Some Special Nutritional Properties of Honey - A Brief Review

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Some special nutritional properties of honey a brief review

Author:Al-Qassemi, Rasha; Robinson, R K

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Abstract:Apart from highlighting the overall nutritional value of honey, this review draws attention to the

potential importance of the oligosaccharide content of honey. The possible role of these compounds as

prebiotics is emphasised, for a number of them have been found to stimulate species of Bifidobacterium that

inhabit the human colon. It is suggested that the therapeutic properties of the anti-oxidants in honey could be

equally relevant, and the desirability of the growing practice of adding royal jelly to retail products is discussed

briefly. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Full text: Headnote

Keywords

Headnote

Honey, Nutrition, Food industry

Headnote

Abstract

Headnote

Apart from highlighting the overall nutritional value of honey, this review draws attention to the potential

importance of the oligosaccharide content of honey. The possible role of these compounds as prebiotics is

emphasised, for a number of them have been found to stimulate species of Bifidobacterium that inhabit the

human colon. It is suggested that the therapeutic properties of the anti-oxidants in honey could be equally

relevant, and the desirability of the growing practice of adding royal jelly to retail products is discussed briefly.

Introduction

Honey is one of the oldest and best-loved sweetening agents for foods and, over the centuries, it has still

retained a "natural" image (Aparna and Rajalakshmi, 1999). Whilst a number of species of bee, such as Apis

dorsata in Nepal (Joshi et aL, 2000), may be important locally, most honey is produced by two species of bee,

namely Apis mellifera (the so-called honey bee) and Apis cerana which has been "domesticated" in parts of

Asia (Crane, 1975). The raw material for the production of "floral" honey is nectar, a dilute solution of sugars

found in the nectaries of flowering plants, while "honeydew" honey is made by bees that extract sugars from the

living tissues of plants or fruits, and/or scavenge the excretions of insects that tap the veins of higher plants.

In general, floral honey is superior to the honeydew variant and, in theory, the nectar from any plant can be

used by bees to make honey. However, there are massive differences between plant species with respect to

their potential to support populations of bees and in the compositions of their nectars. The dominant

components in all nectars are carbohydrates and, while some nectars contain mainly sucrose, in others, the

sugars are confined to glucose and fructose; some minerals and vitamins may be present at low levels (Crane,

1975).

It is the transformation of this sugary nectar into honey that is important from a human standpoint. In essence,

the nectar is collected by foraging bees in honey sacs and, on returning to the hive, the nectar is passed to

another bee(s) before finally being stored in a cell in the comb. After deposition in the cell, the evaporation of

water gradually raises the solids content to around 80 per cent over a period of three to four days and, during

this stage, invertase secreted by the bees converts most of the sucrose into hexoses to give the final sugarspectrum of the honey. Additional changes in carbohydrate composition and a degradation of pollen accompany

the further manipulation of the nectar by the bees during the filling of the cells of the comb (Vonderohe, 1994),

and the air-tight seal of wax ensures that the honey cannot absorb water and, perhaps, spoil.

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Extraction of the honey from the combs at the end of the season involves breaking the wax seal and removing

the honey by centrifugation. The honey is then strained and, in some cases, filtered and heated to eliminate

yeasts that could cause spoilage. Once bottled, some products can be prone to hardening due to the

crystallisation of the sugars. The presence of "nuclei" in the honey can be relevant but, as all natural honeys

contain pollen grains, the presence of particulate matter is inevitable unless it has been finely strained (Codex

Alimentarius, 2001). Consequently, control of crystallisation depends on keeping the glucose to water ratio in

the region of 1.50-1.75, for it is this ratio that governs the extent and rate of the process (White, 1975). If this

aspect can be controlled, then honey should remain a viscous, fluid material during ambient temperature

storage.

Chemical composition

The characteristic aroma and flavour of honey, often associated with the dominant source of pollen, such as

"heather honey" in England, "lotus tree honey" in the Arabian Gulf or "buckwheat honey" in North America

(Zhou et aL, 2002) is one of the most attractive features of the product, and CastroVazquez et al. (2003)

identified over 120 volatile compounds that may contribute to the unique aroma of rosemary honey. However,

many retail brands are non-specific, blended products identified only by their country of origin and, in an attempt

to check on authenticity, most attention has centred on the major components.

Although a variable natural product, Mincione and Leuzzi (1993) suggest the most floral honeys produced in

Italy would have an average composition along the lines shown shown in Table I, but the contrast with specific

floral types is quite marked with respect to both the reducing and total sugars. However, with some commercial

brands the variations can, as shown in Table II, be even greater. Anupama et al. (2003) noted a similar pattern

amongst commercial honeys on sale in India, with total reducing sugars varying from 613 to 726gkg^sup -1^.

In an attempt to limit variability and the possible marketing of sub-standard or adulterated products, Codex

Alimentarius (2001) has proposed the compositional standards shown in Table III. There are, of course,

differences between the standards of different countries or regions and, in the Middle East for example, the Gulf

Standards (1993) suggests a minimum level of apparent reducing sugars of 650gkg^sup -1^ instead of the

minimum of 600gkg^sup -1^ for fructose + glucose (Codex Alimentarius, 2001); it is noticeable that brands (D)

and (E) in Table II would be rejected against both standards, as would at least one of the samples from India

(Anupama et al., 2003). There is a widely accepted maximum of 50gkg^sup -1^ for sucrose in floral honeys, but

some entirely authentic honeys, such as citrus honey, can have sucrose concentrations up to 100gkg^sup -1^

due to the source of the nectar (International Honey Commission, 2002). In honeydew honeys, in particular, a

range of oligosaccharides can contribute up to 170gkg^sup -1^ to the figure for total sugars and, in even in floral

honeys, the contribution can be up to 80gkg^sup -1^ (Weston and Brocklebank, 1999). Aside from their

nutritional value, it is relevant that these carbohydrates contribute to the low water activity of honey (< 0.75), a

value that makes it a "safe" product to store in the home (Corry, 1979).Honey is reported to contain little or no fat, but free fatty acids like palmitic, (16:0), oleic (18:1) and linolenic

(18:3) were easily detected in white clover honey (Trifolium repens) (Tan et al., 1988; Singh and Bath, 1997).

The protein content varies between around 1.0 to 4.Ogkg^sup - 1^, and the higher values are most notable for

their impact on the thixotrophic properties of the product. Some eighteen amino acids have been detected in

honey and, according to Mincione and Leuzzi (1993), proline, lysine, glutamic acid and aspartic acid are the

most readily detected. The ash content is usually well inside the legal limit of 5gkg^sup -1^, but Devillers et al.

(2002) have warned that some sources of nectar can become polluted by heavy metals. A number of B-group

vitamins are present, but their concentrations are generally low (National Honey Board, 2003).

However, while the gross composition of honey is of concern to the regulatory authorities who are attempting to

ensure that the public do not waste money on the purchase of adulterated products, it is important to remember

that true honey may also contain a range of trace substances which may well endow the product with special

therapeutic properties. The identification of any one compounds) from honey and ascribing to it a specific



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benefit is a formidable task, but there are certain components of honey that may well contribute to its reputation

as a "health food".

Therapeutic or prophylactic properties

Honey has long been regarded as having antimicrobial properties (National Honey Board, 2003) and, in part,

this activity is considered to be due to hydrogen peroxide liberated enzymatically in honey (Willix et al., 1992);

organic acids could be important as well. The Ancient Egyptians are reported to have used honey to control eye

infections (Abdulrahman, 1990), and its enhancement of wound-healing in humans (Ashoor, 1985; Nzeako and

Hamdi, 2000; Cooper, 2001; Aysan et al., 2002) could be due, at least in part, to a restriction of woundpathogens like Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Cooper and Molan, 1999). The growth of Gram-positive pathogens

like Staphylococcus aureus can also be inhibited by honey, and Cooper et al. (2002) have queried whether this

"ancient remedy" might not become important as methicillin-resistant strains of this species continue to cause

problems.

However, while the value of the topical application of honey remains is still being debated, consumption for its

prophylactic or therapeutic value has become more popular. The only restriction on its use relates to young

children (under one year), as honey can contain the spores of Clostridium botulinum picked-up by bees from

fields and other sources. As the natural competitive microflora of the intestines has not developed in tiny infants,

Cl. botulinum is able to colonise the gut wall and secrete toxins (Adams and Moss, 1995). Although toxicity from

Cl. botulinum has been linked with a small number of "cot deaths" in the USA and around 10 per cent of

samples of natural honey may contain the spores, it is problem that can be easily avoided.

It is evident from all the analyses of natural honey that it is an extremely complex material but, more recently,

attention has centred on a few specific components that could explain at least some of the alleged benefits of

consumption, and some prominent ones are considered below.

Oligosaccharides



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A therapeutic property could be regarded as a beneficial activity that is not immediately evident from a gross

chemical analysis of a foodstuff, and the potential action of honey as a "prebiotic" is one feature of the product

that could be of interest. Thus, a healthy intestinal microflora in humans includes two important groups of

bacteria, namely: Lactobacillus spp. which colonise the distal region of the small intestine and can, among other

things, protect the body against infections like salmonellosis; and Bifidobacterium spp. which inhabit the colon

and restrict over-growth of the walls by yeasts or bacterial pathogens and, perhaps, reduce the risk of colon

cancer by outcompeting putrefactive bacteria capable of liberating potential carcinogens (Samona and

Robinson, 1992; Tamime and Robinson, 1999).

Damage to these indigenous microfloras can be easily initiated by oral antibiotics or other stresses (Sellars,

1991), and it is for this reason that the consumptions of so-called "functional foods" containing lactobacilli and/or

bifidobacteria has become widespread in Europe and North America (Robinson, 2000). When cultures of one or

both of the above genera are introduced into a diet, they tend to be referred to as "probiotic" cultures, and Fuller

(1989) defined probiotics as "a live microbial feed supplement which beneficially affects the host animal by

improving its intestinal microbial balance". This definition stressed the requirement of viability of the probiotic

cultures and introduced the aspect of a beneficial effect on the host and, today, this definition of probiotics is

widely accepted. However, following the acceptance of "healthpromoting" or probiotic cultures by the consuming

public, attention was focussed on methods for maximising the impact of the cultures following ingestion and/or

stimulating, concurrently, the indigenous microflora of the individual concerned. The use of specific dietary

adjuncts seemed to be most likely option, and Gibson and Roberfroid (1995) gave the name "prebiotic" to a

non-digestible food ingredient that beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or

activity of a limited number of bacteria in the intestine.

In particular, it has been found that the activity of certain species of Bifidobacterium in the colon can be

stimulated by fructooligosaccharides (Gibson et al., 1995; Reddy, 1999; Shin et al., 2000) and the

oligosaccharides from soya beans (Saito et al., 1992; Liu, 1997). Honey is also effective in stimulating the

growth of bifidobacteria (Kajiwara et al., 2002), and again it may be oligosaccharides that are the active

components (Weston and Brocklebank, 1999). The importance of these oligosaccharides lies in the fact that the

alphagalactosidic linkages present cannot be digested by humans (Gibson and Roberfroid, 1995; Gopal et al.,

2001) but, on entering the colon, they can be metabolised by bifidobacteria.

It is in this context that honey could be important for, in New Zealand honeys for example, Weston and

Brocklebank (1999) identified a number of oligosaccharides like isomaltose and melezitose of potential prebiotic

activity (Ustunol and Gandhi, 2001). Oddo et al. (1995) found similar materials in Italian honeys along with

raffinose, a galactose-glucose-fructose moeity that is known from studies with soya bean to be actively

metabolised by bacteria in the colon.

Although the stimulatory role of oligosaccharides on the gut flora(s) has received most attention, it has beenspeculated that the same components in honey could inhibit the development of pathogens like Helicobacter

pylori or Staphylococcus aureus in the body. More specifically, it has been proposed that the oligosaccharides

could become attached to the cell walls of the bacteria and prevent adhesion to human tissues (Somal et al.,

1994). The validity or otherwise of this hypothesis remains in some doubt (Weston and Brocklebank, 1999), but

it may be relevant that the spectrum of oligosaccharides varies the type of honey (Perez-Arquillue et al., 1995)

and the number of such compounds present in any one type of honey may exceed twenty (Swallow and Low,

1990). It is clearly possible that this anti-microbial activity of honey merits further attention.

Anti-oxidants

Free radicals and reactive oxygen species have long been cited as the agents responsible, at least in part, for

the aging of cells, and it is generally agreed that humans can protect their tissues against damage by the

consumption of foods high in anti-oxidants. It is of interest, therefore, that natural honeys can contain high

concentrations of flavonoids and other phenolic anti-oxidants. In some honeys from Tunisia, the level of



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flavonoids is low (0.2mgkg^sup -1^) but, in other geograpical regions, the change in flora gave honeys with

24.Omgkg^sup -1^ (Martos et al., 1997). Similar figures were reported by Yao et al. (2003) for Leptospermum

honeys from Australia (average of 22.2mgkg^sup -1^), while the mean total content of phenolic acids reached

51.4mgkg^sup -1^; in Manuka Honey from New Zealand - another honey based on Leptospermum, the values

for flavonoids and total phenolic acids were 30.6 and 140.0mgkg^sup -1^, respectively.

Gheldof et al. (2002) demonstrated, in vitro, that the phenolic compounds in honey contributed very significantly

to its antioxidant capacity, and this view is supported by a study by Schramm et al. (2003) that involved feeding

Buckwheat Honey to healthy human subjects. The consumption of this honey at a rate of 1.5g/kg body weight

not only increased significantly the total phenolic content of the blood plasma of the subjects, but also its anti-

oxidant capacity. As the latter authors point out, the average human consumes kilogram quantities of sweetners

during a year, and a switch to honey could bring benefits with respect to the antioxidant defense system.

Pollen

Another unique feature of honeys - except those that are fine-filtered (Codex Alimentarius, 2001) - is the

presence of pollen collected accidently from the flowers that supplied the nectar. The actual counts will vary with

the type of honey, but normal floral honeys will be expected to have counts ranging from 20-80,000 individual

pollen grains per lOg of honey (Sawyer, 1988). In cases where an excess of pollen has been accumulated in a

hive, pollen counts of 500,000 per 10g of retail product have been recorded and, in such cases, the nutrients in

the pollen may well be contributing to the therapeutic properties of the honey.

One of the problems in assigning a therapeutic benefit to pollen in honey is that each grain is very small, and

estimates suggest that I mg of pollen may contain between 1,000 and 100,000 individual grains depending on

the plant species concerned (Stanley and Liskens, 1974). Nevertheless, pollen does contain protein and

carbohydrates, as well as vitamin C, vitamin E and vitamins of the B-group (Mincione and Leuzzi, 1993). In

addition, a range of minerals have been indentified in pollen (Li et aL, 1997), along with carotenoids

(Montenegro et al., 1997).

Royal jelly

Royal jelly is secreted over a period of about one week by the hypopharyngeal glands of worker bees, and it is

whitish fluid which is fed to all bee larvae during the first three days of development; queen bees consume it

throughout their adult lives. The gross composition of royal jelly is shown in Table IV, and it is of note that

sugars, protein and lipids are well represented. B-group vitamins are present as well, but fat-soluble vitamins

like A and E appear to be missing. However, the protein content is regarded as of especial interest with repect

to any "healthpromoting" properties (Lee et al., 1999) for, at least in rats, the protein is digested to liberate some

peptides that are biologically active with respect to hypertension (Matsui et al., 2002). The relevance of this

finding for humans remains to be established, and Kamakura et al. (2001) noted that the stability of specific

proteins in royal jelly does vary with conditions of storage.Further examples of a direct link between an identified compound in royal jelly and an observed therapeutic

effect are limited, and yet claims that royal jelly can alleviate the symptoms of fatigue, anorexia and general

debility are common (Tamura, 1985). Compounds with anti-microbial properties are present as well (Lakin,

1993).

To achieve a response, most studies tend to employ daily doses of 200-500mg, and an interesting development

in the marketing of honey is the incorporation of royal jelly. For example, certain brands of lotus tree honey from

the United Arab Emirates contain around 15g of royal jelly in 500g of honey, i.e. 30mgg- 1. Consequently, a

"dessert spoon" of honey "drizzled" over ice cream or some simlar dessert would provide the optimum daily

intake, and it may be that many consumers will find this special honey extremely beneficial to their general

health.



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AuthorAffiliation

The authors

AuthorAffiliation

Rasha AI-Qassemi is at the Central Food Control Laboratory, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.

R.K. Robinson is at the School of Food Biosciences University of Reading, Reading, UK.

Subject: Honey; Glucose; Antioxidants; Nutrition; Food science;

Publication title: Nutrition and Food Science

Volume: 33

Issue: 6

Pages: 254-260

Number of pages: 7

Publication year: 2003

Publication date: 2003



12/12

Year: 2003

Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing, Limited

Place of publication: Bradford

Country of publication: United Kingdom

Publication subject: Nutrition And Dietetics

ISSN: 00346659

Source type: Scholarly Journals

Language of publication: English

Document type: Feature

Document feature: tables references

ProQuest document ID: 217624325

Document URL: http://search.proquest.com/docview/217624325?accountid=25704

Copyright: Copyright MCB UP Limited (MCB) 2003

Last updated: 2014-05-19

Database: ProQuest Public Health,ProQuest Agriculture Journals

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Some Special Nutritional Properties of Honey - A Brief Review

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