Some Thoughts on Music Education in a Global Culture
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International Journal of Music
http://ijm.sagepub.com/content/os-32/1/72.citationThe online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/025576149803200107
1998 os-32: 72International Journal of Music EducationMargaret S. Mertz
Some Thoughts on Music Education in a Global Culture
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Some Thoughts on Music Education in a Global Culture
Margaret S. MertzNew Mexico Highlands University
Introduction
Taking time to reflect on what we do asmusic educators is as necessary as the time a
performer might take to reflect on her perfor-mances, or as the time a composer might
spend in reflecting on his compositions.Particularly as each of us works in situationsthat have both a primary locale (our schools,our universities) and a wider context (ourcities, our regions, our nations, our continents,our world), the actual music which we make
becomes visible from a variety of internal and
external perspectives.Also, as our studentscome from increasingly diverse backgroundsin terms of society, culture, and education, our
tasks as music teachers become more and
more complex as we strive to meet their needs.
.
Much of my commentary here is ground-ed in my experience with the InternationalBaccalaureate
Diploma Programmein Music.
The International Baccalaureate Organisationis in the unique position of deliveringthorough and rigorous curricula along withreliable and consistent assessment in approxi-mately 900 schools in some 90 countriesworldwide. The curricula established most
strongly are those of the Diploma Programme,designed as a comprehensive pre-universitypreparation, incorporating the study of a
multiplicity of subjects in both breadth and
depth. In addition, students are expected tothink across disciplines in much of their work
toward this Diploma. The InternationalBaccalaureate is also developing two addi-tional sets of curricula aimed at youngerstudents: the Primary Years Programme andthe Middle Years Programme. It is not mypurpose here to review the International
Baccalaureate programmes as a whole, but
rather to focus on issues relevant to the field of
music education which have been apparent
through my experience with the Music Pro-
gramme at the Diploma Level.
Particularly as the International Baccalau-reate Music
Programmeis in the final
stagesof a thorough curriculum review, I would herelike to take the opportunity to reflect on the
philosophies behind and the nature of the
proposed changes, which to me seem criticalin the development of the idea of globalculture.
Global Culture
What exactly do I mean by globalculture? For the purposes of this discussion, I
mean little more than the way in which late
twentieth century media, from the television to
the internet, have changed our heuristicnotion of
community.From all
sources,we are
confronted with contexts for our work and our
lives which can be viewed or heard via
electronic means.
People who produce, listen to, and reflecton music (see Gardner, 1991), no less than
others, are affected by the enlargement of scalethat technological developments have broughtto us. Because of our immediate access via
that same technology to this greater context,we can still teach music the way we ourselves
were taught; by the study of music that formsan essential part of the fabric of our lives. To
be faithful truly to this idea means a constant
awareness of and acknowledgment that thefabric may no longer be made only of the
threads that were part of our own musical
educations.
The ubiquitous presence of some kind of
music in almost every context in which we live
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and work is a feature was not common until
this century. Sound surrounds us, and sound
influences almost every experience we have.And those sounds may have been made bypeople whom we will never meet, other than
through the electronic interface of our audio
output on computer, radio, television, video,
film, compact disc, etc. The constantly ex-
panded by the rapid pace of technologicaldevelopment worldwide. Our students hearthese sounds, make these sounds, and interpretthese sounds, most often subconsciously. Oneof our tasks is to bring these subconscious
thoughts and judgments to conscious intellec-tual awareness.
What then does this mean for our work as
music teachers?An answer to that question isnot so simple. I believe that it means that wehave a responsibility to take on a role as a
leamec as well. We must constantly relearn ourmusical skills; at times in spite of our earlier
training. We must ask ourselves to encountercurrent musical practices with the same alert
intelligence we aim to develop in our students.Fundamental elements of the International
Baccalaureate Music Programme are founded
upon a commitment to the development of theindividual student who is alert to and knowl-
edgeable of the critical features of such a
global culture. To this end, I believe the
following principals have guided the develop-ment of the most recent revisions of the
programme:- Students must participate in as many
musical experiences as possible during thecourse of study; these may include perform-ance collaboratively or singly, composition,and listening;
. Students must become proficient inthe theoretical and/or notationalsystem of the
particular musical practice which is closest to
them, and they must be aware of contrasting
systems;. Students must develop their percep-
tual acuity with regard to a variety of musical
practices and be able to compare that which ismost familiar to that which is most unusual to
them; and. Students must demonstrate their
abilities to reason and reflect on their musical
experiences and show their increasing
understanding of the variety of musics theyencounter.
All of this, in the context of the Interna-
tional Baccalaureate schools, must happenregardless of the geographical location of the
particular school.And as each school has itsown specific socio-cultural context, the valuesand the priorities for each schools music
programme may differ widely around the
globe. The challenge for the International
Baccalaureate, then, is to design a programmewhich meets the needs of each individual
school, while maintaining a cohesive and
reliablemeans
of evaluating thesuccess
ofeach individual student in meeting these
expectations.Those of us involved in the discussions
leading to the revised programme have a
vision of the following situations, all not
simply allowed, but encouraged in the contextof the global culture.
1.A school in Japan, devoted to the
preservation of traditional music for the
samisen, koto and shakuhachi, which uses this
repertoire as a foundation for performance and
composition, for the intensive study of its
theoretical and notational system, for the
developmentof
perceptual,reasoning and
reflective skills. These students will identifymost closely with this music, while during thecourse of study, they will experience (perhaps)the music of a Viennese school (Haydn,Mozart and Beethoven or Schoenberg, Bergand Webem) as a contrasting musical practice.
2.A school in the United States, devoted
to the preservation ofjazz as a traditional
American musical practice, which uses this
repertoire as a foundation for performance and
composition, for the intensive study of its
theoretical and notational system, for the
development of perceptual, reasoning andreflective skills. These students will identifymost closely with this music, while during thecourse of study, they will experience (perhaps)the music of the Balinese gamelan as a
contrasting musical practice.3.A school in the United Kingdom,
devoted to the preservation of the western artmusic tradition of the common practice period,which uses this repertoire as a foundation for
performance and composition, for the inten-
sive study of its theoretical and notational
system, for the development of perceptual,reasoning and reflective skills. These students
will identify most closely with this music,while during the course of study, they will
experience (perhaps) the music of Ghana as a
contrasting musical practice.The dissimilarcurricular contents within
each school still have a similar goal: the
development of appropriate musical skills for
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each individual student studying their music in
a particular context. Each student, in this
vision, will also be studying with teachers who
are masters in the music of that particularculture.
Additional demands then fall on those
who provide a means for evaluating thesestudents at the ends of their various courses of
study.It is in the assessment of these diverse
results that I believe the International Bacca-
laureate Music Programme is pioneering new
practices while maintaining consistent and
rigorous standards.
Assessment Issues
The IB Music Programme seeks to assessthe work of students in a manner which is as
close as possible to the actual musical
experiences of those students. The programmeresists an easier, more artificial approach toassessment based on students abilities to
successfully complete a series of tasks in
music out of the context in which they mightactually be used.
Therefore, at the end of the course of
study, students will submit a variety ofmaterials which they have prepared, while theywill also take an examination which is both set
and evaluated externally. The materials whichthe student will prepare in consultation with
the teacher include a cassette tape recording of
musical performances in which she has
participated, either as a member of an ensem-
ble, or as a soloist; a cassette tape recordingand notational evidence of her work in
composition; and a portfolio of materials
including her investigations into music withwhich she is most competent, into music with
which she was previously unfamiliarand somerecord of her personal development over thecourse of study.
The examination which she will take
involves responses to a series of musical
examples recorded on cassette tape. Thesemusical extracts will include for each exami-
nation session questions on a work which isset for all students worldwide prior to theexamination and an additional series of
musical extracts which may come from anymusical practice worldwide.
Teachers and students alike will be givena set of criteria by which all of these materialsshall be evaluated. The standards for each
criteria are laid out with explicit descriptionsof the particular skills which must be evi-
denced in the work the student submits for
every component of this assessment.
Perhaps the most demanding task for thecurriculum development team has been theestablishmentof theses criteria which imply aslittle cultural bias as possible, but which arealso defined clearly enough so that they mayapply to whatever music is under discussion.The criteria for each assessment
componentinclude:. Solo Performance: Overall impres-
sion, technical competence, style and interpre-tation, and repertoire.
. Group Performance: Overall qualityof performance, technical Skills, repertoire,and candidates contribution to the ensemble.
. Composition: Overall impression,structural and stylistic integrity, technical
knowledge of medium/media, control and
development of musical elements, andnotation.
- Portfolio: Critical thinking,responses to music and curiosity, initiative and
growth.. Listening Paper:Aural perception,
technical language, structural analysis andcontext.
Both global and particular skills aredefined for each component. In the develop-ment of these criteria, there has been extensive
effort to avoid duplication and to focus on
particular skills which may be displayedregardless of the specific musical content
being performed, composed, studied or heard.The onus then falls squarely on the
shoulders of the teachers to devise specific
syllabi which allow the student to learn not
just information about music, but to developskills by which such information can be used,evaluated and developed.A similar burdenfalls then on the shoulders of the examiners to
interpret the responses of the students rigor-
ously and consistently, regardless of the
specific content submitted by the students.Both teacher and examiner must be
flexible in order to work with a variety ofmusical content. They must also possess asimilar drive to that of their students. That is,
they must be willing to explore and enjoymusics which may lie far from the area of their
particular musical expertise. Their activities in
learning while they teach serve as exemplarsfor their students. Thus, the teacher and the
examiner hold the position of the mostadvanced learner in this curriculum model.
Please let me emphasize at this point that the
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new International Baccalaureate Music
Programme is proposed to begin teaching inthe fall of 1999, with its first examination
session in the spring of 2001. The programmeis still evolving, and judgments about the
efficacy of the proposed model will have to
wait until the evidence is in. Research into its
effectiveness in preparing students for the
further study of music is necessary as well;and this research may bring to light a varietyofnew aspects for thought in the field of
music education. Meanwhile, we have the task
of preparing teachers to take on a critical
rethinking of their current teaching practices to
align their individualcourse contents with the
development of these musical skills.
Creativity and TraditionThe vastness of the enterprise to which
the IB Music Programme has committed
brings sharply into focus one particular areawhich is both critical and controversial. The
very nature of the language we use to describewhat we do and what we value is itself embed-
ded in culture. The demands of a globalculture require us to at least acknowledge thecontradictions and cultural placements ofindividual words which are used; that is, we
must constantly acknowledge the constraintsand implications of particular words. Creativ-
ity is one of those words.In all the performing arts, we in the west
value highly the notion of creativity as an
essential element of a successful piece of
music, in its composition and its performance.Many cultures outside western practices may
not use this criteria at all in judging theefficacy of a particular musical event, or theymay not value it in the same way. We have
been careful to avoid using this particularword in the revisions to the programmebecause of the potential for misuse and evenbias in its application.
The work of the scholarMihalyi Csiks-
zentmihalyi on the nature of creativity,however, allows us the opportunity to exploreanother model for musical practices both inthe western art music tradition and in a varietyof differing traditional musical practices. He
points out a particularly western bias toward
noveltyas an
elementin
creativityrather than
the carrying on of a particular tradition. The
issues which he raises in the development of
his systems model, however, can be expandedto relate to traditional musics, where the
maintenance of similarity is valued as highlyas creativity is for other musics.
Csikszent-mihalyi suggests that,
... creativity can be observed only in theinterrelations of a system made up ofthree main parts. The first of these is the
domain, which consists of a set of
symbolic rules and procedures. Domainsare in turn nested in what we usually call
culture, or the symbolic knowledgeshared by a particular society, or byhumanity as a whole.
The second component of creativityis the field, which includes all theindividuals who act as gatekeepers to thedomain. It is their job to decide whether a
new idea or product should be includedin the domain. It is this field that selects
what new works (of art) deserve to be
recognized, preserved and remembered.
Finally, the third component of the
creative system is the individual person.Creativity occurs when a person, usingthe symbols of a given domain such as
music, (engineering, business, or
mathematics), has a new idea or sees a
new pattern, and when this novelty is
selected by the appropriate field forinclusion in the relevant domain. (1996,
pp.27-28)
It seems to me to be relatively simple to
map these three aspects of the creative systemonto the three parts of the music education
enterprise: the domain might be any particularmusical
practice,the field
mightbe the
teachers and practitioners of that music, andthe person might be the student studying thatmusic.And where tradition is valued more
highly than novelty, the field will determine
(as it does with creativity) the validity of thestudents work within the domain.
The Nature of learning and the EducationalInstitution
As I have worked over the past eighteenmonths or so on the new curriculum, I have
also been considering the issues in generaleducation as a foil to my focus on the particu-
larities of music. The scholar Howard Gardner,influential in current thinking in United Stateseducationalcontexts, posits some thoughtsregarding the nature of the learning enterprise.
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The test of understanding involvesneither repetition of information learnednor performance of practices mastered.Rather it involves the appropriateapplication of con-cepts and principles to
questions or problems that are newlyposed. In terms of our earlier discussion,the compleat understander can think
appropriately about phenomena ofconsequence in her society, particularlyones that she has not previously encoun-tered. ( 1991, p. 117)
It seems to me that the revisions to the
IB Music Programme do indeed meet the
requirements of Gardners &dquo;test of under-
standing&dquo;. The ideal music student is the onewho can apply his musical knowledge to adiverse set of musical practices, including hisown. The school and its teachers are critical
components in this process. Gardners con-
ception of a school is sufficiently flexible to
meet these demands,
I shall define a school here as an
institution in which a group of young
persons, rarely related by blood but
usually belonging to the same social
group, assemble on a regular basis in the
company of a competent older indi-
vidual, for the explicit purpose of
acquiring one of more skills valued bythe community. (1991, p.126)
All of the schools which participate in
the IB fit this above general definition. But
the groups of young persons belongingto
thesame social groups may vary widely from
school to school. Likewise the competentolder individual may differ between each
school. The obligation of the InternationalBaccalaureate in this global culture is not tomake them alike, but to celebrate their differ-
ences while demanding the achievement ofsimilar musical goals. The preeminent
American trumpeter, Wynton Marsalis, who is
competent in at least two musical cultureswithin the United States, has said in relation to
his practice ofjazz music,
The whole negotiation of the rights ofindividuals with responsibility to the
group, that is the greatestbeauty ofjazzas a mythic entity. (Marsalis, 1990, p.18)
The complex relationship betweenschools in the IB Music Programme is
analogous to this concept ofjazz- eachschool has the right to exhibit and even toflaunt its individual freedom, while also
paying attention to the values and practicesembodied by this high-reaching and visionaryprogramme. While arguably not perfect, I am
convinced that this curriculum will improveour efforts to meet the needs of a globalculture in which sound manifests itself in so
many vital ways.
Reference List
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity. Flowand the
psychology ofdiscovery and invention. NY
Harper Collins.
Gardner, H. (199 1). The unschooled mind: Howchildren think and how schools should teach.
NY Basic Books.
Some Thoughts on Music Education in a Global Culture
What exactly is the nature of music education in a global culture? The discussion revolves around
pedagogical issues concerning the roles of teachers and students in the study of music. The Interna-tional Baccalaureate Organisationas a whole and especially in music is pioneering new approaches tocurriculum development and assessment, teacher training and examiner training at the global level.
Stressing the importance of teacher and student-centered learning through the production of music as
maker, hearer and critic, the International Baccalaureate Music Programme promotes the developmentof skills which are transferable from the context of school and academic study to those of actual musical
experiences in the culture in which the student lives. Such an educational model demands that the
teacher take on the primary responsibility for guiding students through a course of study which is notcontent-prescriptive but which requires that both the student and the teacher determine appropriatemusical events for study. This approach to music education is compared with conclusions derived fromcurrent research on the development of creativity and on the nature of education and learning. What
exactly is the nature of music education in a global culture? The discussion revolves around pedagogi-cal issues concerning the roles of teachers and students in the study of music. The International
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Baccalaureate Organisationas a whole and especially in music is pioneering new approaches tocurriculum development and assessment, teacher training and examiner training at the global level.Stressing the importance of teacher and student-centered learning through the production of music asmaker, hearer and critic, the International Baccalaureate Music Programme promotes the developmentof skills which are transferable from the context of school and academic study to those of actual musical
experiences in the culture in which the student lives. Such an educational model demands that theteacher take on the primary responsibility for guiding students through a course of study which is notcontent-prescriptive but which requires that both the student and the teacher determine appropriatemusical events for study. This approach to music education is compared with conclusions derived fromcurrent research on the development of creativity and on the nature of education and learning.
Algunas reflexiones sobre la educacion musical en una cultura global
LCudl es exactamente la naturaleza de la educaci6n musical en una cultura global? El debate giraen torno a temas pedag6gicos en cuanto a los roles de los maestros y de los estudiantes que cursanmusica. La Organizaci6n del Bachillerato Internacional como un todo y en especial en musica, estd
promoviendo a nivel global nuevos enfoques para el desarrollo y la evaluaci6n curricular, para la
capacitaci6n del docente y del examinador. Enfatizando la importancia del aprendizajecentrado en elmaestro-alumno a trav6s de la producci6n de la musica - ya sea como creadores, oyentes y criticos -el
Programa de Musica del Bachillerato Internacional promueve el desarrollo de destrezas posibles detransferir del contexto de la escuela y del estudio academico al contexto de las experienciasmusicalesreales dentro de la cultura en la cual vive el estudiante. Este modelo educativo le demanda al maestroasumir la principal responsabilidad de guiar a los estudiantes a trav6s de un rumbo de estudios no
prescriptivo en sus contenidos, pero que requiere que tanto estudiante como maestro determinen loseventos musicales apropiados para ser estudiados. Esta aproximaci6n a la educaci6n musical es
comparable con conclusiones derivadas de actuales investigaciones sobre el desarrollo de la creatividady sobre la naturaleza de la educaci6n y el aprendizaje.
Uberlegungen zur Musikerziehung in einer globalen KulturWas genau ist das Wesen der Musikerziehung in einer globalen Kultu~? Die Diskussion dreht sich
um pddagogische Fragen zur Lehrer- und Schulerrolle in der Musikausbildung. Die InternationalBaccalaureate Organisation insgesamt und insbesondere im Fach Musik entwickelt auf einer globalenEbene neueAnsatze fur die Curriculum-Entwicklung und Leistungsmessung, fur dieAusbildung vonLehrern und Prufern. lndem diese Organisation die Bedeutung lehrer- und scholerzentrierten Lernens aufder Grundlage von Musikproduktion als Spieler, Horer und Kritiker betont, unterstutzt sie die Entwicklungsolcher Fdhigkeiten, die aus Schule und akademischer Lehre ubertragbar sind auf die realenmusikalischen Erfahrung innerhalb der Kultur, in der die SchOler leben. Solch ein Erziehungskonzeptbeansprucht, daB der Lehrer die volle Verantwortung fur eine Unterrichtsgestaltung ubernimmt, die nichtInhalte vorschreibt, sondern die von Lehrer- wie Schulerseite verlangt, daB sie angemessenemusikalische Gegenstande fur das Studium bestimmen. Dieser musikpadagogischeAnsatz entsprichtErkenntnissen, die aus der Kreativitatsforschung gewonnen wurden, und folgt dem Wesen menschlichenLernens.
R6flexions sur IEducation Musicale dans notre Culture Globale
Quelle est la nature de Idducation musicale dans notre culture globale? Cette discussion tourneautour des questions p6dagogiques concernant le r6le des enseignants et des dtudiants dans 16tude deen musique. Lorganisation du baccalaur6at international comme entit6 et sp6cialement en musique est
pionnier dans les nouvelles approches du d6veloppement du curriculum et des dvaluations, deIdducation des enseignants,et de 16ducation des juges a un niveau global. Stressant limportance des
enseignants et de Iapproche a 1enseignementcentr6e sur les dtudiants a travers la production de
musique en tant quartiste, qu6couteur et de critique, le programme de musique au baccalaureatinternational promouvoit le d6veloppement dhabiletds qui sont transferables du contexte de Idcole et duniveau d6tudes academiques a 1experience actuelle musicale dans la culture dans laquelle les
6tudiants vivant. Un tel modble 6ducationel demande que 1enseignant prenneune
responsabilit6primaire afin de guider les 6tudiants a travers des etudes qui ne sont pas contenu-prescriptives mais
plut6t qui demande que les 6tudiants de meme que les enseignants determinent la sequence musicale
appropride a Ietude. Cette approche ~ 16ducation musicale est compar6e avec conclusions a desrecherches r6centes sur le d6veloppement de la creativite et de la nature de 16ducation et de
Iapprentissage.
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