SOIL SCIENCE AND ARCHAEOLOGY · SOIL SCIENCE AND ARCHAEOLOGY Three Test Cases from Minoan Crete...

15
SOIL SCIENCE AND ARCHAEOLOGY THREE TEST CASES FROM MINOAN CRETE

Transcript of SOIL SCIENCE AND ARCHAEOLOGY · SOIL SCIENCE AND ARCHAEOLOGY Three Test Cases from Minoan Crete...

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SOIL SCIENCE AND ARCHAEOLOGY

THREE TEST CASES FROM MINOAN CRETE

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SOIL SCIENCE AND ARCHAEOLOGY

Three Test Cases from Minoan Crete

Michael W. Morris

PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 4

Published byTHE INSTITUTE FOR AEGEAN PREHISTORY ACADEMIC PRESS

2002

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Design and ProductionThe Institute for Aegean Prehistory Academic PressPrintingSun Printing Co., Philadelphia

BindingHoster Bindery, Philadelphia

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Morris, Michael, 1957-Soil science and archaeology : three test cases from Minoan Crete / by

Michael Morris.p. cm. -- (Prehistory monographs ; 4)

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 1-931534-03-9 (alk. paper)

1. Crete (Greece)--Antiquities. 2. Soil science inarchaeology--Greece--Crete. 3. Minoans. 4. Excavations(Archaeology)--Greece--Crete. I. Title. II. Series.

DF221.C8 M68 2002939'.18--dc21

2002006593

Copyright © 2002THE INSTITUTE FOR AEGEAN PREHISTORY ACADEMIC PRESS

PhiladelphiaAll rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

LIST OF PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

CHAPTER 1: THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND CULTURAL DYNAMICS OF CRETE AND THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

HISTORY OF THE EXCAVATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

PALEOENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Deep Sea Cores and Stable Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Pollen and Paleovegetation Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Paleopedology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

PEDOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16Models of Pedogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17Chronosequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Discontinuities and Buried Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Pedological Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

CHAPTER 2: KARPHI. SEDIMENTATION AND PEDOGENESIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 SITE SETTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23SITE HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24MATERIALS AND METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Field Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

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TABLE OF CONTENTSvi

RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Karphi 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Karphi 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Karphi 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Karphi 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

CHAPTER 3: CHRYSOKAMINO. AN INVESTIGATION OF A VERTISOL IN EASTERN CRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45SITE SETTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48SITE HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50MATERIALS AND METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Field Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

CHAPTER 4: VRONDA AND KASTRO AT KAVOUSI. DEPOSITION, EROSION,AND PEDOGENESIS OF ALLUVIAL AND COLLUVIAL SOILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

SITE SETTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 SITE HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62MATERIALS AND METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Field Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Kavousi 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Kavousi 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

APPENDIX A: SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

APPENDIX B: RESULTS OF TOTAL ELEMENT ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

APPENDIX C: LABORATORY METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141

PLATES

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Map of Crete showing physiographic areas, major cities and archaeological sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii

Figure 2. FAO soil sample map for the island of Crete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Figure 3. Plan view of the Karphi archaeological site and location of the study pedons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Figure 4. Bedrock geology of the Karphi study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Figure 5. Total carbon and fine clay distribution vs. depth for the Karphi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Figure 6. Distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size analysis, vs. depth for the Karphi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Figure 7. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Karphi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Figure 8. Distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological extraction method, vs. depth for the Karphi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Figure 9. Total carbon and fine clay distribution vs. depth for the Karphi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Figure 10. Distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size analysis,vs. depth for the Karphi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Figure 11. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Karphi 2 soil pedon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Figure 12. Distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological extraction method, vs. depth for the Karphi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Figure 13. Total carbon and fine clay distribution vs. depth for the Karphi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Figure 14. Distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size analysis, vs. depth for the Karphi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Figure 15. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Karphi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

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Figure 16. Distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological extraction method, vs. depth for the Karphi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Figure 17. Total carbon and fine clay distribution vs. depth for the Karphi 4 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . .38

Figure 18. Distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size analysis, vs. depth for the Karphi 4 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Figure 19. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Karphi 4 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Figure 20. Distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological extraction method, vs. depth for the Karphi 4 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Figure 21. Plan view of the Kavousi area including the Vronda and Kastro archaeological sites and the Kavousi study pedons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Figure 22. Bedrock geology of the Kavousi study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Figure 23. Distribution of Minoan ceramic artifacts in a 1 m x 2.1 m profile section at the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Figure 24. Distribution of inorganic and organic carbon vs. depth for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Figure 25. Distribution of coarse and fine clay, as determined by particle size analysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Figure 26. Distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size analysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Figure 27. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Figure 28. Distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological extraction method, vs. depth for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Figure 29. X-ray diffractograms of a clay sample from the Bss2 horizon (100–200 cm) of the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

Figure 30. Distribution of inorganic and organic carbon vs. depth for the Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Figure 31. Distribution of coarse and fine clay, as determined by particle sizeanalysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Figure 32. Distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size analysis, vs. depth fro the Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

Figure 33. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

Figure 34. Distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeologicalextraction method, vs. depth for the Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

Figure 35. Distribution of inorganic and organic carbon vs. depth for the Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

Figure 36. Distribution of coarse and fine clay, as determined by particle sizeanalysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

LIST OF FIGURESviii

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Figure 37. Distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size analysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

Figure 38. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Figure 39. Distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeologicalextraction method, vs. depth for the Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

ixLIST OF FIGURES

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Climate information for Herakleion, Crete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

Table 2. Morphology of soil pedons investigated near the Karphi archaeological site. . . . . . . .79–80

Table 3. Particle size distribution of soil pedons investigated near the Karphi archaeological site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81–83

Table 4. Chemical properties including carbon, exchangeable cations, and pH of soil pedons investigated near the Karphi archaeological site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84–86

Table 5. Weathering indices and clay-free ratios determined for soil pedons investigated near the Karphi archaeological site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87–88

Table 6. Statistical results of Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch multiple range tests for weathering indices and clay-free ratios for soil pedons investigated near the Karphi archaeological site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89–91

Table 7. Elemental concentrations determined by archaeological extract method for soil pedons investigated near the Karphi archaeological site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92–93

Table 8. Morphology of the Kavousi 3 soil pedon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94

Table 9. Chemical properties including carbon fractions, exchangeable cations, and pH of the Kavousi 3 soil pedon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

Table 10. Particle size distribution of the Kavousi 3 soil pedon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

Table 11. Weathering indices and clay-free ratios determined for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon. . . . . . . .97

Table 12. Statistical results of Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch multiple range tests for weathering indices and clay-free ratios for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

Table 13. Elemental concentrations determined by archaeological extract method for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

Table 14. Morphology of soil pedons investigated in the valley below the Vronda and Kastro archaeological sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100

Table 15. Particle size distribution of soil pedons investigated in the valley below the Vronda and Kastro archaeological sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

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Table 16. Chemical properties including carbon fractions, exchangeable cations, and pH of soil pedons investigated in the valley below the Vronda and Kastro archaeological sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102

Table 17. Weathering indices and clay-free ratios determined for soil pedons investigated in the valley below the Vronda and Kastro archaeological sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

Table 18. Statistical results of Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch multiple range tests for weathering indices and clay-free ratios for soil pedons investigated in the valley below the Vronda and Kastro archaeological sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

Table 19. Elemental concentrations determined by archaeological extract method for soil pedons investigated in the valley below the Vronda and Kastro archaeological sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105

LIST OF TABLESxii

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LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1A. Phyllite “cove” with associated Minoan-age agricultural terraces near the Karphi archaeo-logical site, view facing northwest.

Plate 1B. View of the Nyssimos Plain from the Minoan-age agricultural terraces near Karphi, facingeast.

Plate 2A. View of the Plain of Lasithi near the village of Tzermiado, facing north.

Plate 2B. Archaeological site of Karphi with the Lasithi Plain in the background and Walter E. Klip-pel in the foreground, facing southwest.

Plate 3A. Archaeological site of Karphi with John T. Ammons (left) and Walter E. Klippel (right) inthe foreground, facing south.

Plate 3B. The sinkhole of the Karphi 1 pedon, facing east.

Plate 4A. The sinkhole of the Karphi 2 pedon, facing south.

Plate 4B. Michael W. Morris sampling the Karphi 2 pedon, facing northeast.

Plate 5A. View of the Nyssimos plain of the Karphi 3 pedon, facing east.

Plate 5B. Sampling at the Karphi 3 pedon on the Nyssimos plain.

Plate 5C. Profile view of the Karphi 4 pedon in the agricultural terraces of the phyllite exposure, fac-ing west.

Plate 6A. View of the village of Kavousi and the Kavousi 3 pedon and sinkhole, taken from the Kas-tro archaeological site, facing west.

Plate 6B. View of the sinkhole at Kavousi 3 with the outlet to the sea at the far left, facing north.

Plate 7A. The Kavousi 3 pedon.

Plate 7B. The soil profile of Kavousi 3, facing south.

Plate 7C. Slickensides from the Kavousi 3 pedon at 110 cm below the surface.

Plate 8A. Redoxymorphic features and carbonate nodules (note point of knife) observed in an openpit near the Kavousi 3 pedon.

Plate 8B. Minoan age ceramic fragment at 30 cm below the surface at Kavousi 3. Note the verticalorientation of the artifact.

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Plate 8C. Minoan age ceramic fragments on the surface of the Kavousi 3 pedon. Note proximity ofartifact to vertical cracks.

Plate 9A. View of the village of Kavousi and the Kavousi 1 and 2 pedons, taken from the Kastroarchaeological site, facing west.

Plate 9B. View of the Avgo Valley Gorge near the village of Kavousi, facing south.

Plate 10A. Profile view of Kavousi 1, facing west.

Plate 10B. Profile view of Kavousi 2, facing north.

Plate 11A. View of the Vronda archaeological site, facing northwest.

Plate 11B. View of the Kastro archaeological site, facing north.

LIST OF PLATESxiv

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank a number of individuals and organizations for their help in makingthis volume possible. The graduate committee who provided oversight for the original dis-sertation included John T. Ammons, John Foss, Walter Klippel, S.Y. Lee, Paul Delcourt, andGeraldine Gesell, all of the University of Tennessee in Knoxville. These individuals pro-vided much-needed perspective on the analysis and interpretation of the material. Fieldworkwas aided by Randy Loftis, of the University of Tennessee, and Photeinos Santas and hisstudents from the College of Southeastern Europe in Athens. Graphics support was provid-ed by Terry Faulkner and Gary Dagnan. My wife, Gabrielle, aided in the formatting and pro-duction of the numerous tables in this volume. She also provided much-needed encourage-ment and support throughout the process. Phil Betancourt and Karen Vellucci, of theInstitute for Aegean Prehistory Press, deserve special recognition for making this publica-tion a reality. I am indebted to Mike Timpson and Donald Haggis for their advice during theproduction of this work. I would like to acknowledge the American School of ClassicalStudies, the British School, and the Kavousi Expedition for allowing access to the variousarchaeological sites. The Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration of Greece generous-ly provided the permits necessary to conduct the field investigations. The AgriculturalExperiment Station and the College of Agriculture and Natural Resources of the Universityof Tennessee provided the funding for this research.

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INTRODUCTION

Between 1987 and 1992, the Department of Plant and Soil Science at the University ofTennessee-Knoxville conducted investigations in pedology and geomorphology in cooper-ation with the Kavousi Project under the auspices of the American School of ClassicalStudies at Athens, Greece. Project members included representatives of the Classics andAnthropology Departments from the University of Tennessee-Knoxville (UTK), WabashCollege, and the University of Minnesota. The Late Minoan IIIC and Subminoan sites ofVronda and Kastro, near the village of Kavousi in eastern Crete, were the focal points ofthese investigations.

These archaeological sites are known as “refuge” sites because of their location in thehigher elevations of the Siteia Mountain Range. They occupy relatively high positions onthe landscape in comparison to the previous coastal settlements of the Minoan Palace peri-ods. These sites represent a unique period in Greek history for which there is no written his-tory to verify the archaeological assemblages examined.

A team of scientists including zooarchaeologists, paleobotanists, and human paleontolo-gists was assembled to work in a manner modeled after a North American anthropologicalapproach to prehistory (McMillan and Klippel, 1981). The UTK Department of Plant andSoil Science cooperated with the excavation in order to determine the soil resource base ofthe mountain settlements and to evaluate the potential attraction of these people to theselocations on the basis of soil resources. The primary goals of these pedological investiga-tions were to 1) understand the geomorphic mechanisms of landscape development throughtime, 2) examine pedogenic development of these landscapes, 3) establish the chronologiesof landscape stability and change, and 4) interpret the paleoenvironmental conditions gov-erning the development of these landscapes, including the influence of human impact.

The research presented here involves the examination of sediment catchment basins atthree locations: near the Late Minoan IIIC to Subminoan period refuge sites of Vronda andKastro in eastern Crete; near the Late Minoan IIIC to Subminoan period refuge site ofKarphi in the Lasithi Province of east-central Crete; and near the Final Neolithic to LateMinoan site of Chrysokamino in eastern Crete. It has been demonstrated through archaeo-logical studies that humans have had a considerable impact on the landscape in relation tosoil development (Griffith, 1980; Eidt, 1977). For example, land-clearance practices foragricultural purposes generally lead to increased erosion as deduced by the increase of sed-iment yield in catchment basins. Changes such as these can be detected through variousmeans such as analysis of buried soil horizons or detection of change in sediment flux fromcolluvial or alluvial settings. Soils and landscapes are particularly sensitive to environmen-tal changes, and environmental dynamics can be detected through pedological and geo-morphological analyses.

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SOIL SCIENCE AND ARCHAEOLOGYxviii