research Centre is an excellent example of how we can create

mutual gain in bringing the cooperation even further.”130

In addition, in June 2015, the newly

appointed South Korean Ambassador for Arctic Affairs Chan-woo Kim travelled with a

South Korean delegation to Norway where he discussed topics such as the Arctic Council,

maritime questions and scientific cooperation.131

This was the Ambassador’s first trip abroad

in his new position marking ''the second high-level meeting between Norway and South

Korea on issues relating to the High North.''132

The countries also signed a Free Trade

Agreement in 2005 and are each other`s important trading partners.133

If we consider South Korea`s economic interests in the Arctic region, then it could be

argued that Russia is a natural choice for South Korea as an important bilateral partner.

126

Hyo-sik Lee, '' Korea to promote use of Arctic sea route,'' The Korea Times, accessed August 12, 2015.

http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2015/04/123_176669.html. 127

Jae-soon Chang, ''S. Korea, Norway agree on partnership for Arctic development,'' Yonhap News Agency,

accessed August 12, 2015,


''S. Korea, Norway seek to boost cooperation in building Arctic shipping route,'' Yonhap News Agency,

accessed August 12, 2015,

http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/business/2014/11/17/30/0501000000AEN20141117001000320F.html. 129

''Norway and South Korea open Joint Polar Research Centre,'' The Royal Norwegian Embassy in Seoul,

accessed August 12, 2015, http://www.norway.or.kr/News_and_events/Current-affairs/News/Norway-and-

South-Korea-open-Joint-Polar-Research-Centre/#.VctiMPntmko. 130

''Norway and South Korea open Joint Polar Research Centre,'' The Royal Norwegian Embassy in Seoul. 131

''Norway and South Korea successfully holds bilateral dialogue on Arctic issues,'' The Royal Norwegian

Embassy in Seoul. 132

Ibid. 133

Mia M. Bennett, ''North by Northeast: toward an Asian-Arctic region,'' Eurasian Geography and Economics

55, no. 1 (2014): 81.

Russia possesses the much needed natural resources, the main Arctic sea route - the NSR-

goes through its EEZ and also there is the potential for South Korean participation in the

development of Russia`s Far East ports.134

Moreover, South Korea has already exported to

Russia its 'Arctic technology' - the ice-class tankers. In this case, according to Jakobson and

Lee, ''South Korea`s expertise in polar shipbuilding has facilitated its engagement with Russia

on Arctic issues.''135

In 2014, South Korea and Russia also signed a MOU ''to cooperate in

developing five Russian ports.''136

The same year, the two sides held for the first time held

consultations on the possibilities of cooperation in the Arctic.137

After the meeting an official

from the Russian Foreign Ministry stated that ''cooperation in mutually beneficial areas in the

Arctic would become a new promising area of cooperation between Russia and South

Korea.''138

In a same manner, in 2015, South Korean MOF declared that ''"We will also ask

local shipping companies to establish a foothold in ports along Russia's Far East so that they

can more easily use the Arctic route … To do so, we will work with Russia to help it

modernize its ports. We will also nurture crewmen capable of sailing through the Arctic

Ocean, in cooperation with Russian universities."139

South Korea is also interested in Finland`s Arctic expertise. In 2014, they signed a

MOU in which the countries declared ''their agreement to build a partnership and share their

own information and technologies related to maritime safety, environmentally friendly

marine transportation and operation of an Arctic route."140

For South Korea, this was an

important step, since, according to MOF ''Finland possesses vast amount of knowledge and

experience in building ships and operating North Pole routes."141

These are areas on top of

South Korea`s interests in the Arctic.

South Korea has also been strengthening its relations with Denmark. In 2015, officials

from the two countries met to discuss matters related to Arctic navigation and shipping, they

also decided to renew a MOU on maritime shipping by three years till 2018 (the previous one

134





''Russia and South Korea hold first consultations on Arctic cooperation,'' TASS, accessed August 12, 2015,

http://tass.ru/en/russia/718257. 138

Ibid. 139

Lee, '' Korea to promote use of Arctic sea route,'' The Korea Times. 140

''S. Korea, Finland agree to boost marine cooperation,'' Yonhap News Agency, accessed August 13, 2015,

http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2014/11/19/82/1200000000AEN20141119001400320F.html. 141

Ibid.

was signed in 2012 and was supposed to expire in May 2015).142

At the same time, South

Korea enjoys good relations with the resource rich Greenland. They are building on the high-

level meetings that took place in 2012 as well as on the MOU`s signed during that time and

according to Vittus Qujaukitsoq, Greenland`s Minister of Industry, Labor, Trade and Foreign

Affairs, ''Particularly in terms of fishing, mining, research and tourism the potential is great

for extended collaboration.''143

Conclusion

South Korea is sometimes referred to as a 'latecomer' to the arena of Arctic affairs.

Nevertheless, it has made great strides in the past 15 years to make up for this 'deficiency'. It

has opened an Arctic research station and launched its independent Arctic scientific research,

it has constructed its own icebreaker, it has become the observer to the Arctic Council and

built an extensive bilateral network with Arctic states, moreover, the Arctic has been on

South Korea`s national agenda since 2008 and also, South Korea became the first Asian

nation to publish a Arctic policy master plan. The country has a number of domestic actors

with interests in the Arctic region on the governmental, provincial, municipal, institutional,

academic and private sector level as well. In addition, in terms of shipbuilding, it possesses

the necessary Arctic technological knowhow. South Korea has also made it clear, that the

study of the climate change and the sustainable development of the Arctic region (read NSR

shipping, shipbuilding, resource extraction and port development) are its main interests there.

It has also been using the Arctic in its foreign policy: former President Lee used it in his

'Global Korea' strategy and President Park is referring to it in her 'Eurasia Initiative'. All of

this has turned South Korea into an important Arctic stakeholder.

Looking forward, South Korea has declared its intention to strengthen international

cooperation with Arctic states, the Arctic Council and its subsidiary bodies and with the

Permanent Participants through international forums, seminars and scientific research.144

It

also wants to expand its Arctic scientific and technological research and infrastructure,

142

''Strengthening Arctic Marine Cooperation with Denmark,'' Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, accessed

August 13, 2015, http://www.mof.go.kr/article/view.do?menuKey=376&boardKey=10&articleKey=7145 (in

Korean). 143

Svein Magnason, ''South Korea and Greenland Strengthen Ties,'' Nora Region Trends, accessed August 13,

2015, http://www.noraregiontrends.org/politics/politicalnews/article/south-korea-and-greenland-strengthen-

ties/87/. 144

Kim, ''Korea`s Arctic Policy,'' 215.

promote the use of the NSR as an important shipping corridor, develop technology for

shipbuilding and safe navigation for polar-class vessels and offshore plant technology for

deep water resources.145

In addition, South Korea wants to establish an institutional

arrangement for a national polar policy, since according to Kim the present Pan-government

Arctic Policy Master Plan is ''an integrated policy coordinated by various governmental

agencies rather than a single unified national strategy.''146

These main goals, as outlined in the

Master Plan, when coupled with the notion that the actual benefits from the ''Arctic opening''

are a bit exaggerated and limited in some aspects (shipping costs, insufficient port

development along the NSR etc.) present us with the prospect that the South Korean

government is perceiving the Arctic region from a mid- to long-term perspective.147

In short,

South Korea is positioning itself, it is building foundations for its future engagement with the

region in a way that is very beneficial to its national interests and at the same time non-

threatening to the established Arctic powers.

South Korea`s vision for the Arctic region is to be perceived as a reliable and

responsible partner for Arctic cooperation.148

At present, it is in a very unique and

advantageous position to attain this desired status. Its advantage stems from the simple fact

that South Korea is a middle power country and more importantly, it is being perceived as

one by the international community. Unlike China, it is not a rising power threatening to

change the established order, or unlike Japan, is does not have any outstanding territorial

disputes with any major Arctic power. Moreover, South Korea is retaining a certain level of

transparency in pronouncing its Arctic interests by publishing policy documents - like the

Arctic Policy Master Plan. It also has its own Ambassador for Arctic Affairs and it makes

sure that it is promoting its Arctic interests in a non-threatening way while acknowledging the

rights and privileges of the core Arctic powers and the indigenous peoples. In this position of

an middle power engaged in Arctic affairs, South Korea could be playing a bridging role

between the new Asian observer states and the member states of the Arctic Council in e.g.

developing policies affecting everyone engaged in the region thus further elevating South

Korea`s status in the international arena.

145

Ibid. 146

Ibid., 210-211. 147

Park, ''The Arctic - South Korea`s interests and challenges ahead,'' 22-23. 148

Jia-Chul Choi, ''Korea in the Arctic,'' 2014 Arctic Circle, accessed August 13, 2015,

https://vimeo.com/111299399.

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