History Historical records not only from the travels ofJohann Ludwig KrapfandJohannes Rebmannreveal that Kenyans had access to education as far back as 1728 with aSwahilimanuscriptUtendi wa Tambuka(Book of Heraclius) attesting to the fact. The CMS missionaries interacted with locals in the coastal town ofMombasaand set up one of the earliest mission schools in the country atRabaiin 1846.With the expansion of the railway from Mombasa to Uganda, the missionaries expanded their work into Kenya's interior. An attempt to set up a school and mission at Yatta in 1894 was resisted by theKambatribe. The missionaries then penetrated into western Kenya and set up schools and missions. The first school in western Kenya was established at Kaimosi in 1902.During the colonial era, the number of Kenyans with exposure to education steadily increased and a good number of them were privileged to proceed abroad for further education. Among those who furthered their education abroad in the colonial era wereJomo Kenyatta, who attendedWoodbrooke CollegeandLondon School of Economics,Charles Njonjo, who attendedGrays InnLaw School,Peter Mbiyu Koinange, who attendedColumbia University,Mwai Kibakiwho attended London School of Economics,R. Mugo Gatheruwho attendedRoosevelt University,Tom Mboya, who attendedRuskin College, Oxford,Masinde Muliro, who attendedUniversity of Cape Town, Julius Gikonyo Kiano who attendedStanford University,Paul NgeiandBarack Obama Sr., who attended theUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa. Julius Gikonyo Kiano was the first Kenyan to obtain a PhD He returned to Kenya and was instrumental in establishing a school in Githunguri. The trend steadily rose over the years and by the time of independence in 1963, 840,000 African children were attending elementary school.The earliest schools in Kenya

Nairobi European School1. School atRabainear Mombasa established 18462. Nairobi Schoolestablished 1902.3. Friends School Kaimosi, nowKaimosi Friends Primary School, established 19034. Maseno School, established in 19065. Government Indian School or The Duke of Gloucester School, nowJamhuri High School, established 19066. Tumutumu Mission School, now Tumutumu Girls High School established in 1908.7. European Girls' School, now Kenya High School established 1908.8. Thogoto School, now Thogoto Teachers Training College established 1910.9. Kaimosi Girls High School, established 192010. Allidina Visram High School, Mombasa established 192111. Kaimosi Boys High School, established 192112. Kenton College, established 1924 Kijabi 1935 Kileleshwa13. Mang'u High School, established 1925.14. Alliance School, nowAlliance High School (Kenya)established in 1926.15. St. Mary's School Yala, established in 1927.16. Highlands High School, now Moi Girls' High School Eldoret established in 1928.17. Kisii School, established in 1932Pre and post colonial education System

Classroom inAthi River, KenyaKenya began a campaign for free primary education after independence in 1963. Since then, the system of education has undergone transformation twice. Before independence elementary education was based on the colonial system of education.East African Community (7423 SystemIn 1967, Kenya, with Uganda and Tanzania, formed theEast African Community. The three countries adopted a single system of education, the 7423, which consisted of 7 years of primary education, 4 years of secondary education, 2 years of high school and 35 years of university education. Under the system, which was similar to the British system of education, children began their elementary (primary) education at the age of 7 and completed at the age of 13 after sitting for a regional examination known as the East African Certificate of Primary Education (EACPE). After primary education those who passed very well proceeded to secondary school which ended four years later with the writing of the East African Certificate of Education examination (EACE). The highest level of education that qualified one to attend university was attained after two years of high school at that time distinct from secondary school with students sitting for the East African Advanced Certificate of Education (EAACE).Kenya 7423 SystemWith the collapse of the East African community in 1977, Kenya continued with the same system of education but changed the examination names from their regional identity to a national identity. The East African Certificate of Primary Education became the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE), the East African Certificate of Education became the Kenya Certificate of Education (KCE) and the East African Advanced Certificate of Education became the Kenya Advanced Certificate of Education (KACE).844 CurriculumIn 1985 PresidentDaniel arap Moi, introduced the 844 system of education, which adopted 8 years of primary education, 4 years of secondary education and 4 years of university education. With the introduction of the 844 system CPE became KCPE (Kenya Certificate of Primary Education) while KCE became the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE).Since 1985, public education in Kenya has been based on an 844 system,[1][2]with eight years of primary education followed by four years of secondary school and four years of college or university.British CurriculumSome private schools, however, offer a system of education similar to the British system of education with ordinary level exams, "O-levels" taken at the end of 4 years of secondary school and advanced levels "A-levels", taken after two years of high school.this system is the best for the progress of children's brains and is also effective in the colleges and universitiesTransition rates and Overall PerformanceOut of all children in Kenya about 85 percent attend primary school. 75 percent of those who complete primary education proceed to secondary schools and 60 percent of those who complete secondary school proceed to higher institutions of education which include business and vocational institutions, national polytechnics, public and private universities within the country. Over 950,000 Kenyans have furthered their education abroad with a majority of graduates from India, UK, Canada, the United States, Russia and Uganda.Education qualityEducation quality has recently received a lot of attention in Kenya. The government's main document in this effort, the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme for 20052010, established the National Assessment Centre (NAC) to monitor learning achievement. In 2010, the NAC released the results of its first assessment.In 2009, in collaboration with the NAC,Uwezo Kenyaconducted an assessment of the basic literacy and numeracy skills of children ages 616. The Annual Learning Assessment (ALA) reached villages in 70 out of 158 districts in Kenya and assessed nearly 70,000 children in their homes. The ALA was set at a Standard 2 level, which is the level where students are supposed to achieve basic competency in reading English and Kiswahili and complete simple arithmetic problems. The chart below shows the percent of children who could not read a Standard 2 level paragraph or solve Standard 2 level subtraction problems:[3]Level of Children AssessedCannot Read English ParagraphCannot Read Swahili ParagraphCannot Do Subtraction

Standard 285%81%79%

Standard 527%23%30%

Standard 84%4%10%

Key findings about education in Kenya, based on the results of the Uwezo 2009 assessment:[4]1. Literacy levels are low, and are substantially lower in certain regions. Girls tend to perform better in reading English and Kiswahili, while boys tend to perform better in math.2. Literacy levels are lower in public schools than private schools.3. Most children can solve real world, ethno-mathematics problems, while fewer can solve similar math problems in an abstract, pencil and paper format.4. 5% of children are not enrolled in school, but the problem is far worse in particular regions.5. About half of children are enrolled in pre-school.6. Many children are older than expected for their class level, including 40% of children in class 2, and 60% of children in class 7.7. North Eastern Province and arid districts in Rift Valley and Eastern Provinces have particularly low performance; and many older children, especially girls, are not attending school.8. Many families pay for extra tuition, which focuses heavily on drilling and exam preparation.9. Schools struggle to plan their budgets because they receive funds at unpredictable times.10. Children whose mothers are educated, particularly beyond primary school, tend to have much higher rates of literacy and numeracy.11. About 15% of students are absent on a given day, with much higher absenteeism in certain districts as a result of increased poverty level.12. There is a severe shortage of teachers, estimated at 4 teachers per school.13. the reluctance of the government to invest in educational institutions in marginalised areas thereby developing schools in cities only which result in inefficient education process in arid and semi-arid areas14. embezzlement of public funds by school administrators and lack of accountability of the use of government grants and high levels of corruption in educational institutionsPrimary educationPrimary education in Kenya begins at the age of 6 or 7 after completion of a year of kindergarten commonly known as Nursery School or pre-unit. The first class or year of primary school is known as Standard 1, the final year as Standard 8 and primary school children are known as pupils. The school year at both primary and secondary levels, begins in January and ends in November. Students get 3 school vacations in April, August and December. At the end of the school year students advance to the next grade. Students who completely fail their end of year exams usually repeat the class the following year instead of advancing to a higher grade. Most primary schools are day schools with pupils living at home. Fewer schools at primary level are boarding schools compared to secondary schools. All public primary school pupils sit for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education examination at the end of the school year in Standard eight.In January 2003 PresidentMwai Kibakire-introduced free primary education which previously existed before the mid 80s when the government adopted cost sharing measures that led to a minor level of school fees charged by primary schools for text books, PTA, and extra curricular activities. Since 2003, education in public schools became free and universal (but not compulsory) On learning that primary education had once again become free in Kenya,Kimani Maruge, an uneducated farmer and the world's oldest person to enroll in primary school joined Kapkenduiywo primary school inEldoretat the age of 84. He was elected head boy at the age of 86 in 2005.Secondary educationSecondary schools in Kenya fall into three categories government funded, harambee and private. Government funded schools are divided into national, provincial and district levels. Harambee schools do not receive full funding from the government and private schools are run by private organisations or individuals. After taking the primary school leaving exam and successfully passing, government funded schools select students in order of scores. Students with the highest scores gain admission into national schools while those with average scores are selected into provincial and district schools. Harambee schools accept students with low scores. Students who fail examinations either repeat the final school year or pursue technical training opportunities. A number of students also drop out of school by choice due to poor scores.Under the current system, students attend secondary school for four years before sitting for the school leaving exam at the end of the fourth year. The first class or year of secondary school is known as form 1 and the final year is form 4. At the end of the fourth year, from October to November students sit for theKenya Certificate of Secondary Educationexamination. In 2008, the government introduced plans to offer free Secondary education to all Kenyans.Historic prestigious national high schools includeMang'u High School,Alliance High School (Kenya)andStarehe Boys' Centre and School. Private secondary schools in Kenya are generally high cost, offering students an alternative system of education with better or more luxurious facilities compared to public schools. They are often favoured for prestige. Most private schools in Kenya offer the British system of education which includes O-levels and A-levels. Very few offer the American system of education and good number of them offer the Kenya system. Some of the oldest private schools in Kenya include Loreto Convent Msongari, Nairobi (1921),St. Mary's School, Nairobi, Braeburn School, Consolata School,Strathmore School,Oshwal Academy,Rift Valley Academy,Aga Khan Academy, Kenton College andBrookhouse School,KCSE grading system[edit sourceGradeAA-B+BB-C+CC-D+DD-E

Points121110987654321

The average grade is based on performance in the eight subjects. Where a candidate sits for more than eight subjects, the average grade is based on the best eight subjects. University matriculation is based on the best eight and performance in particular subjects relevant to degree courses. Example below:SubjectGroupGradePoints

English1B+10

Kiswahili1A-11

Mathematics1A12

History & Government3B9

Geography3A-11

Physics2B+10

Chemistry2B-8

Biology2A-11

The total number of points is 81.The average grade is 81 divided by 8, which equals 10.1 (approximately 10.0 points) which is Grade B+ according to the grading system. This student qualifies to join one of the Public Universities for his good score. Training institutions and faculties and departments determine their own minimum entry requirements.Students who manage a grade of C+ qualify to do a degree course at the university. Owing to competition, and fewer places at the University, those with B and in a few cases B-, and above are taken for degree courses at thepublicuniversities and benefit by paying government-subsidised fees. The rest joinprivateuniversities or middle-level colleges.Interestingly, the number of students admitted to public universities through J.A.B. depends on the total number of beds available in all the public universities. Nonetheless, those who miss out but attained the minimum university entry mark of C+ or C with a relevant diploma certificate are admitted through the parallel degree programmes (module II) if they can afford the full fees for the course.This has been the subject of much discussion with people questioning the rationale and morality of locking out qualified students from public institutions yet still admitting those who come from financially able families.Vocational schools and collegesThese are two- or three-year post secondary school institutions also termed colleges. They award certificates, diplomas and higher national diplomas after successful completion of relevant courses. Courses offered by these institutions include Business Education, Accounting, Secretarial Studies, Nursing, Teacher Training, Computer Studies, Journalism, Media, Design, Culinary Studies, Foreign Languages, Tourism and Technical Skills. In order of credibility or accreditation, national polytechnics rank first, followed by government training institutes, teacher training colleges and private institutions. Although generally termed colleges, these institution do not award degrees. Degrees are only awarded by universities.University educationThere are48 universitiesin Kenya, 22 of which are public and 26 private. The University of Nairobi is the oldest university in Kenya.Factors affecting education in KenyaIn 1963 the Kenyan government promised free primary education to its citizens. In the early 70s primary school fees were abolished but in the mid 80s cost-sharing measures between the government and its citizens led to the re-introduction of minor fee charges by primary schools. As the trend continued with schools requiring parents to pay fees such as PTA, harambee, textbooks, uniforms, caution fees, exam fees and extracurricular activity fees, most parents became overburdened and unable to raise such fees. Those who could not afford the money to pay for their children's school fees often had their children drop out of the school. Many children were also forced to drop out of school when teachers would not allow them to take exams. To pressurise parents to pay fees, schools often sent children home during the final exams.The growth of Kenya's education sector has exceeded expectations. After the first university was established in 1970, six other public universities and 23 private universities have been established. Although Kenya has its own universities, some parents prefer to send their children to universities outside the country. This is largely because Kenyan public universities are not as flexible with admission requirements as some foreign universities.Education in South AfricaEducation in South Africais governed by two national departments, namely thedepartment of Basic Education(DBE), which is responsible for primary and secondary schools, and thedepartment of Higher Education and Training(DHET), which is responsible for tertiary education and vocational training. Prior to 2009, these two departments were represented in a singleDepartment of Education.The DBE department deals with public schools, private schools (also referred to by the department as independent schools), early childhood development (ECD) centres, and special needs schools. The public schools and private schools are collectively known as ordinary schools, and comprise roughly 97% of schools in South Africa.The DHET department deals with further education and training (FET) colleges, adult basic education and training (ABET) centres, and higher education (HE) institutions.The nineprovincesin South Africa also have their own education departments that are responsible for implementing the policies of the national department, as well as dealing with local issues.In 2010, the basic education system comprised 12 644 208 learners, 30 586 schools, and 439 394 teachers.[1]In 2009, the higher education and training system comprised 837 779 students in HE institutions, 420 475 students in state-controlled FET institutions and 297 900 in state-controlled ABET centres.[2]In 2013, the South African government will spend 21% of the national budget on education. Some ten percent of the education budget is for higher education.[3]Total spending on education in 2011 was 6 percent of GDP.[4]According to thenational census of 2011, among the South African population, 35.2% of black/African, 32.6% of coloureds, 61.6% of Indians/Asians and 76% of white citizens have completed an education of high school or higher. 41.7% of the total population has completed an education of high school or higher, whereas 8.6% of the population aged 20 years and older has not completed any schooling.[5]Structure and policies[edit source|editbeta]Education is represented in parliament by two ministers of education who each head one department, as follows:1. The department of Higher Education and Training, headed by DrBlade Nzimande; and2. Minister of Basic Education, MrsAngie Motshekga, Deputy Minister of Basic Education, MrEnver Surty.Each of these departments is headed by a Director General as follows:1. Director General:Higher Education and Training, Ms Mary Metcalfe; and2. Director General: Basic Education, Mr Bobby SoobrayanFunding for these departments is derived fromcentral governmenttaxes. Schools have head masters and universities have chancellors who head their respective governing bodies. Policies are set by the departments through their ministers.Execution of policies is the responsibility of the heads of the governing bodies of schools and universities. The department pays for teachers salaries of government schools, while private schools are mostly self funded by parents. It should be noted that former whites-only government schools (commonly referred to by the defunct term "Model C") are, in fact, government schools.Basic Education System (primary and secondary schools)[edit source

The DBE officially groups grades into two "bands" called General Education and Training (GED), which includes grade 0 plus grades 1 to 9, and Further Education and Training (FET), which includes grades 10-12 as well as non-higher education vocational training facilities.The GED band is subdivided further into "phases" called the Foundation Phase (grade 0 plus grade 1 to 3), the Intermediate Phase (grades 4 to 6), and the Senior Phase (grades 7 to 9).The administrative structure of most ordinary schools in South Africa do not reflect the division of bands and phases, however. For historical reasons, most schools are either "primary" schools (grade R plus grades 1 to 7) or "secondary" schools, also known as high schools (grades 8 to 12).Optional gradesSome home schools and private schools offer the option to complete an additional year after grade 12, sometimes known as grade 13 or "post-matric". The South African governmental school system does not have a grade 13, but it forms part of non-South African curriculums that are sometimes followed by private schools in South Africa. The DBE's Foundation Phase includes a pre-school grade known as grade R, for "reception". Grade R is not compulsory, and not all primary schools offer grade R. Grade R may also be attended at a pre-school facility. Other grades that can be completed at a pre-school centre include grade 0, grade 00 and grade 000. There is some confusion as to whether grade 0 and grade R is the same thing, as different schools use the terminology differently. Learner ratiosAccording to the DBE's 2010 statistics report (published in 2012), on average there are 30 learners per teacher, 475 learners per school, and 16 teachers per school. The ratio of learners per teacher is roughly the same in all provinces, but the ratio of learners per school varies per province. For example, in Gauteng there are 800 learners per school and 28 teachers per school, whereas in the Eastern Cape there 350 learners per school and 12 teachers per school.School income and expensesSchools in South Africa receive a grant from government for their operational costs, such as maintaining the grounds, administrative costs, salaries, books and educational materials, and extra-mural activities. Most schools supplement the government grant with other streams of income, such as school fees paid by parents, fundraising events, and receiving donations.Generally, higher school fees prevent poorer children from attending affluent schools. There is no limit to the amount of the fees that a school may set. Parents may apply to the school for full or partial reduction of school fees, and many affluent schools do provide financial assistance to a small number of learners (for example, if the parents are alumni), but it is not a legal requirementChildren at South African schools are usually required to wear school uniforms, which can be expensive and are not provided for free, although it is often possible to buy them second-hand. Most schools offer extra mural activities such as a variety of sports and cultural activities, which requires money to maintain. Many schools maintain their own sports fields as well.The size of the grant paid by government is determined largely by the poverty level of the neighbourhood in which the school is situated, as well as unemployment rate and general education rate of the population in that neighbourhood. Consequently, schools in more affluent areas have to raise more money from other sources to maintain the same standard of education, but schools from affluent areas often have so much additional income that their standard of education is much higher than that of less affluent schools anyway.The size of the government grant per child depends on the "quintille" of the school. In 2009, schools in quintille 1 (the poorest) and quintille 2 received R807 and R740 per child per year, respectively, where as schools in quintille 4 and quintille 5 (the richest) received R404 and R134 per child per year. Schools in quintille 1-3 may apply for classification as a "No Fee" school. 5% of all schools are quintille 5 schools, and 15% of all schools are quintille 4 schools. Sample school feesSchools are not required to publish their school fees publicly and many schools are secretive about it, but here are some examples of school fees in non-private schools in South Africa: Settler's High, Bellville: R15200 per child per year Monument Park High, Constantia: R9000 per child per yearPoverty and school feesSchools may not refuse admission to children who live in the immediate vicinity of the school. Schools may not refuse entry to children or refuse to hand over report cards even if their parents neglect to pay the school fees, but schools are permitted to sue parents for non-payment of school fees.Since 1996, children whose parents are very poor are legally exempt from some or all school fees. Since 1998, the formula is as follows: If the combined annual income of the parents is less than ten times the annual school fee, the child is legally exempt from paying school fees. If the income is more than ten times the school fee but less than thirty times the school fee, the child is legally entitled to a specific reduction in school fees. In practice, these regulations help only very poor families, and not worker-class and middle-income families.Orphans and children of parents who receive poverty-linked social grants are also exempt from paying school fees. Since 2006 the Education department offers the following incentive to the poorest 40% of schools: if the school charges no school fees, the education department increases the grant to make up for the lack of income from school fees. It was originally planned to increase this incentive to the poorest 60% of schools by 2009. The incentive only applies to children in the GED band, and children who wish to complete grade 10-12 must still pay the full fee.In 2008, some 5 million learners in 14 264 schools benefited from the No Fee school programme, and most of those learners were in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces. Not all schools who qualify for this incentive make use of it.Private schoolsPrivate schools, also known as independent schools, are schools that are not owned by the state. They are usually owned and operated by a trust, church or community, or by a for-profit company. Not all private schools in South Africa charge high school fees. Certain private schools also receive a grant from the state, depending on the community served and fees charged. Higher Education and Training SystemFor university entrance, a "Matriculation Endorsement" is required, although some universities do set their own additional academic requirements. South Africa has a vibrant higher sector, with more than a million students enrolled in the countrys universities, colleges and universities of technology. All the universities are autonomous, reporting to their own councils rather than government.Restructuring of universities and technikonsThe Extension of Universities Act of 1959 made provision for separate universities for separate races. In addition, the independent homelands were given universities of their own. After the re-incorporation of the independent homelands, there were 36 universities and technikons in South Africa, often in close proximity and offering the same courses. In 1994, the government embarked on a restructure of theuniversities and technikonsby a series of mergers and incorporations. This was completed by January 2005. It created 22 new institutions from the previous 36. Ten of the universities got new names.History1806 to 1900The earliest European schools in South Africa were established in theCape Colonyin the late seventeenth century byDutch Reformed Churchelders committed to biblical instruction, which was necessary for church confirmation. In rural areas, itinerant teachers (meesters) taught basic literacy and math skills. British mission schools proliferated after 1799, when the first members of theLondon Missionary Societyarrived in the Cape Colony.[18]Language soon became a sensitive issue in education. At least two dozen English-language schools operated in rural areas of the Cape Colony by 1827, but their presence rankled among devout Afrikaners, who considered theEnglish languageand curriculum irrelevant to rural life and Afrikaner values. Throughout the nineteenth century, Afrikaners resisted government policies aimed at the spread of the English language andBritish values, and many educated their children at home or in the churches. After British colonial officials began encouraging families to emigrate from Britain to the Cape Colony in 1820, the Colonial Office screened applicants for immigration for background qualifications. They selected educated families, for the most part, to establish a British presence in the Cape Colony, and after their arrival, these parents placed a high priority on education. Throughout this time, most religious schools in the eastern Cape acceptedXhosachildren who applied for admission, and in Natal many otherNguni-speaking groups sent their children to mission schools after the mid-nineteenth century. The government also financedteacher trainingclasses for Africans as part of its pacification campaign throughout the nineteenth century.By 1877 some 60 percent of school-age children in Natal were enrolled in school, as were 49 percent in the Cape Colony. After theBoer War(ended 1902) in the former Afrikaner republics, however, enrolments remained lowonly 12 percent in theOrange Free Stateand 8 percent in theTransvaalprimarily the result of Afrikaner resistance to British education. Enrolments in these republics increased after the government of the Union agreed to the use ofAfrikaansin the schools and to allow Afrikaner parents greater control over primary and secondary education. By the late nineteenth century, three types of schools were receiving government assistanceward schools, or small rural schools generally employing one teacher; district schools, providing primary-level education to several towns in an area; and a few secondary schools in larger cities. But during the last decades of that century, all four provinces virtually abolished African enrolment in government schools. African children attended mission schools, for the most part, and were taught by clergy or by lay teachers, sometimes with government assistance. Higher education was generally reserved for those who could travel to Europe, but in 1829 the government established the multiracialSouth African College, which later became theUniversity of Cape Town. Religious seminaries accepted a few African applicants as early as 1841. In 1852 the independent state of Transvaal and in 1854 the Orange Free State established their own institutions of higher learning in Dutch. The government established Grey Collegelater theUniversity of the Orange Free StateinBloemfonteinin 1855 and placed it under the supervision of the Dutch Reformed Church. The Grey Institute was established inPort Elizabethin 1856; Graaff-Reinet College was founded in 1860. The Christian College was founded atPotchefstroomin 1869 and was later incorporated into theUniversity of South Africaand renamedPotchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education. 1900 to 1948Following the British victory in theSouth African War, the British High Commissioner for Southern Africa,Sir Alfred Milner, brought thousands of teachers from Britain, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand to instil the English language and British cultural values, especially in the two former Afrikaner republics. To counter the British influence, a group of Afrikaner churches proposed an education program, Christian National Education, to serve as the core of the school curriculum. The government initially refused to fund schools adopting this program, butJan C. Smuts, the Transvaal leader who later became prime minister, was strongly committed to reconciliation between Afrikaners and English speakers, and he favoured local control over many aspects of education. Provincial autonomy in education was strengthened in the early twentieth century, and all four provincial governments used government funds primarily to educate whites. TheNational Party(NP) was able to capitalise on the fear of racial integration in the schools to build its support. The NP's narrow election victory in 1948 gave Afrikaans new standing in the schools, and after that, all high-school graduates were required to be proficient in both Afrikaans and English. The NP government also reintroduced Christian National Education as the guiding philosophy of education.[18]1948 to 1974Prior to 1953, many black people attended schools set up by religions organisations. These schools provided schooling of the same quality that white children received in state schools. Following theBantu Education Act(No. 47) of 1953 the government tightened its control over religious high schools by eliminating almost all financial aid, forcing many churches to sell their schools to the government or close them entirely. The South African government implemented an educational system called Christian National Education (CNE). The basis of this system is that a person's social responsibilities and political opportunities are defined by that person's ethnic identity.Although CNE advanced principles of racial inferiority, it also promoted teaching ofcultural diversityand enforced mother-tongue instruction in the first years of primary school. The government also gave strong management control to the school boards, who were elected by the parents in each district. In 1959, the Extension of University Education Act prohibited established universities from accepting most black students, although government did create universities for black, coloured, and Indian students. The number of schools for blacks increased during the 1960s, but their curriculum was designed to prepare children for menial jobs. Per-capita government spending on black education slipped to one-tenth of spending on whites in the 1970s. Black schools had inferior facilities, teachers, and textbooks. 1974 to 1983In 1974, the Minister of Bantu Education and Development issued a degree commonly known as the "Afrikaans medium decree" in which the use of both English and Afrikaans was made compulsory in black secondary schools. In terms of this decree, physical science and practical subjects would be taught in English, mathematics and social science subjects would be taught in Afrikaans, and music and cultural subjects would be taught in the learner's native language. The Minister said that the reason for this decree was to ensure that black people can communicate effectively with both English and Afrikaans speaking white people.This decree was unpopular with learners and teachers alike, particularly in towns like theJohannesburgtownship ofSoweto, where practically no-one spoke Afrikaans. Tensions over language in education erupted into violence on 16 June 1976, when students took to the streets in Soweto and eventually in other towns and cities in the country. The schools suffered further damage as vandals damaged or destroyed school property. Students who tried to attend school and their teachers were attacked, and school staff found it increasingly difficult to maintain normal school activities.1984 to 1990The National Policy for General Affairs Act (No. 76) of 1984 provided some improvements in black education but maintained the overall separation called for by the Bantu education system.The Department of Education and Training was responsible for black education outside the homelands. Each of the three houses of parliamentfor whites, coloureds, and Indianshad an education department for one racial group, and each of the ten homelands had its own education department. In addition, several other government departments managed specific aspects of education. Education was compulsory for all racial groups, but at different ages, and the law was enforced differently. Whites were required to attend school between the ages of seven and sixteen. Black children were required to attend school from age seven until the equivalent of seventh grade or the age of sixteen, but this law was enforced only weakly, and not at all in areas where schools were unavailable. For Asians and coloured children, education was compulsory between the ages of seven and fifteen. Teacher: pupil ratios in primary schools averaged 1:18 in white schools, 1:24 in Asian schools, 1:27 in coloured schools, and 1:39 in black schools. Moreover, whereas 96 percent of all teachers in white schools had teaching certificates, only 15 percent of teachers in black schools were certified. Secondary-school pass rates for black pupils in the nationwide, standardised high-school graduation exams were less than one-half the pass rate for whites. 1990 to 1993The White education system was restructured, in anticipation of democracy, by the apartheid government. From the beginning of 1991, white schools were required to select one of four "Models" "Model A", "Model B", "Model C", or "Model D". "Model C", was a semi-private structure, with decreased funding from the state, and greatly increased autonomy for schools. Although most white schools opted for thestatus quo, by 1993, due to government policy, 96% of white public schools became "Model C" schools. Although the form of "Model C" was abolished by the post-apartheid government, the term is still commonly used to describe former whites-only government schools, as of 20131994 to 1997Under Apartheid South Africa, there were multiple education departments that followed different curricula, and offered different standards of learning quality. This included nation-wide departments for coloured people, for Indians and for black people, a department for independent schools, and provincial departments for white people in each of the former four provinces, as well asBantustaneducation departments.In terms of the1993and1996constitutions, the Mandela government restructured these departments as well as tertiary education departments, splitting responsibilities between nine newly formed provincial education departments and a single national education department. It also set about reforming the educational system by first removing all racially offensive and outdated content and then introducing continuous assessment into schools. TheSouth African Schools Act, 1996was promulgated to "provide for a uniform system for the organisation, governance and funding of schools".1997 to 2005In 1997 the government launched its new educational system called Curriculum 2005, which would be based on "outcomes based education" (OBE). By 2006 it was clear that OBE as a social experiment had failed, and it was quietly shelved. 2006 until now[Prior to 2009, schools taught English only from grade 3 (and all subjects are taught in English from grade 4), and since 2009, schools teach English from grade 1 (and all subjects are taught in English from grade External links The Specialist Schools and Academies Trust in South Africa National Department of Education Education in South Africa at SouthAfrica.info Education in South Africa from the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality http://www-sul.stanford.edu http://www.education.gov.za SA's human development index is rising 2 February 2011 A document in the public domain Tertiary Education Options in South Africa