Source Book - Transportation Overview

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Overview of the sourcebook

Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebookfor Policy-Makers in Developing Cities

What is the Sourcebook?

This Sourcebookon Sustainable Urban Transportaddresses the key areas of a sustainable transportpolicy framework for a developing city. TheSourcebookconsists of 20 modules.

Who is it for?

The Sourcebookis intended for policy-makersin developing cities, and their advisors. Thistarget audience is reected in the content, whichprovides policy tools appropriate for applicationin a range of developing cities.

How is it supposed to be used?

The Sourcebookcan be used in a number ofways. It should be kept in one location, and thedifferent modules provided to ofcials involvedin urban transport. The Sourcebookcan be easilyadapted to t a formal short course trainingevent, or can serve as a guide for developing acurriculum or other training program in the areaof urban transport; avenues GTZ is pursuing.

What are some of the key features?

The key features of the Sourcebookinclude:A practical orientation, focusing on best

practices in planning and regulation and,where possible, successful experience indeveloping cities.Contributors are leading experts in their elds.An attractive and easy-to-read, colour layout.Non-technical language (to the extentpossible), with technical terms explained.Updates via the Internet.

How do I get a copy?

Please visit www.sutp-asia.org or www.gtz.de/transport for details on how to order a copy. The

Sourcebookis not sold for prot. Any chargesimposed are only to cover the cost of printingand distribution.

Comments or feedback?

We would welcome any of your comments orsuggestions, on any aspect of the Sourcebook, byemail to [email protected], or by surface mail to:Manfred BreithauptGTZ, Division 44Postfach 518065726 Eschborn

Germany

Modules and contributorsSourcebook Overview; and Cross-cutting Issues ofUrban Transport(GTZ)

Institutional and policy orientation

1a.The Role of Transport in Urban DevelopmentPolicy(Enrique Pealosa)1b.Urban Transport Institutions(Richard Meakin)1c. Private Sector Participation in Transport Infra-

structure Provision (Christopher Zegras,MIT)1d.Economic Instruments(Manfred Breithaupt,

GTZ)1e. Raising Public Awareness about Sustainable

Urban Transport(Karl Fjellstrom, GTZ)

Land use planning and demand management

2a.Land Use Planning and Urban Transport

(Rudolf Petersen, Wuppertal Institute)2b. Mobility Management(Todd Litman, VTPI)

Transit, walking and cycling

3a.Mass Transit Options(Lloyd Wright, ITDP;Karl Fjellstrom, GTZ)

3b.Bus Rapid Transit(Lloyd Wright, ITDP)3c. Bus Regulation & Planning(Richard Meakin)3d.Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non-

motorised Transport(Walter Hook, ITDP)

Vehicles and fuels

4a.Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies

(Michael Walsh; Reinhard Kolke,Umweltbundesamt UBA)4b.Inspection & Maintenance and Roadworthiness

(Reinhard Kolke, UBA)4c. Two- and Three-Wheelers(Jitendra Shah,

World Bank; N.V. Iyer, Bajaj Auto)4d.Natural Gas Vehicles(MVV InnoTec)

Environmental and health impacts

5a.Air Quality Management(Dietrich Schwela,World Health Organisation)

5b.Urban Road Safety(Jacqueline Lacroix, DVR;David Silcock, GRSP)

5c. Noise and its Abatement(Civic ExchangeHong Kong; GTZ; UBA)

Resources

6. Resources for Policy-makers(GTZ)

Further modules and resources

Further modules are anticipated in the areasofDriver Training; Financing Urban Transport;Benchmarking; and Participatory Planning. Ad-ditional resources are being developed, and anUrban Transport Photo CD (GTZ 2002) is now

available.


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I

Introductory module

Sourcebook

Overview,and Cross-cuttingIssues of UrbanTransport

Findings, interpretations and conclusionsexpressed in this document are based on infor-mation gathered by GTZ and its consultants,partners, and contributors from reliable sources.GTZ does not, however, guarantee the accuracyor completeness of information in this docu-ment, and cannot be held responsible for anyerrors, omissions or losses which emerge fromits use.

About GTZ

The Deutsche Gesellschaft fr TechnischeZusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH is a govern-ment-owned corporation for internationalcooperation with worldwide operations.

In more than 130 partner countries, GTZ issupporting and implementing around 2,700

development projects and programs, chieyunder commissions from the German FederalGovernment, although also on a consultancybasis.

GTZs aim is to improve the living conditionsand outlook for people in developing and transi-tion countries.

GTZs main experience lies in providing advi-sory services in complex urban environmentsand more specically in issues of sustainable

urban transport.

Author:Karl Fjellstrom (GTZ)

Editor:Deutsche Gesellschaft fr

Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbHP.O. Box 51 8065726 Eschborn, Germanyhttp://www.gtz.de

Division 44, Environment and InfrastructureSector Project Transport Policy Advice

Commissioned byBundesministerium fr wirtschaftlicheZusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ)Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 4053113 Bonn, Germanyhttp://www.bmz.de

Manager:Manfred Breithaupt

Editorial Board:Manfred Breithaupt,Stefan Opitz,Jan Schwaab

Cover photo:Karl FjellstromShanghai, Jan. 2002

Layout:GTZ

Print:TZ Verlagsgesellschaft mbHBruchwiesenweg 19, 64380 Rodorf, Germany

Eschborn, 2002


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Module i: Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Urban Transport

1. Overview of the Sourcebook

1.1 Rationale

Trafc jams; polluted air; dangerous roads; fund-

ing crises; absence of parks, walkways and publicspaces; spiralling car and motorcycle use; ever-greater burdens on the poor; and less liveablecities: these are all increasingly familiar to peopleliving in developing cities. Moreover, transportproblems are getting worse, rather than better,

with economic development.

Many developing cities are at a

cross-roads

Policy-makers in developing cities often seem toapproach transport with car-oriented paradigmspoorly matched to the needs of the large major-ity of urban dwellers. Transit is dominated bydiscussion of rail-oriented mega-projects ratherthan more reasonably priced bus rapid transit,

walking and cycling is neglected, uptake ofcleaner fuels and technologies is slow, and scarceroad space is given free of charge to a car-own-ing minority even while cities face severe fund-ing shortages.

Many developing cities are at a cross-roads.Policy decisions taken now, while car use is stillrelatively low and cities retain a relatively transit-friendly, compact urban form, will affect howpeople will live in their cities for many decadesinto the future.

Parts of the answer to reversing the deterioratingsituation are provided by cities such as Bogot,

which is forming a new paradigm of urbantransport; a city for people rather than for cars.

A multitude of successful policy tools are avail-

able, yet policy-makers and regulators oftensimply lack access to information about thesetools. While an increasing quantity of excellentreference material for developing cities is becom-ing available on vehicle fuel and technologyissues (including through important initiativesof The World Bank and the Asian DevelopmentBank), other aspects of a sustainable urbantransport agenda have often been neglected.

Helping address this lack of access to informa-tion in developing cities is a major objective ofthe Sourcebook.

1.2 Objective

Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Citiesaims to providea toolkit for transport policy-makers and

regulators in developing cities. It addresses thekey policy areas which collectively can providean integrated and modern transport policyframework for a developing city. Through theSourcebook, policy-makers and their advisorscan gain access to information about modernapproaches and best practices, and to planningand regulatory resources that would otherwisebe unavailable to them, or which would requireexpensive external consultant resources.

GTZs main experience lies in providing advi-

sory services in complex urban environmentsand more specically in issues of sustainableurban transport.

The Sourcebookcontains 20 printed modulesin the form of booklets around 20 to 40 pageslong. Each module draws upon the experienceof GTZ and others in developing cities, and is acollaborative exercise, with generous contribu-tions from contributors who are leading expertsin their elds.

1.3 The target audience

The Sourcebookis for policy-makers and theiradvisors, and those involved with transport plan-ning and regulation in developing cities. Thisaudience is reected in the content. The lan-guage is not overly technical and links to furtherresources, mainly via the internet, are provided.Photos, tables and charts are used throughout,and the entire set is printed and bound in aneasy-to-read, full-colour format.

Mayors and leading policy-makers in developingcities will not have time to read through longand complicated technical manuals, and forthat reason every effort has been made to keepthe Sourcebookmodules down to a manageablelength, while still providing the level of detailneeded to support regulators and policy-mak-ers. Some modules will be of more relevanceto policy-makers than others, depending ontheir local situation. Most of the modules will,however, be relevant to policy-makers in all

developing cities.


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Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

As well as capacity development for policy-mak-ers and regulators, the Sourcebookcan form thebasis of a sustainable transport training curricu-lum in a developing city, and will be a valuable

resource to educators, civil society groups andother stakeholders.

1.4 Putting the Sourcebookto use

The Sourcebookcan be used in many ways, rang-ing from detailed technical manual to a conven-ient general overview. The modules will be madeavailable to policy-makers and regulators, and toother urban stakeholders.

GTZ is committed to actively disseminatingthe Sourcebookthrough various approaches andover an extended period of time. Presentations,

workshops, brochures, websites, meetings, wordof mouth, provision of materials, audio-visualmaterials, newsletters, media interviews: allare viable methods of helping ensure that theSourcebookobjective of assisting developing citygovernments is attained.

Inevitably, different cities will focus initially ondifferent modules of the Sourcebook. To assist

in deciding which policy-makers, regulatorsand advisors should focus on which modules,each module is briey outlined in the followingsection.

Institutional and policy orientation

1a. The Role of Transport in UrbanDevelopment Policy (Enrique Pealosa)

This module setsout a new vision ofurban transport fordeveloping cities.

Written by formermayor Enrique Pe-nalosa, it draws fromthe recent experienceof Bogot, Colombiaand shows how basicproblems of urbantransport are politicalrather than technical.Dr. Axel Friedrich (Umwelbudesamt) contrib-utes to the module, explaining practical working

mechanisms to help a city work from conceptualstages through to implementation.

1b. Urban Transport Institutions(Richard Meakin)

This module developsan analysis of urbantransport institutionalsuccesses and failuresin developing cities.It considers severalin-depth case studiesin a range of coun-tries, explaining howinstitutional short-comings have arisenand are manifested.The module drawsconclusions from the case studies in the form of

recommended policy approaches required foreffective urban transport institutions.

1c. Private Sector Participation in UrbanTransport Infrastructure Provision (ChrisZegras, MIT)

This module de-scribes benets andpitfalls of privatesector participation(PSP). It providesdetailed case studies

of PSP in a range ofdeveloping countriesand concludes withcarefully consideredpolicy recommenda-tions for developingcities. The moduleemphasises that PSP in urban transport in-frastructure provision should take part in thecontext of achieving wider mobility and accessobjectives, not as an end in itself.

1d. EconomicInstruments(Manfred Breithaupt,GTZ)

One of the best waysto inuence travelbehaviour is througheconomic instru-ments. This modulesurveys successfulexperiences with fuel

and vehicle taxes,road pricing and

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3b. Bus Rapid Transit (Lloyd Wright, ITDP)

Bus rapid transit isa remarkable newphenomenon in the

world of transit. Thismodule providespractical guidance onhow a developing citycan plan, nance, de-sign and implement a

world class bus rapidtransit system. As aplanning templatefor developing cities,this module can drastically reduce planning andconsultancy costs which a developing city wouldotherwise incur in developing a BRT system.

3c. Bus Regulation & Planning(Richard Meakin)

This module providesdirection to develop-ing cities on how tobreak out of a lowquality, high-risk, lowprot, low invest-ment spiral in which

so many urban bussystems in the devel-oping world are nowcaught. It introducesand outlines theconcept of an annualplanning cycle, and shows how developing citiescan improve bus systems from the viewpoints ofoperators, drivers, regulators, and passengers.

3d. Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non-motorised Transport (Walter Hook, ITDP)

This module starts byoutlining the benetsof non-motorisedtransport (NMT).It considers thedifferent forms ofregulation to whichNMT is subjected,and describes thenon-motorised plan-ning process and

the steps involved,drawing from an

example pilot study conducted in Surabaya.Successful measures in cities such as Bogot, andin European cities, is described with a view toapplication in developing cities.

Vehicles and fuels

4a. Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies(Michael Walsh; Reinhard Kolke,Umweltbundesamt)

Cleaner fuels andvehicle technologiesare one of the keycomponents of anysustainable urbantransport system.This module, from

two leading expertson the subject, pro-vides a detailed evalu-ation of cleaner fuelsand technologies

which can be appliedin developing cities. Fuel options are evaluatedbased on cost and practicality. The role of fuelquality standards is also described.

4b. Inspection & Maintenance andRoadworthiness (Reinhard Kolke, UBA)

Another key compo-nent of a sustainabletransport system is anin-use vehicle testingsystem. This is es-sential to ensure thatvehicles are properlymaintained, fromboth an environmen-tal (emissions) andsafety (roadworthi-

ness) perspective.This module providesadvice on the form of inspection and main-tenance system appropriate for a developingcountry, and how developing cities can developand implement an effective system.

4c. Two- and Three-Wheelers (Jitendra Shah,World Bank; N.V. Iyer, Bajaj Auto)

Motorcycles are the dominant form of transportin many cities, especially throughout Asia.This module rstly describes how the trafc

system implications of such a reliance may be

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unsustainable. Thebulk of the modulethen considers theproblem of emissions

from two-stroke two-and three-wheelersin developing cities,emphasising theexperience in Asia.It provides policyadvice on how toaddress this problem,considering severalcase studies.

4d. Natural Gas Vehicles (MVV InnoTec)

Written primarilyfrom a Europeanperspective, this deci-sion-maker's guide tonatural gas vehicles isnevertheless relevantto developing cities

which are consider-ing use of CNG.It provides a solidgrounding in all the

basic concepts ofnatural gas vehicles,including their operation, economic aspects,environmental aspects, refuelling infrastructure,and so on. Case studies from developing cities,including a detailed consideration of experiencein Delhi (provided by CSE India), are provided.

Environmental and health impacts

5a. Air Quality Management (Dietrich Schwela,World Health Organisation)

This module serves to

assist policy-makersand their advisers indeveloping countriesto determine the bestmeasures to abateair pollution withlimited information.It provides advice ondeveloping legallyenforceable air qual-ity standards and

simplied clean air

implementation plans. The module explainsbasic concepts of air pollution, sources and typesof pollution, major pollutants, WHO and otherstandards, air quality monitoring, air quality

management plans, and emissions inventories. Italso briey introduces topics such as air qualitymodelling and economic valuation of the healthimpacts of air pollution.

5b. Urban Road Safety (Jacqueline Lacroix,DVR; David Silcock, GRSP)

Road trafc crashesresult in around800,000 deaths annu-ally. A disproportion-ate amount are in

developing countries,with the victimsoften pedestrians andcyclists. This moduledescribes how roadsafety is organised ata city governmentlevel, how it is as-sessed (including the use of tools such as roadcrash diagrams), how safer road environmentscan be created, and the importance of publicawareness, enforcement, safer vehicles, and soundnancing.

5c. Noise and its Abatement (Civic ExchangeHong Kong; GTZ; UBA)

Noise is emerging asan insidious problemin developing cities,even though it is notcurrently perceived asa major problem. Amajor source of noise

in cities is urbanraod transport. Thismodule introducesbasic concepts ofmeasuring noise,describes the healtheffects of noise, provides recommended noiselevel standards, and outlines six key policy areas

where governments can take action to reducenoise from transport.

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Resources

6. Resources forPolicy-makers(Compiled by GTZ)

This module pro-

vides up-to-date,annotated links tointernet resourcesin all the moduletopic areas, as wellas several additionalsub-topics.

1.5 Future directions for the

SourcebookDissemination

GTZ recognises the importance of devotingresources to the active dissemination of theSourcebook, to try to ensure that the modules areactually used and applied in developing cities.This active dissemination consists of severalactivities, one of which is the Sustainable UrbanTransport Project in Asia.

SUTP-Asia

The Sustainable Urban Transport Project inAsia, called SUTP-Asia, is one of the partner-ships and initiatives which can be used as aplatform for the active dissemination and ongo-ing development of the Sourcebook. This projectcommenced in early 2003 with initial GermanTechnical Cooperation funding.

SUTP-Asia (sutp-asia.org) is based in SoutheastAsia and cooperates with a number of existingand potential partners, including the United Na-tions Economic and Social Commission for Asiaand the Pacic (ESCAP), CITYNET, the Clean

Air Initiative for Asian Cities, the Asian Devel-opment Bank and the Partnership for Clean Airin Manila, and the Institute for Transportation& Development Policy.

Training materials

Subject to available resources, GTZ in coop-eration with key partners such as UNESCAP,intends to further develop the Sourcebookinto

a set of training materials on sustainable urbantransport. These training materials will consistof various components according to an inter-nationally standardised methodology of highquality training material provision. Components

will include, for example:instructors notesparticipants notesoverheads / slides / projector materialfacts sheets & briengstraining exercises and review questionssupport audio-visual and multimediamaterialsadvice on how to plan for and implementan effective training program based on theSourcebook.

www.sutp.org is the companion

website to the Sourcebook, as

well as an information source

on sustainable urban transport

Future directions for the SourcebookandSUTP-Asia include updates to the modules(incorporating feedback from users), additionalmodules for example on driver training, urbantransport nancing, and participatory planning and the development of training materialsbased on the modules.

The Sourcebook companion website

The SUTP-Asia website, www.sutp.org, is thecompanion website to the Sourcebookas wellas an information source on sustainable urbantransport. It will contain news of training events,

workshops and other events, news items, relatedGTZ initiatives, and other information. Addi-tional resource materials such as transport photoCDs will also be available, with details providedon the website.

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2. Cross-cutting issuesof urban transport

2.1 Sustainable transport: The ideas

and principles** This section is drawn from an unpublished mission report byDr. Axel Friedrich, Umweltbundesamt, for GTZ SUTP, January 2000

Mobility of people and of goods is an essentialpart of all social and economic activities. Inmost countries of the world, even develop-ing countries, passenger cars and trucks havebecome the most important transport modes.In many developing cities high growth of thevehicle eet has taken place in recent years.Non-motorised transport, which in earlier times

was the common way of linking together places

of activities, has to a large extent been substitutedby the car in daily mobility, and by trucks, forfreight movement. The result of this process hasalso been a signicant change in land use patterns.

This process began during the 1920s and 1930sin the United States and spread in the wealthiercountries initially, but subsequently all overthe world, including to developing cities. Theshift towards motorised private road transportreduced the share of other modes. The growthof road trafc overwhelmed the development of

the city structures and the supply of sufcientinfrastructure. Therefore in developing citiesmore than in developed countries the transportsystem is inefcient, unsafe, causes environmen-tal problems, and disadvantages healthy citydevelopment.

The common problems of the transport sectorin big conurbations are congestion, fatalities andinjuries due to trafc accidents. Furthermore, anincreasing demand for mineral oil fuels, severeair pollution, increasing noise levels, and a lossof urban livability and green spaces due to trans-port activities adversely affects city development.In particular the high growth of the transportrelated CO

2emissions compared to other

economic sectors (see Section 2.4 below) arecausing concerns and demand further action.These developments discourage the attractive-ness of cities and their economic well-being.From the social point of view the trend towardsindividual motorisation causes unequal mobilitychances and disparities in burdens and advan-

tages, for example burdens for those who cannot

Sustainable development its origins and meaning

In 1972 the United Nations convened a con-

ference in Stockholm, Sweden to give developed

and developing countries a better understanding

of how to care for our planet. The United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP) arose out of the

Stockholm Conference.

In 1983 the United Nations General Assembly

created the World Commission on Environment

and Development (WCED) and appointed Dr. Gro

Harlem Brundtland its Chairwoman. The WCED

was given the task of developing a global agenda

for change. Five years later, in 1987, the WCED

published Our Common Future, which agreed a

denition of sustainable development which is nowgenerally recognised around the world. According

to this denition, sustainable developmentmeets

the needs of the present without compromising

the ability of future generations to meet their

own needs.

The concepts developed in Our Common Fu-

ture and further elaborated in Rio in 1992 and in

Johannesburg a decade later serve as the basis for

much of todays understanding of the link between

environment and development. The genius of

sustainable development is that it attempts to re-

concile economy and environment, and the access

to resources of both present and future generations.

(Future generations should have the same right to

a healthy environment as we enjoy.) In particular,

it is now widely agreed that sustainable develop-

ment means more than merely conservation, and

that environmental and economic goals, especially

poverty alleviation, are not contradictory but are

fundamentally intertwined.

A healthy economy, and especially improving

the standard of living of people in the worlds deve-

loping countries, is just as essential in satisfying our

material and non-material needs as preserving the

natural foundations of life. And only a society that isable to develop forms of governance that promote

and help attain goals about how people want to live,

and is able to distribute its goods and opportunities

fairly, will be able to preserve that societys values

and effectively organise the use of resources in a

socially sustainable way. Sustainable development

therefore relates equally to the three domains of

economy, environment and society.

drive or cannot afford ownership of a private car.The transport system demands large investments

and thus imposes economic burdens on public


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budgets, which are difcult to afford for devel-oping countries. This leads to the conclusion:high per-capita transport activities in terms ofpassenger kilometres and ton kilometres, done

mainly by passenger cars and trucks, not onlyindicate economic progress and welfare but alsocause severe problems.

The 1992 Earth Conference in Rio adoptedAgenda 21, underlining the principle of sustaina-ble development. The June 1997 Special Sessionof the General Assembly of the United Nationsrecalled the need for sustainable development,further reinforced in the Johannesburg Summitof 2002, and promoted the need for changingthe current patterns of transportation in order to

avoid unfavourable environmental and health ef-fects. The threats and damages to human healthand to the natural environment make currenttransport structures unacceptable in the light ofthe ideas of sustainability. In this context differ-ent international approaches following the RioEarth Conference started to transfer the princi-ple of sustainable development to the transportsector (see margin note). In very simple terms

we can differentiate between the environmental,social and economic goals that have to be satis-ed by a sustainable transport system: Environmental: rate of use of non-renewable

resources should not exceed the rate at whichrenewable substitutes are developed; the rateof pollution emission should not exceed theassimilative capacity of the environment;biodiversity should be protected.

Social: access to all activities necessary toparticipate in social life has to be guaranteed

as far as possible; air quality and noise shouldnot exceed the health standards suggestedby the WHO (World Health Organization);accident risks should be minimised

Economic: mobility of persons and of goodsnecessary to achieve prosperous economicdevelopment has to be provided, avoidingcongesting, and without over-burdening thenancial limitations of the public and privatebudgets.

As a practical consequence of these (and similarother) criteria for sustainable transportation, thetransport sector needs structural changes thatcan be described as follows:

Decrease the demand or at least mitigatethe increase of demand for motorisedtransport of people and goods, for exampleby establishing transport avoiding spatialstructures, by applying scal incentives andother policy instruments to promote shortdistance access.Shift transport demand from unfavourabletransport modes (in terms of environmental,social and economic impact) to those withless negative impact on people and nature.Ensure the use of best available technology(BAT) both for the transport vehicles and for

the management and communication tools intransport.Promote responsible behaviour of individualsand responsible decisions by enterprises.Integrate environmental and socialconsiderations into transport policy.

ustainable transportt the international

evel

articularly important

itiatives in the transport

ector include:

Initially sustainable trans-

portation was discussed at

the 1994 OECD conference

Towards clean Transport:

Fuel efcient and Clean

Motor vehicles in Mexico

The Sustainable Trans-

portation Principles, as

discussed and developed

by the March 1996 OECD

Conference Towards

Sustainable Transporta-tion held in Vancouver,

Canada; published in the

Sustainable Development

in Canada Monograph

Series: Sustainable Trans-

portation, Monograph No.

2, Ottawa 1997

The Vienna Declaration of

the 1997 UNECE Regional

Conference on Transport

and the Environment

Recent work of the OECD

developing the concept of

environmentally sustain-

able transport.

Fig. 1

Global conceptsof sustainability

underlie the concept ofsustainable transport.Raising the standard

of living in developingcountries is a major

goal of sustainability.Earth by night. Image by Craig

Mayhew and Robert Simmon, NASA

GSFC. Based on data from the

Defense Meteorological Satellite

Program, 9 Nov. 2000.


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Table 1: Number of people living on less than $1 per day, 1990 1999UNDP 2002

2.2 Poverty

A multidimensional problem

Poverty is hunger. Poverty is lack of shelter.Poverty is being sick and not being able to see a

doctor. Poverty is not being able to go to school andnot knowing how to read. Poverty is not having a

job, is fear for the future, living one day at a time.Poverty is losing a child to illness brought aboutby unclean water. Poverty is powerlessness, lackof representation and freedom. (www.worldbank.org/poverty/mission/up1.htm)

Poverty has many faces and aspects, involvesin general terms lack of access to the resourcesneeded to participate in the everyday life ofsociety. The multidimensional nature of poverty

can be conceptualised in various aspects relatingto urban transport, access, and exclusion:The income poor make less trips, and moreof their trips are undertaken on foot. For most

purposes they are restricted to whatever services(usually poor) can be accessed within walkingdistance, making them accessibility poor. The

journey to work may be relatively long. Even ifit is not, it will use slow modes and may be verytime consuming, so they are also time-poor. For

poor people, and particularly for women, children

and the elderly, trip making is often discouragedby their vulnerability as pedestrians both to trafcaccidents and to personal violence, making themsafety poor. Finally there is evidence that longwalking distances and times also creates a tirednessand boredom ... adding an energy-poverty di-mension to their deprivation (World Bank 2002).

When developing transport policy measures toalleviate poverty it is important to consider themultidimensional nature of poverty, and notsimply to focus on economic indictors such as

the proportion of income spent on transportor the time spent travelling. In Bogot, forexample, one of the most effective measuresfor helping the urban poor was the dramaticimprovements to public spaces in the city. Since1998, public space improvements in Bogothave included:

285,500 square metres in walkways, greenspace, road dividers, sidewalks3,149 neigbourhood parks323 pocket parks11 metropolitan parks.

As former mayor Enrique Pealosa argues (seeModule 1a: The Role of Transport in UrbanDevelopment Policy) pedestrian streets and amplesidewalks make a more humane city. They alsomake a city more democratic, as public spacessuch as sidewalks and parks help integrate richand poor neighbourhoods, and provide one offew avenues of recreation for the urban poor.

Although poverty is multidimensional, we canstill consider in broad terms absolute indicators

such as the number of people living on less than$1 per day, as set out in UNDPs Human Devel-opment Report 2002, to give an appreciation ofthe extent of poverty in developing countries.Table 1 shows that more than one-fth of the

worlds people live on less than $1 per day.

In order to alleviate poverty, it is essential todevelop an understanding of the dimensions of


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povery and impoverishment, and through thisunderstanding to develop strategic ways of ap-proaching and addressing poverty alleviation. Itis now accepted that it is not sufcient to merely

focus on indirect so-called trickle down benets for the poor. This consensus is re-ected in approaches of multilateral institutionssuch as the World Bank. Strategy documentssuch as the Urban Transport Strategy Reviewnowacknowledge that urban transport improvementsdirected at improving the efciency of thetransport system as a whole, are not sufcient.In addition to sytem-wide increases in efciency,targeted interventions to achieve poverty al-leviation are required. Multilateral and bilateralaid and development agencies are developing

increasingly sophisticated tools to understand and alleviate poverty. These include, for ex-ample, toolkits, websites, guidelines and manu-als in the References section of this module.

Focusing on the modes used by the poor

The transport needs of the poor differ from thenon-poor. The poor typically make 20 30%less trips, and rely much more on non-motorisedand public transport (Figure 2). The poor have amore limited range of destinations, being much

more focused on core destinations such as workplaces, schools, markets, places of worship andhealth clinics.

In developing cities land values often reectaccessibility of an area to key destinations. The

poor are faced with a complex trade-off betweenresidential security, travel time, and travel mode.

A survey of pavement dwellers in Madras, forexample, showed that 59% walked to work at

zero cost. At the other extreme, those opting fora degree of residential security on the outskirtsof cities pay a high price in terms of access costs.The urban poor in Lima and Rio de Janeiro forexample are driven out to cheap dwelling spacein remote locations, 30 or 40 kilometres outof the employment centre; average commutingtime per day for the poorest group in Rio de Ja-neiro exceeding three hours (World Bank 2002).

Eradicating poverty is the greatest

global challenge facing the worldtoday and an indispensable

requirement for sustainable

development, particularly for

developing countries

United Nations, Report of the World Summit onSustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002

Much attention in the form of internationalevents, seminars, conferences, training materi-

als and so on, is devoted to issues of vehicleand fuel technologies. While this high level ofattention to technology is understandable andhelpful in addressing tailpipe emissions, it oftendoes not address the most direct transport needsof the urban poor in developing countries. Weoften hear of seminars and workshops elaborat-ing the results of the latest comparison of CNGversus clean diesel, or even trials of fuel cells orelectric vehicles. But seldom do we hear of ahigh prole international seminar focusing on

walkway design, or non-motorised transportin developing countries. This is despite the factthat in many developing cities, car-owners arestill a small minority of the population. Publictransport users, pedestrians and cyclists representa large majority in many developing cities, rang-ing from Belgrade to Metro Manila to Bogotto Shanghai. Private motor vehicle ownershipis beyond the reach of the urban poor, with thepossible exception of motorcycles in cities suchas Denpasar and Ho Chi Minh in which publictransport provides less than 5% of trips.

ig. 2

n Agra as in othereveloping cities, urbanoor are more reliantn non-motorised

modes of transport.oyd Wright, GTZ Urban Transport

hoto CD 2002


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The poor in developing cities cannot afford cars.They rely primarily on walking, cycling andpublic transport for gaining access to jobs, serv-ices and social events. Figure 3 presents data for

Santiago, Chile. Figures for other cities will vary,though the trend it illustrates is typical of almostall developing cities. It shows that the poor relyon walking, cycling and public transport muchmoreso than the non-poor.

Low income people [in the

Surabaya study area] are forced

to use motorised travel even for

extremely short trips

GTZ SUTP/ITDP, 2000

Although the transport patterns and needs ofthe poor will vary in different developing cities,it is one of the foundations of this Sourcebookand of GTZs approach to urban transport thatimproved public transport and better conditionsfor walking and cycling will provide improvedaccess to the urban poor, and will in this waycontribute to poverty alleviation. Many otherinterventions can contribute to povery allevia-tion. Module 2a: Land Use Planning and Urban

Transport, sets out a diverse agenda of policy re-forms which can promote transit, pedestrian andnon-motorised transport friendly development.More effective transport and land use planningis an urgent requirement in many developingcities experiencing rapidly growing urban sprawland car-dependency. Similarly, the mobilitymanagement measures described in Module 2b:

Mobility Management, lead to less automobile-oriented urban development patterns.

Improving public transport is a key component

of any pro-poor urban transport agenda in adeveloping city. In many cities, policy-makershave strictly regulated fares under a misguidedconception that this alone would guarantee pub-lic transport access for the urban poor. Rather,the outcome of poor regulation and misguidedfare controls have almost everywhere been adeclining level of service of public transport,and a vicious cycle of declining investmentand market share, as described in Module 3c:Bus Regulation and Planning. The Sourcebook

modules on Transit, Walking and Cyclingshow

how effective public transport regulation meansthat low-cost mass transit and non-motorisedtransport solutions need not correspond to alow level of service. Cities such as Bogot haveprovided a world class mass transit sytsem acces-sible to the urban poor, as described in Module3a:Mass Transit Options, and Module 3b: BusRapid Transit.

It is also important to avoid the misconceptionand stigma that non-motorised transport (suchas walking and cycling) and public transportis for the poor. Module 3d: Preserving andExpanding the Role of Non-motorised Transport,shows that poverty alleviation is only one ofthe many benets of improving conditions fornon-motorised transport. Benets of improvingnon-motorised transport for the urban poorare, nevertheless, potentially large. GTZ andITDP showed in a pilot project in Surabaya that

even in poor neighbourhoods, some 60% oftrips between 1 and 3 km were undertaken bymotorised means, due mainly to the very poorconditions for walking, cycling and pedicabs inSurabaya. Perhaps even more surprisingly, 20%of trips less than 1 km in length were made bymotorised means, despite the fact that both areasof the pilot projects were low income neighbour-hoods. One conclusion of the study was that:

Even low income people are forced to use motorisedtravel even for extremely short trips, leading to

conditions where the working poor spend an

0

20

40

60

80

Walking Auto Public transport

$2,865

Percentage of all trips

Monthly income (1991 US$)

Note: Santiago does not add to 100%; not all modal shares included.

0

20

40

60

80

Walking Auto Public transport

$2,865

Percentage of all trips

Monthly income (1991 US$)

Note: Santiago does not add to 100%; not all modal shares included.

Fig. 3

The relationshipbetween transportmode choice andincome in Santiago.WBCSD 2002


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estimated 20% of their household income ontransport. Improved conditions for non-motorisedtravel in the study area would yield $250,000in benets to these low income families each year.

(GTZ SUTP/ITDP 2000)Public nances, and equity considerations

Opportunity costs of transport investments

Urban transport policy has major implicationsfor city government nances. City governmentspending in turn carries major opportunitycosts. Scarce development funds spent on expen-sive rail-based mass transit systems, for example,could be spent on more cost effective approachessuch as bus rapid transit, with the resultingsavings invested in health, public space and

educational facilities to benet the urban poor.Possibly even worse than ill-advised mass transitsystem investments, spending on new roadinfrastructure, as well as being regressive in thatit benets primarily the richest (car-owning)portion of the population, may actually worsenurban transport conditions through inducedtrafc and sprawl.

Private sector participation in urban transportinfrastructure provision can be an effectivemethod for developing city governments to

provide infrastructure and services. Advice isprovided on this topic in Module 1c: PrivateSector Participation in Urban Transport Infrastuc-ture Provision.

The city of Bogot, Colombia provides a recentexample of the effective use of public nances

to benet the urban poor, to improve socialintegration, to enhance air quality, to improvethe productivity of the city, and to enhance thequality of life of all citizens. The example of

Bogot and the policy underpinning it iselaborated by the man who inspired it, former

mayor Enrique Pealosa, in Module 1a: The Roleof Transport in Urban Development Policy.

Bogot is also an example of a city which hasleveraged the potential of economic instrumentsas a way of achieving multiple transport objec-tives including provision of funds, reduced con-gestion, progressive taxation, and environmentalimprovements. Advice on the use of economicinstruments including road pricing, fuel taxa-

tion, parking, vehicle taxation, environmentaltrust funds and other measures is provided inModule 1d: Economic Instruments.

Equity and transport in developing cities

Equity considerations dictate that transportplanners in developing cities should favourmodes of walking, cycling, and public transport.In wealthier cities the urban poor are often aminority. Although equity considerations areimportant in all cities (see text box Evaluatingtransportation equity), in wealthy cities equity

considerations are often focused on politicallyjustifying urban transport subsidies of publictransport systems used by only a minority ofthe population. In many developing cities, onthe other hand, the urban poor represent themajority of the population. This is reected

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Czechoslovakia

Hungary

Poland

FSU

Argentina

Brazil

Mexico

S

outhAfrica

China

India

S

outhKorea

Malaysia

Taiwan

Thailand

1960

1980

1995

Fig. 4

Vehicle ownershiprates in selectedcountries of the

developing world.Thorvik, WBSCD 2002

Motorvehiclesper1000people


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for example in vehicle ownership data. Figure 4shows that in low income developing countriescar ownership rates are typically less than 100cars per 1000 people, and even in higher income

developing cities car ownership is generally lessthan 200 per 1000 people. This compares to carownership rates of around 400 per 1000 peoplein Europe, and more than 500 per 1000 peoplein many cities in North America and Australia.

We will spare no effort to free our

fellow men, women and children

from the abject and dehumanizing

conditions of extreme poverty, to

which more than a billion of themare currently subjected

United Nations Millenium Declaration, Sept. 2000

The road environment

One area requiring further research concerns theexposure of urban poor to transport-related airpollution, road accidents, and noise. The follow-ing general observations, however, can be made:

The urban poor make up a signicantproportion of the road-side workers in

developing countries, resulting in a likelyhigher exposure to roadside air pollution (seefurther Module 5a:Air Quality Management).The urban poor have less means to protectthemselves against pollution, and less meansto mitigate the results of pollution. The urbanpoor are also often forced to accept trade-offs between residential cost and ambientnoise levels. The effects of noise on health,and policies for mitigation, are described inModule 5c: Noise and its Abatement.

The urban poor are much greater usersof non-motorised transport modes thanthe non-poor, and users of non-motorisedmodes (including pedestrians) represent ahigh proportion of road crash victims in de-veloping cities. The problems of road safety,and policy recommendations in this area, areelaborated in Module 5b: Urban Road Safety.

Employment

The urban transport sector is a signicant em-ployer in developing cities. Initiatives taken

to greatly improve the livelihood of urban bus

Evaluating transportation equity

Equity refers to the distribution of resources and

opportunities. Transportation decisions can have

signicant equity impacts. Transport represents amajor portion of consumer, business and government

expenditures. It consumes a signicant portion of

taxes and public land. Transport activities have

external impacts (noise and air pollution, crash

risk and barrier effects) that affect the quality of

community and natural environments, and personal

safety. Transport determines where people can live,

shop, work, go to school and recreate, and their

opportunities in life. The quality of transport affects

peoples ability to obtain education, employment,

medical service and other critical goods.

Equity impacts can be difcult to evaluate, in part

because the word equity has several meaning, each

with different implications. There are three major

types of equity related to transportation:

1.Horizontal equity (also called fairness).

This concept is concerned with whether each

individual or group receives a fair share of

common resources. It suggests that people

with equal incomes and needs should receive a

comparable share of government benets and

bear comparable tax burdens.

2. Vertical equity with regard to income. This

considers the allocation of costs between

different income classes, assuming that

public policies should favour people who are

economically disadvantaged. Policies that

provide a proportionally greater benet to

lower-income groups are called progressive,

while those that make lower-income people

relatively worse off are called regressive.

3. Vertical equity with regard to mobility need

and ability. This considers whether a transport

system provides adequate service to people

who have special transport needs (i.e., they are

transportation disadvantaged). It suggests

that public subsidies can be justied if neededto provide basic mobility to people who are

transportation disadvantaged.

Due to these different denitions it is important

to specify which perspective is being used when

evaluating transport equity. For example, it may be

unclear to simply say that a particular transport policy

or project increases or decreases equity, without

indicating which type of equity. For more information

please see www.vtpi.org.

Todd Litman, 2003


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drivers in Bogot are described in Module 3b:Bus Rapid Transit, and initiatives to improve thelivelihood of pedicab drivers in Indian cities aredescribed in Module 3d: Preserving and Expand-

ing the Role of Non-motorised Transport.Involving the poor

Sustainable urban transport measures will notsucceed without the support of the local people.Many of the modules in the Sourcebookdescribevarious forms of participatory planning processes.

Information campaigns, as described in Module1e: Raising Public Awareness about SustainableUrban Transport, are essential. It is necessary tocreate awareness about the transportation system

the people of a city deserve for existing andfuture generations. This is a way for projects tobecome owned by the community. In this wayparticipation of the local people can be increased,resulting in greater benets and making projectspolitically, socially and nancially feasible.

2.3 Gender

Gender awareness is seeping into the transportsector. Although there were few studies on thesubject as recently as 1998, a growing number of

projects are beginning to address gender imbal-ances in the burden of transport, and endeavourto expand the range of transport choices, andreduce the costs of transport, for women.

Gender analysis is justied in terms of greaterefciency of transport interventions andtherefore greater impact on poverty reductionthat it enables. Transport facilities can be bet-ter matched to the needs of users through anunderstanding of gender aspects of transport. InSurabaya, Indonesia, for example, a GTZ/ITDP

(2000) study showed that a large majority ofcyclists are men and a large majority of cyclerickshaw passengers are women. Policy interven-tions aiming to reduce the transport burden onthe urban poor in Surabaya need to take accountof these gender-based variations for maximumeffectiveness. An increasing number of gender-related tools are becoming available to policy-makers, although so far the major resources havetended to focus on rural areas.

Along with poverty, gender related disadvantageis also endemic in developing cities. The discus-

sion of gender in the Urban Transport StrategyReviewis worth quoting at length:

Many activities typically undertaken by women(child-care, household management, informal

sector employment, etc) require them to make moreand shorter trips than men, more trips at off-peakhours and off the main routes, and engage in morecomplicated multi-leg trips, all of which tendto make their movements relatively expensive to

provide for by public transport, and hence highlypriced or poorly supplied. Women are very vulner-able to these cost characteristics as they frequentlyhave less capacity to pay than male householdmembers, who also control any bicycles or othervehicles available to the household. Cultural

factors may constrain womens ability to use public

transport or bicycles. In many countries there isalso a problem of the social safety or securityof public transport for women, especially in theevening hours. This may force them to depend on

Gender aspects of rural roadmaintenance in Costa Rica

In Costa Rica, GTZ has been co-operating with

local governments since 1990 in establishing a

practical road maintenance system. Its principles

are straightforward:

Everyone has to join in No road repairs

are possible without the participation of the

local residents and the peoples assuming

responsibility.

Everyone has to pay Ministries and local

governments with money, and local residents

with their labour.

The right technology counts Simple but

essective solutions are required, above all for

road drainage.

Not without the women Women have proven

to be especially important in organising local

road maintenance committees and in winning

over peoples support.

Well get our husbands to work!

A Costa Rican road committee member

The results of this approach have been remark-

able, including greatly increased access to health

and education services, regular bus sevices, a road

maintenance fund, growth in the area under culti-

vation by 7.5% per year, greatly reduced travel times

and vehicle maintenance costs, and integration into

the long term planning of the local governments.


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more expensive alternatives. Peripheral locationmay be particularly damaging to womens employ-ment potential. But there remains a heavy agendaof necessary gender related research. This includes

a need for more ac tivity, as opposed to trip-based,research; better estimates of the economic value ofwomens time; and direct evaluation of the impactsof some gender related projects.

2.4 GlobaL warming

The scientic basis

The Greenhouse Effect, which rose to promi-nence on political and research agendas in the1990s, refers to the warming which occurs whencertain gases allow sunlight to penetrate to the

earth but partially trap the planets radiatedinfrared heat in the atmosphere. Some such

warming is natural and necessary, but increasingconcentrations of these greenhouse gases arecausing serious climate changes.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is by far the most

important greenhouse gas. Scientists can studythe composition of air in the past by examiningair trapped in Antarctic ice. Analysis of thesebubbles shows that CO

2concentrations are now

higher than at any time in the past 420,000

years. In fact, it is likely that the concentrationtoday is higher than it has been for 20 millionyears. The current rate of increase of carbondioxide is greater than at any time in the past20,000 years. Atmospheric CO

2concentrations

have been stable at around 280 parts per million(ppm) for the last 1000 years, but rose sharplyin the late 20th Century to 380ppm. Accordingto various scenarios outlined in the Intergov-ernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)reports of 2001, the atmospheric concentration

of CO2 is projected to rise further to between550ppm and 960ppm by 2100.

The rise in greenhouse gas emissions, and espe-cially in CO

2emissions, has a direct impact on

global temperatures. Figure 5 illustrates both therise in global temperature since 1860, and thecontribution of anthropogenic emissions (prima-rily CO

2emissions) to this rise in temperatures.

Effects of global warming** This section is adapted from IPCC 2001

Projected climate change will have benecialand adverse effects on both environmental and

socio-economic systems, but the larger thechanges and rate of change in climate, the morethe adverse effects predominate. When consid-ered by region, adverse effects are projected to

predominate for much of the world, particularlyin the tropics and sub-tropics.

Climate change is projected to increase threatsto human health, particularly in lower incomepopulations, predominantly within subtropicand tropical countries. Climate change can affecthuman health directly (e.g. loss of life in oodsand storms) and indirectly through changes inthe range of disease vectors (e.g. mosquitoes),

water-borne pathogens, water quality, air quality,

Minimising greenhouse gasemissions from mobile sources

The main greenhouse gases (see chart) are

carbon dioxide (CO2) [44%], methane (CH

4) [19%],

nitrous oxides (NOx) [19%], and the chloro-uoro

hydrocarbons (CFCs) [18%].

Carbon dioxide is produced naturally by living

organisms and by the burning of fossil fuels including

mobile sources. Most of the methane is from coal

formations, landfills, livestock and wetland rice

cultivation. Methane has around 21 times greater

impact on global warming than carbon dioxide.

Nitrous oxide is a by-product of fuel burning and

fertiliser manufacture. It has 310 times the global

warming potential (GWP) of carbon dioxide.

The global community has conducted several

international negotiations with the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change and the

associated Kyoto Protocol (unfortunately rejected

by the United States in 2001, but ratied by many

other countries) now setting the pace. Negotiations

are aimed at developing protocols for binding green-

house gas reduction levels.

Major greenhouse gas emission reductions

combined with local, city-level benets in developing

countries can be achieved through modal shifts

from private vehicles, to public transport and non-

motorised modes.

Carbon

Dioxide

Methane

Nitrous Oxides

Chlorofluoro-

carbons


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Fig. 5

Comparisonbetween modeledand observations

of temperature risesince the year 1960.

IPCC 2001

and food availability and quality. Impacts will bestrongly inuenced by local conditions.

Water shortages in existing water-scarce areas,threats to vulnerable ecosystems and low-lyingisland nations, and reductions in crop outputsare further projected effects of global warming,

with most of the adverse impact projected tofall upon poorer nations, and upon the poorerpeople in all nations.

The transport sector and global warming

The transport sector is responsible for around25% of global CO

2emissions from fossil fuel

use; a share which is growing. CO2

emissions indeveloped countries have been stabilised in mostsectors, with the exception of emissions fromtransportation. Figure 6 shows that CO

2emis-

sions from the transport sector in Germany, for

example, will continue to increase this decade.

Figure SPM-2: Simulating the Earths temperature variations (C) and comparing the results to the

measured changes can provide insight to the underlying causes of the major changes.


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Developed countries currently represent the ma-jor source of CO

2emissions (Figure 7), although

emissions from developing countries are risingrapidly and showing no signs of stabilisation(Figure 8).

Reducing emissions from the transport sectorhas proved very difcult. The OECD (1998)bemoans that:Of all energy-using activities, transport is the areawhere governments nd it hardest to nd politi-cally feasible policies that can mitigate greenhouse

gas emissions.

There is, however, an emerging consensus onhow to effectively tackle CO

2emissions from

the transport sector in developing countries, as

outlined in the following section.

Climate policies can be more

effective when consistently

embedded within broader strategies

designed to make national and

regional development paths more

sustainable

IPCC, Climate Change Synthesis Report, 2001

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Aircraft

Ship

Rail

Road

Scenario106tons/year

Fig. 7

CO2

emissionsoriginatedisproportionatelyfrom high incomecountries.UNDP 2002

2.5

4

3.3

Worldwide DevelopingCountries

Economies intransition

Fig. 8

Projected annualpercentage growthrate of CO

2emissions

from the transport

sector to 2020.GTZ, based on data from IEA 2000

Fig. 6

CO2

emissions fromthe transport sectorin Germany (actualand projected).TREMOD calculation in Nov.

1999, courtesy of Axel Friedrich,

Umweltbundesamt

Remarks: Total emissions including prechain (energy transport, production and conversion in power plants, refineries); Aircraft: Transport

starting from German airports;


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Achieving greenhouse gas emissionreductions from transport in developing cities

Carbon dioxide (CO2) mitigation has a nega-

tive connotation in many developing countries,where city governments are faced with manyurgent demands. Averting increasing contribu-tions of transport to GHG emissions requires anintegrated package of reforms. In all developingcities, the question is how to get such policiesimplemented. The approach favoured by GTZand applied in Surabaya (www.sutp.org), andrecommended by a range of recent studies, is tofocus on short to mid-term measures which arelow cost and "win-win," with the highest impacton CO

2mitigation at the same time leading

to local economic, social, and environmental

improvements in the form of reduced conges-tion & local air pollution, and a more liveable,efcient, democratic and prosperous city. As the

WB UTSR (2001, draft) argues:

The suggested key is both to link GHG mitiga-tion to policy initiatives to goals that are perceivedto be of immediate relevance and to try to uncou-

ple, or at least ex the link between economicgrowth and GHG emissions from the transportsector.

There is now an established consensus, exempli-ed by the shift of the Global EnvironmentFacility funding from technology upgrades toprojects promoting modal shifts, that the best

way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions fromurban transport is to strategically focus on urbantransport issues which are regarded as beingof immediate importance to policy-makers indeveloping cities (especially congestion, localair pollution, and uncontrolled motorisation)

which will give rise to a range of policy initia-tives which simultaneously have the effect of

drastically reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Local and global (chiey in the form of reducedgreenhouse gas emissions) benets are achievedthrough such policies. In this sense this ap-proach amounts to a sustainable urban transportpolicy approach focusing on city-level problemsand aiming to meet local and global needs.

A recent report from the Washington-based PewCenter on Global Climate Change (Sperling etal. 2002) recommends policies which should

be pursued in developing countries in order toreduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport.

Which policy approaches are recommended?The report notes that many of the strategiesrequired have substantial local as well as globalbenets, and states that:

Key strategies include increasing the relative costof using ... private cars and enhancing the qualityand choices of alternative transportation modes.

The challenge for all concerned with climatechange mitigation and reducing emissions fromthe transport sector, of course, is to help see suchpolicy approaches through to implementation.

This is the challenge taken up by GTZs Sustain-able Transport Sourcebook for Policy-makers inDeveloping Cities.


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References and resources

References cited in the textGTZ SUTP/ITDP. 2000. Improving

Conditions for Non-motorised Transport inSurabaya, Indonesia: a Pilot Project in TwoNeighbourhoods, GTZ, www.sutp.orgIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC). 2001. Climate Change 2001Synthesis Report: Summary for Policymakers,www.ipcc.ch

International Energy Agency (IEA). 2000.CO

2Emissions from Fuel Combustion, 1997

1998, Paris, France. www.iea.org/stats/les/co2.htm (available for purchase only)OECD. 1998. Working Paper No. 13,Innovation in Transport Behaviour andTechnology, www.olis.oecd.org/olis/1997doc.nsf/LinkTo/ocde-gd(97)79

Pew Center on Globlal Climate Change.2002. www.pewclimate.org/projects/transportation_overview.cfm. Transportationin Developing Countries: An Overview ofGreenhouse Gas Reduction StrategiesThorvik, Arve. 2002. Sustainable Mobility:a Global Effort by Global Business, WBCSDSustainable Mobility Project, Mobility

Workshop, IEA, Paris, 26 Sept., www.sustainablemobility.org/slides

United Nations. 2002. Report of the WorldSummit on Sustainable Development,

Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August 4 September 2002. Annex: Plan ofImplementation of the World Summit onSustainable Development, United Nations,New York, www.johannesburgsummit.orgUnited Nations Development Programme(UNDP). 2002. Human Development

Report 2002, United Nations, New York,www.undp.org/hdr2002/

World Bank. 2002. Cities on the Move:an Urban Transport Strategy Review,www.worldbank.org/transport

World Business Council on SustainableDevelopment (WBCSD). 2001.Mobility

2001, www.sustainablemobility.org/publications/publications.asp

Other resources

Sustainable development

Global Environment Facility,www.gefweb.org. GEF funds defray the

added costs of making planned projectsenvironmentally friendly (with a focus onglobal issues such as climate change, in thetransport sector).Organization for Economic Cooperationand Development, Sustainable Developmentsection, www.oecd.org/EN/home/0,,EN-home-21-nodirectorate-no-no--21,00.html, andthe Environmentally Sustainable Transportsection, www.oecd.org/EN/home/0,,EN-home-518-nodirectorate-no-no-no-25,00.html

provide numerous resouces on sustainabledevelopmentUnited Nations Commission on SustainableDevelopment, www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd.htm. The UNCSD was established in1992 following the UN Conference onEnvironment and DevelopmentUnited Nations Development Programme,www.undp.org. UNDPs mission is tohelp countries achieve sustainable humandevelopment by assisting them to build theircapacity to design and carry out developmentprograms, giving rst priority to povertyeradicationUnited Nations Environment Programme,www.unep.ch. UNEP is charged with theimplementation of global and regionalenvironment conventions, providingpolicy responses to existing and emergingenvironmental concerns and raising awarenessabout how peoples actions negatively affectthe environment. www.unep.ch/conventions/geclist.htm provides links to various

multilateral agreements and conventionsWorld Bank, www.worldbank.org. The worldslargest source of development assistanceWorld Business Council for SustainableDevelopment, www.wbcsd.ch. WBCSDaims to develop closer co-operationbetween business, government and allother organizations concerned with theenvironment and sustainable development,and to encourage high standards of environ-mental management by business.


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Transport and poverty

DFID Transport Resource Centre,www.transport-links.org/rcs. The TRCS isa world-wide consortium of groups andindividuals with specialist knowledge in theeld of transport research. Site includes theRural Transport Knowledge BaseGTZ. 2002. Urban Transport and Poverty inDeveloping Countries, Ralf KaltheierInternational Conference on Financing forDevelopment, Mexico, 18-20 March 2002,www.un.org/esa/ffd. Documents availablefor download include the MonterreyConsensusInternational Forum for Rural Transport andDevelopment, www.ifrtd.gn.apc.org

International Labour Organization (GeoffEdmonds). 1998. Wasted Time: the Priceof Poor Access, www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/publ/1998/ratp3

Litman, Todd. 1999. EvaluatingTransportation Equity, Victoria TransportPolicy Institute, www.vtpi.org/equity.pdfOverseas Development Institute. 2000.Povery and Transport: Toolkit, www.odi.org.uk/pppg/publications/papers_reports/dd/issues/

trans01.html

United Nations Centre on HumanSettlements/HABITAT, www.unchs.org.Habitats activities focus on promotinghousing for all, improving urban governance,reducing urban poverty, improving theliving environment and managing disastermitigation and post-conict rehabilitationUnited Nations Millenium DevelopmentGoals, www.developmentgoals.org, UNMillenium Declaration, September 2000World Bank PovertyNet, www.worldbank.org/

poverty/mission/up1.htm provides manyresources on poverty, including a Literatureof Poverty section.

Transport and gender

Transport and Society Research,www.geocities.com/transport_research. Deals

with the two main topics of social exclusion& transport, and gender & transportWorld Bank Gender and Transport,www.worldbank.org/gender/transport,Includes various studies, tools and resources

www.geocities.com/transport_and_society/ruralinclusion.html#topics. This website,prepared by Margaret Grieco, Professor ofTransport and Society, Napier University,

Edinburgh, includes an annotated list of linksto a large number of resources on genderand development, including best practiceguidelines in various sectors. Includes apaper on Gender, social inclusion and ruralinfrastructure serviceswww.ifrtd.gn.apc.org/issues/cc-gen.htm,includes a section on Gender in Ruraltransport issues, and links to various resources

Transport and global warming

ARIC, www.doc.mmu.ac.uk/aric/

arichome.html. ARIC provides research &education in atmospheric & sustainabilityissuesCenter for Neighborhood Technology,www.cnt.org. Contains a number of sub-websites on various transport topicsEnvironmental Defense, www.environmentaldefense.org. US non-prot organizationrepresenting more than 300,000 membersExhaustion: A Guide to TransportationEmissions, www.ec.gc.ca/emission/toce.html.Easy-to-read fact sheets mainly on fuel-relatedtopics, with a Canadian focusGlobal Environment Facility,www.gefweb.org. GEF helps developingcountries fund projects that protect the globalenvironment. Site provides a list of projects

worldwide, information and applicationforms.GTZ Climate Protection Program,www.gtz.de/climate/english.Helio International, www.helio-international.org. HELIOs goals are to assess,

monitor and publicise the contribution ofenergy systems to sustainable development.Links to individual country reports.International Council for LocalEnvironmental Initiatives, www.iclei.org.ICLEI is an international association oflocal governments implementing sustainabledevelopmentInternational Energy Agency, www.iea.org.Multinational agency dealing with energyissues.
http://www.vtpi.org/equity.pdfhttp://www.vtpi.org/equity.pdf


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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC), www.ipcc.ch. An intergovernmentalbody that provides scientic, technicaland socio-economic advice to the world

communityOrganisation for Economic Cooperationand Development, www.oecd.org/env.Environment Directorate resources includethe Environmentally Sustainable Transport(EST) program.Sierra Club, www.sierraclub.org. Campaignsinclude sprawl and global warmingUnited States Environmental Protection

Agency, www.epa.gov. Many resources,particularly strong on AQM. Also advocacy,fuels, TDM, and global warming resources

Wuppertal Institute, www.wuppertal-institut.de. The work of the WuppertalInstitute is interdisciplinary and orientedto solving problems in the area of appliedsustainability research.


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Deutsche Gesellschaft frTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH

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Source Book - Transportation Overview

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Transcript of Source Book - Transportation Overview