Sources and Collection of Data

8/4/2019 Sources and Collection of Data

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Sources and collection of data

Chapter contents:

Sources and collection of data-primary and secondary-modes of data collection-communication andobservation, survey method, interviews-instruments fordata collection-questionnaire, schedules; effectivenessand limitations- preparation of questionnaire- pilottesting, factors affecting responses to a questionnaire,

sampling and non sampling errors


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Sources and kinds of data

Data are facts and other relevant materials, past andpresent, serving as bases for study and analysis

Data forms the basis for testing the hypothesisformulated in a study.

Data provides the facts and figures for measurement,which are analyzed with statistical techniques to findanswers for questions.

There are two sources of data-primary and secondary

sources. Primary sources are original sources from whichresearcher collects data directly that have not beencollected earlier


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Sources of data

Secondary source contain data which have beencollected and compiled for another purpose.

Census reports, annual reports of Governmentdepartments, financial statements of banks, reports of

national sample survey organization, UNO, IMF etc., The data may be published one or unpublished

Secondary data can be used as reference purposes,bench marks to test the findings and as the sole source

of information for research project. SD can be secured quickly and cheaply, coverage ofwide geographical area broadens the data base forscientific generalizations and provides empirical support


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Methods of collecting primary data

When secondary data are not available or inadequate or obsolete,primary data should be collected. In social sciences- social surveys,attitudinal studies, economic studies, rural community studies, tvviewing, radio listening etc.,-primary data are essential.

The popular methods of collecting data are observation,interviewing, mail survey, experimentation, simulation, projectivetechniques

The choice of methods depends upon nature of the study (collection

of opinions), the unit of enquiry, the size of the sample, theeducational level of respondents, depth of information required, theavailability of skilled and trained man power and rate of accuracyrequired


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Observation method

Observation-meaning and characteristics (physical and mental,selective, purposive, grasps the significant events and should beexact and measurable by standardized tools)

Types of observations-participant, non participant, direct, indirect,

controlled and uncontrolled

Advantages- direct perception, no artificiality, verification isfacilitated, less bias, easy to conduct, recording is possible andcontinuity

Disadvantages: past can not be observed, not suitable to studyattitudes and opinions, it is always random, event should happen,

slow and expensive.


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Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages- direct perception, no artificiality,verification is facilitated, less bias, easy toconduct, recording is possible and continuity

Disadvantages: past can not be observed, notsuitable to study attitudes and opinions, it isalways random, event should happen, slow and

expensive.


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Suitability of the method

To study the behaviour of human beings and socialgroups, life styles, customs and manner, inter personalrelations, group dynamics, crowd behaviour etc

To study the behaviour of other living creatures

Physical characteristics of inanimate things like stores,factories residencies etc.,

Flow of traffic and parking problems

Movement of materials/ products through plant


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Survey method

Surveys are conducted in case of descriptive research studies

Samples are large in size

They are conducted to study the relationships that exist, opinionsheld and processes being in vogue

Surveys are of field research and concerned with hypothesis testing Survey may be census survey or sample survey or social survey,

economic survey, public opinion survey

Interview or questionnaire, opinionnaire, case study, mail methodsare adopted.


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Interview method

Two way systematic conversation between investigatorand an informant

The method is superior to other methods of datagathering. Needed for qualitative and confidentialinformation

Advantages: In depth probing possible, percentage ofresponses is more,

Different scoring patterns be used, accuracy anddependability of information can be verified, flexibleaccording to situations


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Interview method

Features: The participants are strangers,relationship is temporary, conversationwith a purpose, mode of obtaining verbal

answers, possible over telephone,clarifications can be given for clarity and itis not like chemical process

Types: structured or directive,unstructured or non directive, focused,clinical, depth interview


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Interview method

Problems of Interview: Inadequateresponse, non response, interviewers bias

Non availability, refusal, inability,inaccessibility

Telephone interviews

Group interviews


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Schedules and questionnaires

Schedules are questions relating to the topic, canvassedin personal interview

Questionnaires are schedules, sent by mail, for whichresponses are obtained

Schedules and questionnaires contain set of questionsrelating to topic of research, the former is recorded byresearcher and the latter is recorded by the respondents

Questions are arranged in sequence after a thoroughprocess of construction


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Process of construction

Determine what data are required for fulfilling theobjectives and testing the hypothesis

If you can not imagine the extent questions, conduct pilotstudy and find out from experts what questions can beincorporated

Prepare dummy tables to find out gaps in the light ofobjectives

Determine the target respondents and their level ofgrasping

Determine the sequence of questions


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Process of Construction

Structure the questions carefully

Divide the questions section-wise like A,B,C, etc.,

Wording of the questions with clarity: open ended

questions, two choice questions, multiple choicequestions, declarative questions, etc.,

Avoid leading questions

Avoid loaded questions

Avoid ambiguous questions, double barreled, long anddouble negative questions


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Process of construction

Mandatory items:

Name of the organization, the title of the study, theconfidentialness of the data, serial number of questions,adequate space to fill the answers, page number of thequestionnaire to be put, instructions to fill thequestionnaire, use of good variety of paper and print,margins , Indentation and note of thanks


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Sampling Error

There are two types of errors, namely sampling and non samplingerrors

Sampling error is the difference between the sample statistic andpopulation parameter. For example the mean marks obtained by500 students in a subject is 51 and the mean marks of the sample of50 drawn from the above population is 51.8. The difference is knownas sampling error.

It is due to mistakes committed in selecting the sample from thepopulation.

The difference between the mean value of one sample and themean value of another sample drawn from the same population isalso called sampling error.

Lower the sampling error, greater is the reliability and vice versal


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Sampling Error

Non sampling error is caused by mistakescommitted by researcher either in totaling,placing the values in the correct position or

any such calculations


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Process and analysis of data-Editing

Editing, coding, classification and tabulation are thesteps involved in the process of data, fit for furtheranalysis.

Editing is careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaireor schedules. Editing is done to ensure accuracy,confirmity with the rules of consistency and uniformity ofthe facts recorded aligning with the objectives

Elimination of certain answers, repeated answers, and

no answers.


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Coding

Coding is assigning numerals or other symbols toanswers for the purpose of classification.

For example, the question iswhat is the nature of yourcompany? The answer can be private company, publiccompany, public sector company, government company,cooperative organisation, foreign company.

For every answer, codes are given like pvt, pu, psu, gov,coop, fogn.

This makes it easy to group them under differentcategories.


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classification

Classification is the process of arranging data intosequences and groups according to their commoncharacteristics or separating them into different butrelated parts.

The number of students registered in X University for theyear 2009 can be classified on the basis of sex, age,states from which they hail, religion,category (sc/st /gen),specializations, institutions and so on

In Socio economic survey, the family budget can beclassified under the following heads-food, clothing, fueland lighting, house rent, miscellaeous etc.,


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Types of classification

Geographical, chronological, qualitative and quantitative

Agricultural output of different states during 2008(In lakhtons) ; population of India during 20th century (decadewise); Population-male and female- smokers and nonsmokers-Hindus, muslims, christians during 2005

Daily earnings (in 000 Rs) of 60 department stores-upto10, 11 to 20,21 to 30, etc., and the number of stores

Classification condenses the data, facilitatescomparison, study the relationship, facilitates statisticaltreatment


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Tabulation

Systematic presentation of the information contained inthe data, in rows and columns in accordance with somesalient features or characteristic features.

Parts of a table: Table number, title, head note, captionsand stubs, body of the table, foot note, source note.

Headings or designations for vertical columns areknown as captions and designations for the horizontalrows are known as stubs

Present the following information in a suitable tabularform supplying the figures not directly given


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Tabulation

In 1995, out of 2000 workers in a factory, 1550 weremembers of a trade union. The number of womenworkers employed was 250, out of which 200 did notbelong to any trade union..

In 2000, the number of union workers was 1725 of which1600 were men. The number of non union workers was380, among which 155 were women.


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Problem of tabulation

Tabulate the following: A leading departmental store divided into fivemain sections-grocery, vegetables, medicines, textiles, andnovelties.-recorded the following sales in 1991, 1992and 1993:

In 1991, the sales in grocery, vegetables, medicines and novelties wereRs.6,25,000, 2,20,000, 1,88,000 and 94 000 respectively. Textilesaccounted for 30% of the total sales during the years.

In 1992, the total sales showed10% increase over the previous year.While grocery and vegetables registered 8% and 10% increaseovertheir corresponding figures in 1991, medicines dropped byRs.13,000, textiles stood at Rs. 5,36,000

In 1993, though the total sales remained the same as in 1992, groceryfell by Rs.22,000, vegetables by Rs.32,000, medicines by Rs.10000and novelties by Rs.12,000.


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Report writing

Report writingrole;

Types of reports-written;

contents of research report-

steps involved in draft report- references-

appendix,

bibliography,

criteria for evaluation


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Report writing

Research report is a means for communicating ourresearch experiences and adding to the fund ofknowledge

It contains problem studied, methods used for studying ,

findings and conclusions of the study

The functions of RR are- it is a basic reference materialfor future, means to judge the quality of the completedresearch project, means to judge the researchers ability,

a base for formulating policies and strategies relating tosubject matter, systematic knowledge on problems andissues analysed


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Types of reports

Technical report, popular report, interim report, summaryreport, research abstract.

Technical report is meant for academic community andmore technical in nature. The usual process of any

research like problem, process, methodology,experimentation, sources of data and analysis of dataand results, recommendations are contained in this

Popular report aims at administrators and executivesand it is addressed to different audience. Complicated

statistical techniques and tables need not be used. Itcontains more pictorial representations. A brief abstractfollowed by findings, conclusions and recommendationsis presented and more journalistic in nature.


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Types of reports

Interim report: If there is a long gap between datacollection and results, especially in a sponsored projects,a short report is presented in between, highlighting theobjectives and the work of analysis so far carried

through. The intension is to keep the interests of theagencies alive to prevent the misunderstandings aboutthe delay.

Summary report: It is prepared for the audience of

general public. It is written in simple language, in nontechnical terms, and using profusely pictorial anddiagrammatic presentations.


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Types of reports

Research Abstract: This is a shortsummary of technical report. This isprepared by Ph.D scholars before

submitting the main thesis. It contains inbrief the objectives, methodology adopted,major results and conclusions and

recommendations for evaluation purposes


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Contents of research report

Report Outline:

A. Prefactory items: TITLE PAGE, RESEARCHERSDECLARATION, THE CERTIFICATE OF THERESEARCH SUPERVISOR, PREFACE OR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, TABLE OF CONTENTS,LIST OF TABLES, LIST OF GRAPHS AND CHARTS,ABSTRACT OR SYNOPSIS

B. Body of the report: 1. Introduction:- Theoreticalbackground of the topic, statement of the problem,

review of literature, the scope of the present study, theobjectives of the study, hypothesis to be tested,definition of concepts, conceptual model


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Contents of report

2. The design of the study: methodology, methods ofdata collection, souces of data, sampling plan, datacollection instruments, field work, data processing andanalysis plan, an overview of the report and limitations of

the study 3. Results: findings and discussions

4. Summary, conclusions and recommendations

C. Terminal items:

Bibliography, appendix: copies of data collectioninstruments, technical details on sampling plan, complextables, glossary of new terms used in the report


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Contents of report

General principles of writing the report: Type on one sideof every page, numbering the pages, style of Englishused, Headings are used for every section, paragraphheadings, accuracy, clarity, coherence and readability,

grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, writing inthird person, using more of active voice, use presenttense, quotation marks, acknowledgement for usingquotations through foot note, using italics, not using

abbreviations etc.,


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Criteria for evaluation

The appropriateness of the title

Importance of the problem

Problem formulation

Review of related literature Soundness of methodology

Data analysis

Contributions of the study, conclusions and

recommendations Presentation

Evaluation report


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Ethics in Research

The importance of ethics in scientific research involvinghuman beings and animals is more focused than insocial sciences

The ethical issues in scientific research include safety

of the research participant, obtaining the consent of theparticipant, privacy and confidentiality, protection to begiven to participant if any adverse events happen in thecourse of investigation, norms relating to disclosure,

understanding, voluntariness, competency and consent


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Ethical issues

Some of the difficult issues relating to ethics:

How insider trading is defined, proved and presented

Why companies should not trade with abusive regimes?

Executives over confidence and slippery slope to fraud Baseball, steroids and business ethics

Involving human and animal experimentation

Academic scandals such as fraudulent collection of data,

fabrication of information, plagiarism, whistle blowing,misuse of information, review process, authorship andeditorial boards etc.,


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Application of research in marketing,finance, HR and social sciences

Topics in marketing:

Pricing of products, product designing, market sharestudies, market segmentation for various products,promotional strategies, branding, brand equity, export

promotion, consumer studies, inventions inadvertisement, marketing and negotiation skills,channels of distribution, marketing managementeffectiveness, etc.,


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Application of research in finance

Topics: Micro finance

Retail and commercial banking

Financing of emerging financial markets

Alternative investments Internet banking

Corporate social responsibility of banking industry

Risk management

Accounting standards Education, perception and gender bias in accounting

Ethics in accounting etc.,


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Application of research in HR

Sources and Collection of Data

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